psycho.belg.2011 1.book page 49 tuesday, january 4, 2011 ... psychobel 2011pdf.… · nelis,...

49Psychologica Belgica2011 51-1 49-91

MEASURING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN EMOTION REGULATION THE EMOTION REGULATION

PROFILE-REVISED (ERP-R)

Delphine NELIS(1) Jordi QUOIDBACH(1) Michel HANSENNE(1) amp Moiumlra MIKOLAJCZAK(2 3)[1]

(1) University of Liegravege (2) Universiteacute catholique de Louvain amp (3) Belgian National Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS)

The main purpose of this study was to validate a new instrument aimed toassess emotion regulation the Emotion Regulation Profile-Revised (ERP-R)Exploratory factor analyses yielded two theoretically meaningful factorsdown-regulation of negative emotions and up-regulation of positive emotionsInternal reliability scores of the two factors were good Findings showed evi-dence of convergentdiscriminant validity with ERP-R scores being independ-ent of non verbal reasoning and verbal skills while positively related to emo-tional intelligence and to relevant personality dimensions There was also pre-liminary evidence of criterion validity ERP-R scores also demonstratedincremental validity to predict a number of criteria over and above emotionalintelligence and emotional stability Overall the results show a clear 2 factorssolution for the ERP-R and high correlations with convergent and divergentscales as well as good criterion and incremental validities

Introduction

As more and more evidence suggests emotions do not only colour peoplersquoslives but are absolutely essential to their survival and adaptation (Cosmidesamp Tooby 2000) For instance emotions facilitate the detection of threateningstimuli (eg Oumlhman Flykt amp Esteves 2001) prepare the organism for spe-cific behavioural responses (Frijda 1986) enhance memory for significantevents (Luminet amp Curci 2009 Phelps 2006) increase the speed and accu-racy of decision-making processes (see Bechara amp Damasio 2005) and guidesocial interactions (Keltner amp Kring 1998) Although emotions are very effi-cient systems they are nevertheless very old devices While emotions werefully adjusted to the life of our Pleistocene ancestors they are not quiteadapted to the life of modern humans (Gross 2007 Mikolajczak 2009) Forinstance getting nervous and angry in traffic jams is totally useless Accord-ing to Gross and Thompson (2007) emotions become dysfunctional when

1 Delphine Nelis Jordi Quoidbach Michel Hansenne Personality amp Individual DifferencesUnit Department of Cognitive Science University of Liegravege and Moiumlra Mikolajczak Uni-versiteacute catholique de Louvain Belgian National Fund for Scientific ResearchCorrespondence concerning this article should be addressed to Delphine Nelis Personalityamp Individual Differences Unit Department of Cognitive Science University of Liegravege 5Bd du Rectorat 4000 Liegravege E-mail delphinenelisgmailcom

psychobelg2011_1book Page 49 Tuesday January 4 2011 1027 AM

50 MEASURING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN EMOTION REGULATION

they are of the wrong type when they come at the wrong time or when theyoccur at the wrong intensity level In these cases emotions must be regulatedThe two most common circumstances in which people regulate their emo-tions are (1) when their emotions impede goal achievement and (2) when theiremotions do not match with the grouprsquos emotional display rules Emotionalregulation (ER) refers to the processes through which individuals influencewhich emotions they have when they have them and how they experience orexpress these emotions (Gross 1998) ER includes a wide range of automaticand controlled physiological behavioural and cognitive processes (Gross2001)

Though emotion regulation in everyday life predominantly involves thedown-regulation of negative emotions most individuals also attempt to reg-ulate their positive emotions (Gross Richards amp John 2006) Positive emo-tions can be (1) down-regulated (eg when we try to decrease love for a col-league who is married) (2) maintained (eg when we engage in social shar-ing in order to prolong the effects of a positive event) and (3) up-regulatedsuch as when we try to enjoy a long planned vacation despite disappointingweather food and housing (Mikolajczak 2009)

Despite the paucity of research on the topic the ability to maintain and up-regulate positive emotions is of particular relevance for well-being andhuman flourishing (Tugade amp Fredrickson 2007) Indeed positive emotionsbroaden the scopes of attention and cognition thereby facilitating the build-ing of personal resources and initiating upward spirals toward increasingemotional well-being (Fredrickson 2001 Fredrickson amp Branigan 2005)Numerous studies show that positive affect engenders success across multiplelife domains including marriage friendship income work performance andhealth (for a review see Lyubomirsky King amp Diener 2005)

The ability to adequately regulate onersquos emotions (down-regulate nega-tives ones up-regulate positive ones) is of great importance (Cicchetti Ack-erman amp Izard 1995 Thompson 1991) Efficient ER is indeed crucial formental health (eg Gross amp Levenson 1997 Watkins amp Brown 2002)physical health (eg Suls amp Wan 1993 Suls Wan amp Costa 1995) socialrelationships (eg Lopes Salovey Cocircteacute amp Beers 2005) and work perform-ance (eg Leroy amp Greacutegoire 2007 Quoidbach amp Hansenne 2009) to namethe most significant outcomes Notwithstanding the importance of ER indi-viduals highly differ in their ability to regulate their emotions People whocannot manage their emotions are at risk for mental disorders (eg depres-sion generalised anxiety disorder) physical illnesses (eg psychosomaticdiseases such as migraines or cardiovascular diseases) or social relationshipsproblems

The above-mentioned literature leads to three major points (1) emotionregulation has a major impact on the most important domains of life (2) there


NELIS QUOIDBACH HANSENNE amp MIKOLAJCZAK 51

has been an increasing interest in ER research with the number of studiesgrowing exponentially each year (see Gross 2007) and (3) there is a lack ofinstruments measuring regulation of positive emotions and individual differ-ences in ER The need to be able to measure individual differences in this fieldcould be interesting for both research and clinical fields For instance from aclinical point of view it is important to know which ER strategy is employedby an individual to establish hisher ER profile The development of the Emo-tion Regulation Profile-Revised (ERP-R) is based on these three elementsThe ERP-R is a revision and an extension of a previous unpublished versioncalled Emotional Regulation Profile-Questionnaire (ERP-R QuoidbachNelis Mikolajczak amp Hansenne 2007) that did not include the regulation ofpositive emotions

The ERP-R (see Appendix) is a vignette-based measure developed inFrench It comprises 15 scenarii describing different types of emotion-elicit-ing situations Each scenario features a specific emotion (eg anger sadnessfear jealousy shame guilt joy contentment awe gratitude pride) and isfollowed by eight possible reactions four considered as adaptive in the liter-ature and four viewed as maladaptive (see below for a detailed presentationof the strategies) Respondents are required to select for each scenario thestrategy(ies) that best describe their most likely reactions in the situation

Compared with existing ER instruments the ERP-R presents severaladvantages First most ER measures provide a very general idea of an indi-vidualrsquos level of ER competence (they provide a global ER score) but fail toindicate which strategies people use to achieve those scores This problem iswell represented in Emotional Intelligence tests or ER-related dimensions ofpersonality tests (ie neuroticism) Those tests comprise ER as a core dimen-sion but they provide only a very general idea of onersquos ER competence Thismay be sufficient in selection settings but might not be detailed enough inclinical settings where therapists are often interested in determining whichstrategies people use to (mis)regulate their emotions The ERP-R on the otherhand provides a detailed emotion regulation profile of the individualNamely the ERP-R not only provides information about how a person regu-lates hisher emotions but it also highlights the regulation strategies usedSecond the items of most existing ER measures are very general (ldquoI am usu-ally able to regulate my emotionsrdquo) and are therefore difficult to answer forsome people who have to aggregate their emotion regulation abilities acrossa wide range of situations This is the reason why the ERP-R is a vignette-based instrument Third contrary to the two existing ER vignette-basedmeasures (ie Freudenthaler amp Neubauerrsquos Emotion Management Abilitiestest 2007 Mayer Salovey amp Carusorsquos Emotional Intelligence Test 2002) inwhich the functional-dysfunctional nature of the strategies are based on con-sensus the functional-dysfunctional nature of the ERP-R strategies is deter-



mined according to the empirical evidence available in the literature In theconsensus scoring method the correct answer is the answer that has beenmost frequently chosen If among four responses 70 of individuals choosethe response ldquoardquo any respondent who chooses ldquoardquo will be credited by 070point If the respondent selects an answer that has been chosen by only 45of people she will be credited by 045 point This method of scoring is highlyproblematic when it is applied to complex problems for which by definitiononly a small number of individuals can give the correct answer Tests basedon consensus scoring can thus hardly discriminate between ldquoER geniusesrdquoand ldquoER dumbiesrdquo Moreover research has shown that popular beliefs cannotbe relied upon to identify effective strategies (see Loewenstein 2007)Accordingly strategies presented in the ERP-R have been chosen on anempirical basis Functional strategies were deemed as such because they wererepeatedly found to be associated with a decrease of physiological activationin experimental studies andor with positive indicators of mentalsomatichealth in clinical studies Dysfunctional strategies were deemed as suchbecause they were repeatedly found to be associated with an increase of phys-iological activation in experimental studies andor with negative indicators ofmentalsomatic health in clinical studies Finally most ER instruments targetonly the down-regulation of negative emotions except the MSCEIT (theMayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test Mayer et al 2002) andthe EMA (the Emotion Management Abilities Freudenthaler amp Neubauer2007) This is surprising as there are four forms of ER down-regulation ofnegative emotions down-regulation of positive emotions up-regulation ofnegative emotions and up-regulation of positive emotions (Gross 2007) Asshown by Gross et al (2006) the first and the last forms are by far the mostfrequent ones Among these the down-regulation of negative emotions is themost common The second most frequent form of emotional regulation relatesto the maintenance or increase of positive emotions Given that both thedown-regulation of negative emotions and the maintenance or up-regulationof positive emotions predict adaptation ER measures should at least comprisethese two dimensions Thus ERP-R evaluates these two forms of regulation

Nine scenarii evaluate the down-regulation of negative emotions and sixmeasure the up-regulation of positive emotions We have created two scenariifor the three primary and basic negative emotions (anger sadness and fear)and one for the secondary emotions (shame guilt and jealousy) The positivescenarii feature six main positive emotions joy excitation pride gratitudecontentment and awe For each scenario eight reactions are proposed fouradaptive and four maladaptive

For the negative scenarii eight distinct regulation strategies are proposedThose strategies were selected based on literature review on emotion regula-tion from 1995 to 2008 The examination of these different strategies leads us



to aggregate similar ones resulting in eight broad categories of emotion reg-ulation strategies (four functional four dysfunctional) The functional strate-gies are situation modification attention reorientation positive reappraisaland emotion expression The dysfunctional strategies are learned helpless-ness substance abuse rumination and acting out These strategies aredetailed hereafter Even if some of these strategies could be considered assymptoms of various mental disorders (eg mental rumination) the corecharacteristic is the ability to use them in an acute emotional context toimprove (or not) well-being The idea is not to solve a chronic problem Func-tional strategies when used in difficult circumstances can help to get back ononersquos feet and thus are beneficial in maintaining mental health physicalhealth quality of social relationships and job performance By contrast dys-functional strategies are those which in difficult situations create a negativespiral and can damage mental health physical health quality of social rela-tionships and job performance None of the dysfunctional strategies representa disorder in itself even if they may all lead to such disorders in the long runFor instance repeated rumination can lead to depression alcohol abuse canlead to alcoholism repeated acting out can lead to antisocial behaviour disor-der etc The reason we selected these strategies rather than other ones is thatthey are highly predictive of important outcomes in terms of mental healthphysical health and social functioning Note that these strategies are media-tors between the ldquodifficult circumstancesrdquo and the outcomes not outcomes inthemselves For example repeated rumination associated with other depres-sive symptoms can lead to depression but using rumination as an ER strategyto cope with a current situation cannot lead to depression A person who rumi-nates but that also uses functional strategies or benefits from a good socialsupport will not necessarily fall into depression Rumination is therefore anelement of vulnerability but not the pathology in itself

Situation modification encompasses the strategies aimed at modifying thesituation so as to change its emotional load (Folkman amp Lazarus 1980Gross 1998 Gross amp John 2003) There are two kinds of such strategiesdirect methods which involve taking some practical actions that influence thesituation directly (eg fixing the broken car rehearsing onersquos talk) and indi-rect methods in which the intervention of a third person is required (eg ask-ing a colleague for some help as a means of finishing a report by the deadlineor asking a stranger to put out his cigarette in order to avoid second-handsmoke see Mikolajczak 2009) Taking steps in order to modify an emotion-eliciting situation is associated with increased well-being (Billings amp Moos1981) and better health outcomes (see Penley Tomaka amp Wiebe 2002 for ameta-analysis) Moreover this strategy has been associated with better workperformance both in academic (Struthers Perry amp Menec 2000) and organ-isational (Lee Ashford amp Jamieson 1993) settings



Attention reorientation involves altering how we feel by modifying ourattentional focus (Gross 1998 Nolen-Hoeksema amp Morrow 1993) Atten-tion reorientation may be internal (eg thinking about a happy memoryimagining the upcoming holidays) or external (engaging in some pleasurableactivity such as listening to music surfing the web etc) (Mikolajczak 2009)Attention reorientation has been found efficient to decrease negative emo-tions in emotional situations (eg Nolen-Hoeksema amp Morrow 1993 Traskamp Sigmon 1999)

Positive reappraisal involves changing the way we think about the situa-tion (eg searching for the silver lining) so as to decrease its emotionalimpact (Gross 2001) In the short term the use of positive reappraisaldecreases the subjective intensity of negative emotion (eg Gross 1998) Inthe long-term the use of this strategy has been associated with positive out-comes in terms of affective (eg Carver Scheier amp Weintraub 1989) andsocial functioning (Gross amp John 2003) Reappraisal has also been found topredict better academic performance (Leroy amp Greacutegoire 2007)

Emotion expression involves sharing onersquos emotions with others (Rimeacute2007) Note that the reason why sharing onersquos emotions is beneficial is notattributable to any catharsis effect (ie getting it off onersquos chest) ndash as it haslong been thought ndash but to several indirect effects such as the construction orreinforcement of social bonds the transference of affection and warmth theexpression of esteem the assistance received in situation modification andthe aid in cognitive reappraisal and in attention reorientation (see Rimeacute 2007for a review) Emotion expression has been associated with improved adjust-ment in terms of both psychological and physical health (Berry amp Pen-nebaker 1993 Stanton Danoff-Burg Cameron Bishop Collins Kirk et al2000)

Learned helplessness involves a passive behaviour accompanied by afeeling of powerlessness Individuals believe that they are unable to do any-thing in order to deal with the negative event and consequently do not takeany steps to modify it This strategy is positively related to depression (egAbramson Seligman amp Teasdale 1978 Mikulincer Glaubman Ben-Artziamp Grossman 1991)

Rumination refers to focusing on the feelings and thoughts associated withnegative events (Garnefski Kraaij amp Spinhoven 2001) Ruminationincreases the duration and intensity of negative emotions (Bushman 2002Morrow amp Nolen-Hoeksema 1990) and predicts the onset number and dura-tion of depressive episodes over a 25 years follow-up of initially non-depressed individuals (Robinson amp Alloy 2003) Rumination has also beenfound to impair task performance (Watkins amp Brown 2002)

Substance abuse involves abusing alcohol anxiolytics or drugs (egmarijuana) in order to avoid or escape an adverse event or its emotional con-



sequences This technique will suppress negative thoughts and emotions tem-porarily In addition this strategy has an impact on the physiological aspectby allowing the body to relax Although moderate alcohol consumption canhave health benefits (for a review see Baum-Baicker 1985) alcohol used asa regulation strategy (and thus abused) is associated with poor outcomes interms of mental and physical health (eg Single Rehm Robson amp VanTruong 2000) Anxiolytics can affect alertness judgment motor skills andother cognitive abilities (Aronoff Erdil amp Hartenbaum 2005) Marijuanaenhances well-being in the short term but at the cost of a drop in cognitive andmotor efficiency (see Hall amp Solowij 1998 for a review)

Acting out constitutes an attempt to reduce the emotion by giving way tothe action tendency dictated by the emotion aggression in the case of angerwithdrawal in the case of shame etc This strategy is deleterious when itcomes to emotion regulation For instance physical or verbal aggressionleads to exaggerated cardiovascular reactivity in response to provocativestressors (Suls amp Wan 1993) and increases the possibility of developing cor-onary-heart disease (see Miller Smith Turner Guijaro amp Hallet 1996 for ameta-analysis)

Regarding positive scenarii we reviewed the positive emotion regulationliterature between 1995 and 2008 This investigation yields different regula-tion strategies that we aggregated ndash similarly to negative ones ndash into eightbroad categories four adaptive (ie behavioural display of positive emo-tions mindfully savouring the moment capitalisation and positive mentaltime travel) and four maladaptive (ie inhibition of emotion expression faultfinding inattention and external attributionnostalgia)

Behavioural display refers to fully expressing onersquos positive emotionswith non verbal behaviours Evidence for the efficiency of this strategy is pro-vided by many studies showing that the facial expression of emotion mayplay a causal role in the subjective experience of emotion (Adelmann ampZajonc 1989) For example Strack Martin and Stepper (1988) found thatsubjects holding a pen in their mouth in ways that either inhibited or facili-tated the muscles typically associated with smiling reported more intensepleasure under facilitating conditions than under inhibiting conditions Simi-larly a pilot trial showed that inhibiting the expression of facial frowning(commonly associated with depression) through Botox injections diminisheddepressive symptoms (Finzi amp Wasserman 2006)

Savouring the present moment consists in deliberately directing aware-ness and attention to onersquos present pleasant experiences (Bryant 1989) It hasbeen associated with subjective well-being at all ages (Meehan Durlak ampBryant 1993) The ability to savour is positively correlated with optimisminternal locus of control self-control behaviours life satisfaction and self-esteem as well as negatively correlated with hopelessness and depression



(Bryant 2003) Moreover mindfulness meditative practices which empha-sise directing awareness to the present moment are associated with numerouspositive outcomes such as enhanced subjective quality of life (Shapiro AstinBishop amp Cordova 2005 Surawy Roberts amp Silver 2005) lowered stress(Kabat-Zinn Massion Kristeller Peterson Fletcher Pbert et al 1992 Sha-piro Schwartz amp Bonner 1998) and improved health (for review see Gross-man Niemann Schmidt amp Walach 2004)

Capitalising refers to communicating and celebrating positive events withother people (Langston 1994) Studies have shown that capitalising is asso-ciated with increased daily positive affect and well-being above and beyondthe impact of the positive event itself and other daily events (Gable ReisImpett amp Asher 2004 Langston 1994) Moreover the wider the net of shar-ing the greater the benefits reaped (Gable et al 2004) Finally the expres-sion of positive emotions has also been related to health Labott AhlemanWolever and Martin (1990) found that when participants watched a happyvideo their immune system showed increased activity but only when theyhad been instructed to express their emotions

Positive Mental Time Travel refers to engaging in vivid positive reminis-cence or anticipation of positive events (see eg Quoidbach Hansenne ampMottet 2008 Suddendorf amp Corballis 2007) Indeed both correlational andexperimental studies have showed that the frequency of positive reminiscingpredicts happiness and well-being (Bryant Smart amp King 2005 Havighurstamp Glasser 1972 Lyubomirsky Sousa amp Dickerhoof 2006) On the otherhand imagining future positive events has also be found to be related tonumerous positive outcomes such as subjective well-being and social net-work size (MacLeod amp Conway 2005) and reduced depressive symptoms(eg MacLeod amp Salaminiou 2001) In a recent study Quoidbach Woodand Hansenne (2009) reported that participants who engaged in positiveanticipation of future personal events daily for two weeks using vivid cogni-tive imagery reported a significant increase in happiness over 15 days

Unfortunately individuals also engage in maladaptive up-regulation strat-egies (Feldman Joormann amp Johnson 2008 Wood Heimpel amp Michela2003) Based on the above mentioned literature as well as qualitative inter-views the ERP-R distinguishes four maladaptive strategies which to a largeextent are the opposite of the positive ones

Inhibition of emotion expression refers to the tendency to suppress onersquospositive emotions for diverse reasons such as shyness modesty or fear Grossand Levenson (1997) showed that the expressive suppression of positiveemotions bears physiological costs and leads to a decrease in subjective pos-itive experience (while the suppression of negative emotions also bears costsbut does not lead to a decrease in the corresponding subjective negative expe-rience) Gross and John (2003) further showed that the tendency to suppress



negative and positive emotions alike leads to less trait positive affectivity andmore trait negative affectivity poorer social support more depression andlower life satisfaction and psychological well-being

Inattention refers to the tendency to engage in activities and thoughtsunrelated or detrimental to the ongoing positive event (eg worries uncom-pleted tasks) Whether during a positive or a negative event the tendency toworry consistently has the same deleterious effects it increases anxious anddepressive affect (Borkovec Alcaine amp Behar 2004) and is associated withincreased cardiovascular neuroendocrine and neurovisceral activity (Bro-sschot Gerin amp Thayer 2006)

Fault finding can also be opposed to a certain extent to savouring thepresent moment This strategy relates to a maladaptive focus of attentiontowards what could have been better or to negative elements in positive situ-ations Aside from ldquopurerdquo negative thinking which is known to be an impor-tant characteristic in depression (eg Teasdale 1983) the simple desire tomaximise situations has been found to correlate negatively with happinessoptimism self-esteem and life satisfaction (Schwartz Ward MonterossoLyubomirsky White amp Lehman 2002)

Negative Mental Time travel encompasses negative reminiscence such asreflecting on the causes of a positive event with an emphasis on external attri-bution (eg ldquoI got an A because the exam was really easyrdquo) and negativeanticipation of its future consequences (eg ldquoThese positive feelings wonrsquotlastrdquo) This strategy has been associated with lower self-esteem greater rumi-nation and greater depressive symptoms (Feldman et al 2008) Moreoverexternal attributions of success have been extensively found to be associatedwith depression (see Sweeney Anderson amp Bailey 1986 for a meta-analy-sis)

Respondents are allowed to select as many reactions as they want as longas they accurately reflect their typical behaviour in the kind of situationdescribed This instruction is formulated to avoid a forced-choice betweendifferent strategies since individuals can usually use several strategiesRespondents are credited by 1 point per functional strategy selected and by -1point per dysfunctional one The ERP-R provides a total score and one scorefor each of the two factors (down-regulation of negative emotions and up-reg-ulation of positive emotions) as well as specific scores representing the use ofeach regulation strategy

Overview

The present study attempts to reduce the limitations of existing ER measuresThe aim was the development and the validation of an ER measure thatassesses the effectiveness of an individualrsquos typical behaviour in emotional



situations more directly than existing measures that tend to assess the individ-ualrsquos knowledge of how to behave and not their actual emotional manage-ment ability per se First and foremost we will look at the internal consist-ency and factor structure of the ERP-R Next we will focus on the ERP-R dis-criminant and convergent validities with regard to indicators of cognitiveability (ie non verbal reasoning and verbal skills) trait emotional intelli-gence the five-factor model of personality and cognitive emotion regulationThe liability of ERP-R responses to social desirability will also be examinedSubsequently we will assess the criterion validity of the ERP-R regardingstate affectivity mental and physical health propensity to experience variousdiscrete emotions tendency to experience worry social support job satisfac-tion and performance Finally the incremental validity of the ERP-R overand above emotional intelligence and the big five personality factors will beinvestigated

Method

Participants and procedure

Four hundred eighty-one students (360 woman and 121 men) voluntarilycompleted questionnaires during a Psychology class The mean age for thesample was 195 years (SD = 236 years) The whole sample completed theERP-R along with one or several other measures (during the same or separatesessions) All participants live in Belgium Participants were recruited toinclude only French native speakers The present data came from six samplesand included students in their first two years of university Participants com-pleted the questionnaires on a paper and pencil form Responses were anon-ymous as participants identified themselves with codes To test if there is arelationship between the ERP-R and work an additional sample of twentymanagers (18 males and 2 females mean age 4240 plusmn 837 years) completedthe ERP-R and a measure of job performance It was not possible for this sam-ple to complete other measures given the length of the testing The resultsbelow involve either one or several samples (depending on the relationshipsunder investigation) The sample size for each measure is indicated inTable 3

Measures

Emotion Regulation was appraised through the ERP-R described in the intro-duction (see Appendix)

Non verbal reasoning was evaluated by means of Ravenrsquos Advanced Pro-gressive Matrices Test (Raven 1976) which is one of the most robust meas-



ures of general cognitive ability (ie supra-ordinate factor ldquogrdquo Spearman1927) This test consists of 36 problem-series and is independent from lan-guage and formal schooling Each problem consists of 9 figures (arranged asa square) with a missing piece Below the problem are eight alternative piecesto complete the figure only one of which is correct Each set involves a dif-ferent principle for obtaining the missing piece and problems are roughlyarranged in increasing order of difficulty

Verbal skills were evaluated using the Mill Hill vocabulary test (Raven1943 French translation Deltour 1993) The subject must choose among sixwords which one is the synonym of a target It comprises 32 target itemsItems are arranged in increasing order of difficulty

Trait emotional intelligence was measured through the French version ofthe Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue Petrides amp Furn-ham 2003 for the psychometric properties of the French adaptation seeMikolajczak Luminet Leroy amp Roy 2007) The TEIQue (α = 94) consistsof 153 items responded to on a 7-point scale (from ldquostrongly agreerdquo toldquostrongly disagreerdquo) It provides scores for 15 subscales four factors (well-being self-control emotionality and sociability) and global trait EI The 15subscales of the TEIQue show good internal consistency with scale reliabili-ties ranging from 70 (self-esteem) to 91 (well-being)

Personality was appraised through the ldquoDescription in Five Dimensionsrdquosystem (D5D Rolland amp Mogenet 2001) which is a widely used French per-sonality inventory based on the Five Factor Model (FFM Costa amp McCrae1992a) This questionnaire assesses the big five dimensions of emotional sta-bility introversion openness conscientiousness and agreeableness through55 adjectives (eg nervous reserved cultivated compassionate tidy) ratedalong a 6-point scale (-3 = does not describe me at all +3 = describes me per-fectly) The D5D factors show good internal consistency with scale reliabili-ties ranging from 71 (Openness to Experience) to 84 (Conscientiousness)

Cognitive emotion regulation was assessed using the Cognitive EmotionRegulation Questionnaire (CERQ Garnefski et al 2001 French validationby Jermann Van der Linden drsquoAcremont amp Zermatten 2006) The CERQcontains 36 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (from ldquoalmost neverrdquo toldquoalmost alwaysrdquo) and measures regulation of negative emotions only Thescale assesses the use of nine coping strategies acceptance refocus on plan-ning positive refocus positive reappraisal putting the problem into perspec-tive (these five strategies form an ldquoadaptive cognitive regulationrdquo factor)self-blame others-blame rumination and catastrophisation (these four strat-egies form a ldquomaladaptive cognitive regulationrdquo factor) Internal reliabilityscores for the subscales range from 68 to 87 (Jermann et al 2006)

Social desirability which refers to a tendency to present oneself in anoverly positive manner was evaluated using the Marlowe-Crowne Social



Desirability Scale (Crowne amp Marlowe 1960 French translation Blais ampLachance 1992) It consists of 30 items rated on a dichotomous scale(truefalse) The reliability of the scale is moderately good (α = 67 Mikola-jczak et al 2007)

Positive and negative state affectivity were assessed through the Positiveand Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS Watson Clark amp Tellegen 1988French translation Gaudreau 2000) The PANAS is currently the mostwidely used measure of affectivity It consists of 20 adjectives rated along 5-point scales of which 10 assess positive affectivity (PA) and 10 assess nega-tive affectivity (NA) It should be noted that the focus here was on state (cur-rent) rather than trait (general) affectivity Cronbachrsquos coefficients of internalconsistency of the positive affect (α = 90) and negative affect (α = 80) arehigh (Gaudreau Sanchez amp Blondin 2006)

Mental health was evaluated via the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSIDerogatis amp Melisaratos 1983 French adaptation by Dreyfus amp Guelfiunpublished) The BSI is a 53-items version of Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90-R Derogatis 1975 1977) This measure encompasses nine dimensionsanxiety depression somatisation obsessive-compulsive disorder phobiashostility interpersonal sensitivity paranoia and psychotic symptomsRespondents indicate on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4(extremely) how much they experienced each symptom over the past sevendays The reliability of the BSI is excellent (α = 86)

Physical health was assessed through the Physical Inventory of LimbicLanguidness (PILL Pennebaker 1982) which is a list of 54 physical symp-toms and bodily sensations Participants are required to rate items on a 5-pointscale (never or nearly never 3 or 4 times a year about every month aboutevery week more than once a week) The global ldquosomatic complaintsrdquo scoreis highly reliable (α = 90 Mikolajczak Luminet amp Menil 2006)

The tendency for excessive and uncontrollable worry was assessed via thePenn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ Meyer Miller Metzger amp Borko-vec 1990 French version Gosselin Dugas Ladouceur amp Freeston 2001)The PSWQ is a commonly used trait measure of anxiety intended to assess apersonrsquos overall tendency to experience worry The PSWQ is a 16-item self-report scale The items are scored using a 5-point Likert scale anchored byldquonot at all typicalrdquo (for me) and ldquovery typicalrdquo (for me) The French transla-tion shows very good internal consistency (α = 92) and excellent convergentvalidity with other measures of worry and anxiety (Gosselin et al 2001)

Relationship quality was evaluated via a measure created for the purposeof the present study and inspired by the Network of Relationships Inventory(NRI Furman amp Buhrmester 1992) Our measure appraises relationshipquality through five dimensions nurturance (5 items eg ldquoto what extent doyou help X for things that she cannot do by herhimselfrdquo) intimacy (4 items



eg ldquoto what extent do you share secrets and feelings with Xrdquo) conflict (4items eg ldquoto what extent do you argue with X when you disagree withhimherrdquo) self-respect in the relationship (3 items eg ldquoto what extent doyou feel respected in the relationship with Xrdquo) and respect of others in therelationship (4 items eg ldquoto what extent do you accept that X may haveopinions habits and projects different from yoursrdquo) Thus there were 20items in total which had to be answered six times concerning participantsrsquopartner best friend friend most important sibling father and motherrespectively All items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = little or noneto 5 = the most) The alpha of the global relationship quality score was 74 inthe present study

The propensity to experience various discrete emotions was assessed viathe Quoidbachrsquos Emotional Style Test (QuEST Mikolajczak NelisHansenne amp Quoidbach 2008) The QuEST comprises 47 items respondedto on a 5-point scale (1 absolutely false to 5 absolutely true) which measurethe propensity to experience seven discrete emotions joy (α = 75) anger (α= 84) sadness (α = 83) fear (α = 67) envy (α = 76) shame (α = 76) anddisgust (α = 65) The factorial structure of the questionnaire is excellent andso is the convergentdiscriminantpredictive validity (Mikolajczak et al2008)

Happiness was assessed using the Subjective Happiness Scale(Lyubomirsky amp Lepper 1999) The measure is composed of 4 items scoredon a 7-point Likert-type scale (from 1 = less happy to 7 = more happy) Theinternal consistency in our sample was good with a Cronbachrsquos alpha (α) of85

Job performance was assessed via a measure created for the purpose ofthe present study and inspired by the Leadership Architect (Lombardo ampEichinger 2000) This measure is a self-evaluation of managerial competen-cies It consists of 14 items rated on 10-point Likert-type scales ranging from1 (not competent at all) to 10 (fully competent) These items evaluate differ-ent managerial skills such as autonomy motivation and team spirit Twoadditional items assess overall performance (ldquoin general how competent areyou in your workrdquo and ldquooverall how competent are you to achieve what isexpected from yourdquo) The alpha of the global score was 87

Results

Factor structure

Three hundred and twenty students completed the ERP-R for factorial struc-ture validation Participantsrsquo scores on each item (scenario) were subjected toprincipal component analysis The Scree plot and Kaiserrsquos eigenvalue extrac-



tion criteria suggested the presence of three factors (the eigenvalues wererespectively 4652 2040 and 1039) We applied Parallel Analysis (PA) toour data set a method which is currently considered the most reliable proce-dure to determine the correct number of factors (see Zwick amp Velicer 1986for a comparison of factor retention decision methods and Hayton Allen ampScarpello 2004 for methodological issues in PA) The eigenvalues and stand-ard deviations generated from completely random data (and necessary to per-form PA) were obtained through the ldquoMarley Watkins Monte Carlo PCA forParallel Analysisrdquo program (Watkins 2002) using the following parameters15 variables (scenarii) 320 participants 1000 replications We then com-pared our observed eigenvalues to the 95th percentile of the eigenvalues gen-erated from these random data in order to reject factors that are most certainlyartificial (at p lt 05) Results suggested to consider only 2 factors A two-fac-tor solution was found by using the PROMAX algorithm (kappa = 4) Thefactor pattern matrix is presented in Table 1 An item is judged to belong to afactor if its loading on this specific factor was gt 40 If two items were orabove 40 we allocated it to the factor with the highest saturation The twofactors were composed according to our theoretical expectations and werethus labelled accordingly ldquodown-regulation of negative emotionsrdquo and ldquoup-regulation of positive emotionsrdquo This solution accounted for 42 of the totalvariance and the strength of the intercorrelations between factors (r = 49) wasfully in line with our theoretical assumptions

Note Factor Pattern Matrix Coefficients that should theoretically define each factor are in boldface

Table 1Factor Pattern Matrix for the ERP-R items (Promax Principal Axis Factoring

Four-Factor Solution) (N = 320)

Scenarii Down-regulation of negative emotions

Up-regulation of positive emotions

Scenario 1Scenario 2Scenario 3Scenario 4Scenario 5Scenario 6Scenario 7Scenario 8Scenario 9Scenario 10Scenario 11Scenario 12Scenario 13Scenario 14 Scenario 15

40

25

40

50

18

47

36

73

40

69

53

18

59

29

54

10

61

21

20

51

20

65

40

64

30

41

57

23

73

49



Internal consistency

The reliability of the global ERP-R score was good (α = 84) The two factorsdown regulation of negative emotions and up-regulation of positive emotionsalso showed satisfactory internal consistencies (Cronbach αs were 83 and79 respectively)

ERP-R and gender

Males scored significantly higher on the factor ldquodown regulation of negativeemotionsrdquo and on the global ERP-R score than women (see Table 2)

p le 0001 p le 001 p le 005

Discriminant validity with respect to cognitive ability (IQ)

Discriminant validity refers to the degree to which scores on a test do not cor-relate with (are ldquoindependent ofrdquo or ldquoorthogonal tordquo) variables they are notsupposed to correlate with given the nature of the construct

Neither the global ERP-R score nor any of its factors correlated with nonverbal reasoning and verbal skills (see Table 3)

Convergent validity

Convergent validity refers to the degree to which scores on a test correlatewith scores on another test that is believed to measure a closely related con-struct (ie the two tests should end up ranking people in pretty much the sameway)

ERP-R and trait emotional intelligence

As shown in Table 3 the ERP-R was significantly positively correlated withtrait emotional intelligence (global score and factors) This associationseemed mostly attributable to the factor down-regulation of negative emo-tions

Table 2Means and standard deviations for sex

N Means and SDs Minimum MaximumMales Females Males Females Males Females Males Females

ERP-R total score 116 298 18965(1075)

16339(1109)

t(412) = -2182

-17 -14 42 46

Regulation of negative emotions

116 298 9509(767)

5760 (740)

t(412) = -4519

-24 -14 25 26

Regulation of positive emotions

116 298 9964 (526)

10869(598)

t(412) = 1410

-5 -7 22 23



ERP-R and the Five-Factor Model of personality (FFM)

The ERP-R (global score and the two factors) was positively associated withemotional stability and agreeableness There was no correlation with extra-version conscientiousness and openness (Table 3)

ERP-R and the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ)

The global ERP-R score was positively associated with the use of adaptivecognitive emotion regulation strategies (Table 3) The down-regulation ofnegative emotions was positively associated with the use of adaptive cogni-tive strategies and negatively associated with the use of maladaptive ones

Susceptibility to socially desirable responding

Although the factor ldquoup-regulation of positive emotionsrdquo shared no variancewith social desirability the factor ldquodown-regulation of negative emotionsrdquowas negatively correlated with social desirability Yet the global ERP-R wasnot significantly affected by socially desirable responding (see Table 3)

Criterion validity

Criterion validity refers to the ability of a test to predict some criterion itshould theoretically be able to predict Criterion-related validity can either beconcurrent or predictive Concurrent validity refers to the correlation betweenthe predictor and criterion scores obtained approximately at the same timePredictive validity refers to the degree to which scores on a test predict futurebehaviour on a criterion variable

ERP-R and positive and negative state affectivity

As shown in Table 3 the ERP-R is a significant predictor of positive stateaffect as measured by the PANAS administrated six weeks after the ERP-RSurprisingly this effect was driven by the ldquodown-regulation of negative emo-tionsrdquo factor and not the ldquoup-regulation of positive emotionsrdquo factor Neitherthe global ERP-R score nor any of its factors predicted negative state affect

ERP-R and mental health

The ERP-R was highly associated with mental health (see Table 3) Eight ofthe nine dimensions of the BSI were negatively correlated with the ERP-RThe dimension of the BSI that is the most highly associated with emotion reg-ulation is hostility At the factor level regulation of both negative and posi-tive emotions was a significant predictor of mental health



ERP-R and somatic complaints

Emotion regulation was negatively correlated with somatic complaints (seeTable 3)

ERP-R and the tendency to worry

As shown in Table 3 emotion regulation is a significant predictor of the ten-dency for less worry and less uncontrollable worry

ERP-R and perceived social support

Emotion regulation showed significant relations with four of the five dimen-sions of social support with the highest relationships showing up for conflictand nurturance and somewhat lower but still significant correlations withrespect of others in the relationships and intimacy The factor ldquodown-regula-tion of negative emotionsrdquo was associated with dimensions of conflict nur-turance and respect of others in the relationships ldquoUp-regulation of positiveemotionsrdquo was only associated with nurturance and intimacy

ERP-R and the propensity to experience various discrete emotions

As shown in Table 3 emotion regulation was positively related to the propen-sity to experience joy and negatively related to the propensity to experiencesadness envy and shame This association seemed mostly attributable to thefactor ldquodown-emotion regulation of negative emotionsrdquo which was posi-tively related to the propensity to experience joy and negatively related toexperience sadness fear envy and shame The ldquoup-regulation of positiveemotionsrdquo was positively associated with joy and negatively associated withsadness

ERP-R and happiness

Results in Table 3 show that the ERP-R total score and all subscores signifi-cantly correlate with subjective happiness

ERP-R and job performance

Emotion regulation was positively related to performance (see Table 3) Thisassociation seemed entirely attributable to the factor ldquodown-regulation ofnegative emotionsrdquo



Table 3Convergent discriminant and criterion validity of the ERP-R

N Total ERP-R



Convergentdiscriminant validityCognitive abilityNon-verbal reasoning 29 -04 -08 02Verbal skills 102 03 -03 09Trait IE 332 48 57 18F1 Well-being 332 52 53 30F2 Self-control 332 40 54 07F3 Emotionality 332 25 23 17F4 Sociability 332 29 39 07Emotional stability 135 43 41 30Introversion 135 -03 -01 -03Openness 135 01 04 -06Agreeableness 135 26 23 21Conscientiousness 135 09 07 06Cognitive Emotion Regulation 46 14 11 12Cognitive Emotion Regulation factor 1 46 34 38 17Cognitive Emotion Regulation factor 2 46 -16 -24 -00Social desirability 165 -07 -17 06Criterion validityState positive affectivity 78 25 23 18State negative affectivity 78 -20 -18 -13Mental health 46 -52 -45 -45Anxiety 46 -40 -33 -35Depression 46 -49 -36 -50Somatisation 46 -22 -20 -19Obsessive-compulsive disorder 46 -42 -37 -36Phobias 46 -39 -39 -29Hostility 46 -63 -52 -57Interpersonal sensitivity 46 -42 -42 -31Paranoia 46 -37 -39 -25Psychotic symptoms 46 -42 -32 -40Physical health 62 -52 -45 -46Tendency for excessive and uncontrol-lable worry

62 -55 -53 -44

Relationship qualityNurturance 124 27 21 26Intimacy 124 18 16 24Conflict 124 28 34 09Self-respect 124 08 06 09Respect of others 124 23 21 17



Note p le 001 p le 005

Incremental validity

The present study also sought to examine the incremental validity of the ERP-R Incremental validity is defined as the degree to which a measure explainsor predicts a phenomenon of interest relative to other measures We chose thetendency for excessive and uncontrollable worry physical health and mentalhealth as dependent variables as these variables were also well predicted byemotional stability (first dimension of the FFM) and trait emotional intelli-gence Scores on Trait EI emotional stability and the ERP-R served as pre-dictors It was hypothesised that the ERP-R would be a reliable predictor ofall three criteria in the presence of both trait EI and emotional stability Wetested the incremental validity of the ERP-R to predict tendency for excessiveand uncontrollable worry over and above Trait EI and emotional stabilityusing a hierarchical procedure (Cohen amp Cohen 1983) To determinewhether the ERP-R scores are able to account for additional variance aboveand beyond scores from the TEIQue and the emotional stability the TEIQueand the emotional stability were entered in Block 1 and scores from the ERP-R were entered in Block 2 The results are presented in Table 4 The ERP-Rsignificantly predicted the tendency for excessive and uncontrollable worryover and above the TEIQue and the emotional stability

In order to test whether the ERP-R was able to predict physical healthbeyond established constructs such as EI and personality we analysed theincremental validity of the ERP-R over and above the TEIQue and the emo-tional stability factor of the D5D using a hierarchical procedure TEIQue andemotional stability were entered as the first block and the ERP-R was enteredin the second block As depicted in Table 5 the ERP-R significantly predicted

Propensity to experience various discrete emotionsJoy 101 32 29 24Anger 101 -14 -19 -01Sadness 101 -51 -57 -25Fear 101 -18 -29 02Envy 101 -29 -34 -12Shame 101 -26 -33 -08Disgust 101 -10 -19 05Happiness 67 41 29 35Job performance 78 28 28 19

Table 3 (Continued)Convergent discriminant and criterion validity of the ERP-R

N Total ERP-R





physical health over and above the effects of the TEIQue and emotional sta-bility ERP-R also significantly predicted mental health over and above theTEIQue scores (Table 6)

Note These values are the betas when all predictors are entered together in the model p pound 0001 p pound 001 p pound 005

Note These values are the betas when all predictors are entered together in the model p le 0001 p le 001 p le 005


Table 4Hierarchical Regression Analyses testing the Incremental Validity of ERP-R over and

above trait EI and emotional stability to predict tendency for excessive and uncontrollable worry (N = 62)

Criterion variable Fo

rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde

r Predictor variable R A

djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange

Betasup2 Tendency for excessive and uncontrollable worry

1 Trait EI and emo-tional stability

592 328 1542 Trait EI -098Emotional sta-bility -561

2 Emotion regulation 677 429 1578 -373


above trait EI and emotional stability to predict physical health (N = 62)


rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange

Betasup2 Somatic com-plaints





above trait EI to predict mental health (N = 46)


rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange

Betasup2 Mental health 1 Trait EI 533 267 1627 -533




Discussion

Results lend strong preliminary support to the validity of the ERP-R First andforemost internal consistencies of the two factors and the total score weregood Second factorial analyses yielded a two factors solution confirmingtheoretical expectations about the dependence of negative and positive emo-tion regulation Moreover the ERP-R displayed evidence of convergent anddiscriminant validities with a large number of other variables Firstly the twoERP-R factors correlated in meaningful and theoretically congruent wayswith trait emotional intelligence emotion regulation and the big five factorsof personality

Specifically the ERP-R was significantly positively correlated with traitemotional intelligence (global score and factors) This association seemedmostly attributable to the factor down-regulation of negative emotions Thefactor up-regulation of positive emotions was not significantly correlated withtwo factors of the TEIQue (self-control and sociability) The ERP-R scaleregulation of negative emotions showed moderate correlations with theCERQ This is not surprising because both questionnaires assess the sameconstruct and several regulation strategies are similar in both tests Howeverthe ERP-R is different from the CERQ especially regarding the presentationof the items First ERP-R is a vignette-based instrument whereas CERQ is aclassical self-report questionnaire Second ERP-R assesses two forms ofemotion regulation whereas CERQ targets only the down-regulation of neg-ative emotions Finally eight regulation strategies were presented in the ERP-R whereas nine were identified in the CERQ However the two question-naires are similar in that they employ common regulation strategies such asacceptance positive reappraisal and rumination Other strategies featuring inthe CERQ are not included in the ERP-R such as catastrophizing and blam-ing others The ERP-R (global score and the two factors) was positively asso-ciated with emotional stability and agreeableness There was no correlationwith extraversion conscientiousness and openness These results are consist-ent with previous findings showing that emotional disturbances in subjectsare associated with higher neuroticism scores (Izard Libero Putman amp Hay-nes 1993) They are also consistent with the idea that people characterised byhigher agreeableness scores are more likely to express positive emotionsbecause they experience positive relationships (Costa amp McCrae 1992b)Conversely ERP-R scores were unrelated to non verbal reasoning which isconsistent with the theory that individual differences in typical behaviour inemotional situations are different from cognitive intelligence (Freudenthaleramp Neubauer 2005 2007) Interestingly ERP-R scores were found to beinfluenced by gender The fact that men scored higher than women on down-regulation of negative emotions is consistent with the divergent socialisation



of emotion as a function of gender (eg ldquoBoys donrsquot cryrdquo Mikolajczak2009) and also with the fact that women are generally more anxious than men(Leach Christensen Mackinnon Windsor amp Butterworth 2008 Mackinaw-Koons amp Vasey 2000) These gender differences should be taken intoaccount for the establishment of norms and for the interpretation of scoresespecially when women and men have to be compared (eg organisational oreducational settings)

The prediction of ldquoobjectiverdquo life outcomes such as professional successor health status was beyond the scope of the present study All criteria exam-ined in the present study were self-reported These are however not trivialcriteria especially given that emotional well-being is a major goal in life formost people Furthermore examining such criteria was essential to ensureconstruct validity In this respect the ERP-R predicted a substantial andmeaningful part of variance of future positive state affectivity mental andphysical health perceived quality and quantity of social support propensityto experience various discrete emotions self-reported performance and hap-piness These findings are consistent with theory in the emotion regulationfield (see Gross 2007) Although such evidence of predictive validity is anecessary condition for a test to be claimed useful it is however not suffi-cient To be deemed useful the ERP-R should also demonstrate that (1) find-ings are not attributable to social desirability and (2) that other testsquestion-naires are not sensible enough at least not as efficient With respect to the firstcondition responses to the ERP-R are rather independent of social desirabil-ity except maybe for the regulation of negative emotions The two factors arehowever not equally subject to desirable responding The associationbetween ERP-R and social desirability appears entirely attributable to the fac-tor down-regulation of negative emotions This might be explained by the factthat some strategies such as substance abuse have a strong negative socialconnotation The second condition also seems to be met as the ERP-R pre-dicts a tendency for excessive and uncontrollable worry and physical healthover and above trait emotional intelligence and emotional stability and pre-dicts mental health over and above trait emotional intelligence The foregoingpoints represent promising findings in favour of the validity and usefulness ofthe ERP-R

Before concluding several limitations have to be acknowledged Firstmost of the participants were students which restricts range and generalisa-tion especially regarding ldquoagerdquo for which results have to be interpreted withcaution Future research should be extended to other populations For exam-ple it would be interesting to validate the ERP-R with an adolescent sampleEmotion regulation is crucial in this period and deficits in this area could leadto psychopathological problems In fact this is a period where the higher vul-nerability of women towards depression becomes observable Emotion regu-



lation is important in adolescence because the physical and psychosocialtransformations experienced during this period are accompanied by strongemotions (drsquoAcremont amp Van der Linden 2007 Larson amp Lampman-Petraitis 1989) and several neural or cognitive systems that are supposed tocontrol emotion are still maturing (drsquoAcremont amp Van der Linden 2007Hooper Luciana Conklin amp Yarger 2004) Also many forms of psychopa-thology in adolescence are related to difficulties in emotion regulation Futurestudies would also certainly benefit from considering objective criteria suchas behavioural (eg pro-social behaviours) or physiological (eg cortisolsecretion) ones The ERP-R has the advantage of informing about emotionregulation strategies that people use However in this study we did not con-sider regulation strategies separately We focused on the total score and on thetwo factors In a future research it will be interesting to consider regulationstrategies separately and to examine the relations between specific strategyand various related variables like mental health and well-being Also wechose eight regulation strategies but it has to be acknowledged that otherstrategies (eg coping strategies) exist and have an influence on differentoutcome variables such as mental health

Overall the results show a clear two factor solution for the ERP-R andhigh correlations with convergent and divergent scales as well as good pre-dictive and incremental validities The present results provide encouragingevidence in support of the utilisation of the ERP-R The value of the ERP-Ris that it enables clinicians and researchers to assess a wide variety of regula-tion strategies with a single questionnaire and the ERP-R evaluates the reg-ulation of both negative and positive emotions The ERP-R determines whichstrategies individuals preferentially use for negative and positive emotionsThis information is particularly interesting in the clinical field where associ-ations between these strategies and psychopathological manifestations can beexplored and linked Thus the ERP-R gives a reliable and theoreticallygrounded assessment of typical emotional regulation ability and may there-fore be useful for both researchers and practitioners

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Adelmann PK amp Zajonc RB (1989) Facial efference and the experience of emo-tion Annual Review of Psychology 40 249-280

Aronoff GM Erdil M amp Hartenbaum NP (2005) Medications driving andwork In JB Talmage amp M Melhorn (Eds) A Physicianrsquos Guide To Return ToWork (pp 133-144) Chicago American Medical Association



Baum-Baicker C (1985) The health benefits of moderate alcohol consumption Areview of the literature Drug and Alcohol Dependence 15 207-227

Bechara A amp Damasio AR (2005) The somatic marker hypothesis a neural theoryof economic decision Games and Economic Behavior 52 336-376

Berry DS amp Pennebaker JW (1993) Nonverbal and verbal emotional expressionand health Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 59 11-19

Billings AG amp Moos RH (1981) The role of coping responses and socialresources in attenuating the stress of life events Journal of Behavioral Medicine4 139-157

Blais MR amp Lachance L (1992) Validation de la version franccedilaise de la mesurede deacutesirabiliteacute sociale de Marlowe-Crowne [French validation of the Marlowe-Crowne social desirability measure] Unpublished manuscript University ofQuebec Montreal Quebec Canada

Borkovec T Alcaine O amp Behar E (2004) Avoidance theory of worry and gener-alized anxiety disorder In R Heimberg C Turk amp D Mennin (Eds) General-ized anxiety disorder in research and practice (pp 77-108) New York Guild-ford Press

Brosschot JF Gerin W amp Thayer JF (2006) The perseverative cognition hypoth-esis A review of worry prolonged stress-related physiological activation andhealth Journal of Psychosomatic Research 60 113-124

Bryant FB (1989) A four-factor model of perceived control Avoiding copingobtaining and savoring Journal of Personality 57 773-797

Bryant FB (2003) Savoring beliefs inventory (SBI) A scale for measuring beliefsabout savouring Journal of Mental Health 12 175-196

Bryant FB Smart CM amp King SP (2005) Using the past to enhance the presentBoosting happiness through positive reminiscence Journal of Happiness Stud-ies 6 227-260

Bushman BJ (2002) Does venting anger feed or extinguish the flame Catharsisrumination distraction anger and aggressive responding Personality andSocial Psychology Bulletin 28 724

Carver CS Scheier MF amp Weintraub JK (1989) Assessing coping strategies Atheoretically based approach Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56267-283

Cicchetti D Ackerman BP amp Izard CE (1995) Emotions and emotion regulationin developmental psychopathology Development and Psychopathology 7 1-10

Cohen J amp Cohen P (1983) Applied multiple regressioncorrelation analysis forthe behavioral sciences Hillsdale NJ Erlbaum

Cosmides L amp Tooby J (2000) Evolutionary psychology and the emotions In MLewis amp JM Haviland-Jones (Eds) Handbook of emotions (pp 91-115) NewYork Guilford Press

Costa PT amp McCrae RR (1992a) Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual OdessaFL Psychological Assessment Resources

Costa PT amp McCrae RR (1992b) The five-factor model of personality and its rel-evance to personality disorders Journal of Personality Disorders 6 343-359



Crowne DP amp Marlowe D (1960) A new scale of social desirability independentof psychopathology Journal of Consulting Psychology 24 349-354

drsquoAcremont M amp Van der Linden M (2007) How is impulsivity related to depres-sion in adolescence Evidence from a French validation of the cognitive emotionregulation questionnaire Journal of adolescence 30 271-282

Deltour JJ (1993) Eacutechelle de vocabulaire de Mill Hill de JC Raven Adaptationfranccedilaise et normes europeacuteennes du Mill Hill et du Standard Progressive Matri-ces de Raven (PM38) [Mill-Hill vocabulary scale of JC Raven French adapta-tion and European norms]Braine-le-Chacircteau Belgium Eacuteditions Lrsquoapplicationdes techniques modernes

Derogatis LR (1975) Brief Symptom Inventory Baltimore MD Clinical Psycho-metric Research

Derogatis LR (1977) The SCL-R-90 manual I Scoring administration and proce-dures for the SCL-90 Baltimore MD Clinical Psychometric Research

Derogatis LR amp Melisaratos N (1983) The Brief Symptom Inventory An intro-ductory report Psychological Medicine 13 595-605

Feldman G Joormann J amp Johnson S (2008) Responses to positive affect A self-report measure of rumination and dampening Cognitive Therapy and Research32 507-525

Finzi E amp Wasserman E (2006) Treatment of depression with Botulinum Toxin AA case series Dermatologic Surgery 32 645-650

Folkman S amp Lazarus RS (1980) An analysis of coping in a middle-aged commu-nity sample Journal of Health and Social Behavior 21 219-239

Fredrickson BL (2001) The role of positive emotions in positive psychology Thebroaden-and-build theory of positive emotions American Psychologist 56 218-226

Fredrickson BL amp Branigan C (2005) Positive emotions broaden the scope ofattention and thought-action repertoires Cognition amp Emotion 19 313-332

Freudenthaler HH amp Neubauer AC (2005) Emotional intelligence The conver-gent and discriminant validities of intra and interpersonal emotional abilitiesPersonality and Individual Differences 39 569-579

Freudenthaler HH amp Neubauer AC (2007) Measuring emotional managementabilities Further evidence of the importance to distinguish between typical andmaximum performance Personality and Individual Differences 42 1561-1572

Frijda NH (1986) The emotions Cambridge Cambridge University PressFurman W amp Buhrmester D (1992) Age and sex differences in perceptions of net-

works of personal relationships Child Development 63 103-115Gable SL Reis HT Impett EA amp Asher ER (2004) What do you do when

things go right The intrapersonal and interpersonal benefits of sharing positiveevents Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 228-245

Garnefski N Kraaij V amp Spinhoven P (2001) Negative life events cognitiveemotion regulation and emotional problems Personality and Individual Differ-ences 30 1311-1327

Gaudreau P (2000) Vers une version franccedilaise du PANAS analyses en composantesprincipales avant pendant et apregraves une compeacutetition sportive [Toward a Frenchversion of the PANAS Principal component analysis before during and after a



sportive competition] Paper presented to the International Conference of theFrench Society for Sport Psychology Paris France

Gaudreau P Sanchez X amp Blondin J-P (2006) Positive and negative affect in aperformance-related setting Testing the factorial validity of the PANAS acrosstwo samples of French-Canadian participants European Journal of Psychologi-cal Assessment 22 240-249

Gosselin P Dugas MJ Ladouceur R amp Freeston MH (2001) Eacutevaluation desinquieacutetudes validation drsquoune traduction franccedilaise du Penn State Worry Ques-tionnaire LrsquoEnceacutephale 27 475-484

Gross JJ (1998) The emerging field of emotion regulation An integrative reviewReview of General Psychology 2 271-299

Gross JJ (2001) Emotion regulation in adulthood Timing is everything CurrentDirections in Psychological Science 10 214-219

Gross JJ (2007) Handbook of emotion regulation New York The Guilford PressGross JJ amp John OP (2003) Individual differences in two emotion regulation

processes Implications for affect relationships and well-being Journal of Per-sonality and Social Psychology 85 348-362

Gross JJ amp Levenson RW (1997) Hiding feelings The acute effects of inhibitingnegative and positive emotion Journal of Abnormal Psychology 106 95-103

Gross JJ Richards JM amp John OP (2006) Emotion regulation in everyday lifeIn DK Snyder JA Simpson amp JN Hughes (Eds) Emotion regulation in cou-ples and families Pathways to dysfunction and health (pp 13-35) WashingtonDC American Psychological Association

Gross JJ amp Thompson RA (2007) Emotion regulation conceptual foundationsIn JJ Gross (Ed) Handbook of emotion regulation (pp 3-24) New York Guil-ford Press

Grossman P Niemann L Schmidt S amp Walach H (2004) Mindfulnessbasedstress reduction and health benefits Journal of Psychosomatic Research 57 35-43

Hall W amp Solowij N (1998) Adverse effects of cannabis The Lancet 352 1611-1616

Havighurst IK amp Glasser TK (1972) An exploratory study of reminiscence Jour-nal of Gerontology 27 245-253

Hayton JC Allen DG amp Scarpello V (2004) Factor retention decisions inexploratory factor analysis A tutorial on parallel analysis OrganizationalResearch Methods 7 191-205

Hooper CJ Luciana M Conklin HM amp Yarger RS (2004) Adolescentsrsquo per-formance on the Iowa Gambling Task Implications for the development of deci-sion making and ventromedial prefrontal cortex Developmental Psychology 401148-1158

Izard CE Libero DZ Putman P amp Haynes OM (1993) Stability of emotionexperiences and their relations to traits of personality Journal of Personality andSocial Psychology 64 847-860

Jermann F Van der Linden M drsquoAcremont M amp Zermatten A (2006) CognitiveEmotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ) Confirmatory factor analysis and



psychometric properties of the French translation European Journal of Psycho-logical Assessment 22 126-131

Kabat-Zinn J Massion AO Kristeller J Peterson LG Fletcher KE Pbert Let al (1992) Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in thetreatment of anxiety disorders American Journal of Psychiatry 149 936-943

Keltner D amp Kring A (1998) Emotion social function and psychopathologyReview of General Psychology 2 320-342

Labott SM Ahleman S Wolever ME amp Martin RB (1990) The physiologicaland psychological effects of the expression and inhibition of emotion Behavio-ral Medicine 16 182-189

Langston CA (1994) Capitalizing on and coping with daily-life events Expressiveresponses to positive events Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 671112-1125

Larson R amp Lampman-Petraitis C (1989) Daily emotional states as reported bychildren and adolescents Child Development 60 1250-1260

Leach LS Christensen H Mackinnon AJ Windsor TD amp Butterworth P(2008) Gender differences in depression and anxiety across the adult lifespanThe role of psychosocial mediators Social Psychiatry amp Psychiatric Epidemiol-ogy 43 983-998

Lee C Ashford SJ amp Jamieson LF (1993) The effects of type a behavior dimen-sions and optimism on coping strategy health and performance Journal ofOrganizational Behavior 14 143-157

Leroy V amp Greacutegoire J (2007) Influence of individual differences on emotional reg-ulation in learning situation and consequences on academic performancePaper presented at the European Association for Research on Learning andInstruction Budapest Hungary

Loewenstein G (2007) Affective regulation and affective forecasting In JJ Gross(Ed) Handbook of emotion regulation (pp 180-203) New York GuilfordPress

Lombardo MM amp Eichinger RW (2000) High potentials as high learners HumanResource Management 39 321-330

Lopes PN Salovey P Cocircteacute S amp Beers M (2005) Emotion regulation abilitiesand the quality of social interaction Emotion 5 113-118

Luminet O amp Curci A (2009) Flashbulb memories New issues and new perspec-tives New York Psychology Press

Lyubomirsky S King L amp Diener E (2005) The benefits of frequent positiveaffect Does happiness lead to success Psychological Bulletin 131 803-855

Lyubomirsky S amp Lepper HS (1999) A measure of subjective happiness Prelim-inary reliability and construct validation Social indicators research 46 137-155

Lyubomirsky S Sousa L amp Dickerhoof R (2006) The costs and benefits of writ-ing talking and thinking about lifersquos triumphs and defeats Journal of Person-ality and Social Psychology 90 692-708

Mackinaw-Koons B amp Vasey MW (2000) Considering sex differences in anxietyand its disorders across the life span A construct-validation approach Appliedand Preventive Psychology 9 191-209



MacLeod AK amp Conway C (2005) Well-being and the anticipation of future pos-itive experiences The role of income social networks and planning abilityCognition amp emotion 19 357-373

MacLeod AK amp Salaminiou E (2001) Reduced positive future-thinking in depres-sion Cognitive and affective factors Cognition amp emotion 15 99-107

Mayer JD Salovey P amp Caruso DR (2002) Mayer-Salovey-Caruso EmotionalIntelligence Test (MSCEIT) Version 20 Toronto Canada MHS Publishers

Meehan M Durlak J amp Bryant FB (1993) The relationship of social support topositive life events and subjective mental health in adolescents Journal of Com-munity Psychology 21 49-55

Meyer TJ Miller ML Metzger RL amp Borkovec TD (1990) Development andvalidation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire Behavior Research and Ther-apy 28 487-495

Mikolajczak M (2009) La reacutegulation des eacutemotions neacutegatives In M Mikolajczak JQuoidbach I Kotsou amp D Nelis (Eds) Les compeacutetences eacutemotionnelles (pp153-191) Paris Dunod

Mikolajczak M Luminet O Leroy C amp Roy E (2007) Psychometric propertiesof the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire Factor structure reliabilityconstruct and incremental validity in a French-speaking population Journal ofPersonality Assessment 88 338-353

Mikolajczak M Luminet O amp Menil C (2006) Predicting resistance to stressIncremental validity of emotional intelligence over and above alexithymia andoptimism Psicothema 18 79-88

Mikolajczak M Nelis D Hansenne M amp Quoidbach J (2008) If you can regulatesadness you can probably regulate shame Associations between trait emotionalintelligence emotion regulation and coping efficiency across discrete emotionsPersonality and Individual Differences 44 1356-1368

Mikulincer M Glaubman H Ben-Artzi E amp Grossman S (1991) The cognitivespecificity of learned helplessness and depression deficits The role of self-focused cognitions Anxiety Research 3 273-290

Miller TQ Smith TW Turner CW Guijaro ML amp Hallet AJ (1996) Ameta-analytic review of research on hostility and physical health PsychologicalBulletin 119 322-348

Morrow J amp Nolen-Hoeksema S (1990) Effects of responses to depression on theremediation of depressive affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology58 519-527

Nolen-Hoeksema S amp Morrow J (1993) Effects of rumination and distraction onnaturally occurring depressed mood Cognition and Emotion 7 561-570

Oumlhman A Flykt A amp Esteves F (2001) Emotion drives attention Detecting thesnake in the grass Journal of Experimental Psychology General 130 466-478

Penley JA Tomaka J amp Wiebe JS (2002) The association of coping to physicaland psychological health outcomes A meta-analytic review Journal of Behav-ioral Medicine 25 551-603

Pennebaker JW (1982) The psychology of physical symptoms New York Springer-Verlag



Petrides KV amp Furnham A (2003) Trait emotional intelligence Behavioural val-idation in two studies of emotion recognition and reactivity to mood inductionEuropean Journal of Personality 17 39-57

Phelps E (2006) Emotion and cognition Insights from studies of the human amy-gdala Annual Review of Psychology 57 27-53

Quoidbach J amp Hansenne M (2009) The impact of trait emotional intelligence onnursing team performance and cohesiveness Journal of Professional Nursing25 23-29

Quoidbach J Hansenne M amp Mottet C (2008) Personality and mental time travelA differential approach to autonoetic consciousness Consciousness and Cogni-tion 17 1082-1092

Quoidbach J Nelis D Mikolajczak M amp Hansenne M (2007) Development andvalidation of a typical performance Emotional Regulation Profile (ERP-Q)Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Belgian Association for Psycholog-ical Science Louvain-la-Neuve Belgium

Quoidbach J Wood A amp Hansenne M (2009) Back to the future The effect ofdaily practice of mental time travel into the future on happiness and anxietyJournal of Positive Psychology 4 349-355

Raven JC (1943) The Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale London H K LewisRaven JC (1976) Advanced Progressive Matrices Set II Oxford England Oxford

Psychologist PressRimeacute B (2007) Interpersonal emotion regulation In JJ Gross (Ed) Handbook of

emotion regulation (pp 466-485) New York Guilford PressRobinson MS amp Alloy LB (2003) Negative cognitive styles and stress-reactive

rumination interact to predict depression A prospective study Cognitive Ther-apy and Research 27 275-291

Rolland J-P amp Mogenet J-L (2001) Manuel du systegraveme D5D [Manual of the D5Dsystem] (2nd ed) Paris ECPA

Schwartz B Ward A Monterosso J Lyubomirsky S White K amp Lehman DR(2002) Maximizing versus satisficing Happiness is a matter of choice Journalof Personality and Social Psychology 83 1178-1197

Shapiro SL Astin JA Bishop SR amp Cordova M (2005) Mindfulness-basedstress reduction for health care professionals Results from a randomized trialInternational Journal of Stress Management 12 164-176

Shapiro SL Schwartz GE amp Bonner G (1998) Effects of mindfulness-basedstress reduction on medical and premedical students Journal of BehavioralMedicine 21 581-599

Single E Rehm J Robson L amp Van Truong M (2000) The relative risks and eti-ologic fractions of different causes of death and disease attributable to alcoholtobacco and illicit drug use in Canada Canadian Medical Association Journal162 1669-1675

Spearman C (1927) The abilities of man Their nature and measurement New YorkMacmillan

Stanton AL Danoff-Burg S Cameron CL Bishop M Collins CA Kirk SBSworowski LA amp Twillman R (2000) Emotionally expressive coping pre-



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Strack F Martin LL amp Stepper S (1988) Inhibiting and facilitating conditions ofthe human smile A nonobtrusive test of the facial feedback hypothesis Journalof Personality and Social Psychology 54 768-777

Struthers CW Perry RP amp Menec VH (2000) An examination of the relation-ship among academic stress coping motivation and performance in collegeResearch in Higher Education 41 581-592

Suddendorf T amp Corballis MC (2007) The evolution of foresight What is mentaltime travel and is it unique to humans Behavioral and Brain Sciences 30 299-313

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Suls J Wan CK amp Costa P (1995) Relationship between trait anger and restingblood pressure A meta-analysis Health Psychology 14 444-456

Surawy C Roberts J amp Silver A (2005) The effect of mindfulness training onmood and measures of fatigue activity an quality of life in patients with chronicfatigue syndrome on a hospital waiting list A series of exploratory studiesBehavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy 33 103-109

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Thompson RA (1991) Emotional regulation and emotional development Educa-tional Psychology Review 3 269-307

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Appendix

French version of the ERP-R

1 Cela fait plus de 30 minutes que vous cherchez une place de parkingen ville Lorsque vous repeacuterez enfin un emplacement libre un auto-mobiliste vous double et vous vole la place sous votre nez Cela vousmet clairement en colegravere

Parmi les propositions suivantes veuillez entourer la ou les reacuteaction(s)qui reflegravete(nt) le plus votre maniegravere de reacuteagir dans ce genre de situation

a Vous ne dites pas un mot mais vous fulminez inteacuterieurement (rumi-nation)

b Vous vous dites que finalement ce nrsquoest pas si grave Vous essayezde trouver du positif dans la situation Exemple vous trouverez peut-ecirctre une place de parking plus pregraves du lieu ougrave vous devez vous rendre(positive reappraisal)

c Vous exprimez votre meacutecontentement par de nombreux coups deklaxon (acting out)

d Dans ce genre de situation rien de tel qursquoun petit verre un petit jointou toutes autres substances relaxantes pour vous calmer (substanceabuse)

e Vous essayez drsquooublier cet incident en allumant votre autoradio ouen pensant agrave des choses positives pour vous changer les ideacutees (atten-tion reorientation)

f Vous avez toujours eu des difficulteacutes agrave vous affirmer et vous nevoyez pas ce que vous pourriez faire Vous vous sentez deacutecourageacute(e)(learned helplessness)

g Vous ouvrez votre fenecirctre et vous faites poliment remarquer agrave lrsquoauto-mobiliste que son comportement nrsquoest pas tregraves correct Srsquoil ne vousrend pas la place vous partez sans faire drsquohistoire Le jeu nrsquoen vautpas la chandelle (emotion expression)

h Vous deacutecidez drsquoarrecircter de vous eacutenerver pour une place de parking etvous rentrez dans le premier parking payant (situation modification)

2 Vous venez de terminer une tacircche importante mais particuliegraverementennuyeuse que vous nrsquoarrecirctiez pas de reporter (repeindre grand net-toyage de printemps bonne actionhellip) Vous vous sentez satisfait(e)de votre travail et soulageacute(e) En un mot vous ecirctes content(e)




a Vous nrsquoarrivez pas agrave vous deacutetendre complegravetement Assez rapide-ment des preacuteoccupations etou des choses encore agrave faire vous occu-pent lrsquoesprit (inattention)

b Vous racontez ou montrez agrave vos proches ce que vous avez accompliaujourdrsquohui (capitalising)

c Vous poussez un soupir de soulagement et vous vous octroyez unmoment de deacutetente (behavioural display)

d Vous ecirctes content mais vous ne pouvez pas vous empecircchez de releverles quelques deacutetails neacutegatifs de votre travail (ex temps passeacute agrave latacircche petites imperfections finitionshellip) (fault finding)

e Vous savourez lrsquoinstant preacutesent Vous contemplez votre travail etvous avez des penseacutees comme ldquoVoilagrave une bonne chose de faiterdquo(savouring the present moment)

f Vous pensez que crsquoest un miracle drsquoecirctre arriveacute(e) au bout de ce tra-vail Crsquoest rare quand vous arrivez agrave finir une tacircche qui vous ennuieet vous pensez que ccedila ne se reproduira pas de sitocirct (negative mentaltime travel)

g Vous repensez aux heures de travail passeacutees sur cette tacircche Gracircce agravevotre patience et agrave votre perseacuteveacuterance vous avez atteint votre objec-tif Comme quoi les efforts sont toujours reacutecompenseacutes (positivemental time travel)

h Vous ne vous laissez pas le temps de souffler et vous entreprenezdirectement une autre tacircche (inhibition of emotion expression)

3 Un(e) ami(e) proche vous a demandeacute de lui rendre un service extrecirc-mement important Il srsquoagissait de deacuteposer diffeacuterents documentschez son futur employeur pendant son seacutejour agrave lrsquoeacutetranger A sonretour ilelle vous teacuteleacutephone en rage Lrsquoemployeur nrsquoa jamais reccedilules documents et votre ami(e) nrsquoa donc pas eacuteteacute embaucheacute(e) Lrsquoenga-gement que vous aviez pris vous eacutetait complegravetement sorti de la tecircteVotre ami(e) vous en veut terriblement et vous vous sentez extrecircme-ment coupable


a Vous eacuteprouvez le besoin de parler agrave vos proches de ce qui srsquoest passeacuteet de la culpabiliteacute que vous ressentez (emotion expression)

b Vous vous confondez en excuses et vous vous deacutemenez pour lui trou-ver un autre emploi Dans les semaines qui suivent vous faiteslrsquoimpossible pour reacuteparer votre faute impardonnable multiples invi-tations au restaurant cadeaux divers attentionshellip (acting out)



c Vous comprenez qursquoilelle soit facirccheacute(e) Vous vous dites que lrsquoerreurest humaine et qursquoilelle aurait peut-ecirctre aussi oublieacute Toutefois agravelrsquoavenir vous serez plus prudent (positive reappraisal)

d Afin de ne pas vous laisser ronger par la culpabiliteacute vous vous enga-gez dans une activiteacute qui vous procure du plaisir (attention reorienta-tion)

e Vous nrsquoarrecirctez pas drsquoy penser et vous vous en voulez terriblement(rumination)

f Vous lui demandez comment il est possible de vous racheter et vouslui proposez de lrsquoaider agrave rechercher un nouvel emploi (situationmodification)

g Vous vous dites que vous ne valez pas grand-chose comme ami(e)car vous nrsquoecirctes mecircme pas capable de rendre un service Vous nevoyez pas comment vous pourriez vous rattraper et cela vous deacutepri-me (learned helplessness)

h Pour soulager votre culpabiliteacute vous vous laissez aller agrave consommerdes produits relaxants (ex alcool marijuana meacutedicamentshellip)(substance abuse)

4 Vous venez de rompre avec votre petit(e) ami(e) alors qursquoil eacutetaitquestion drsquoemmeacutenager une semaine avant votre rupture Ilelle adeacutecideacute de mettre fin agrave votre relation Ceci vous rend tregraves triste


a Vous subissez la rupture abattu(e) De toute faccedilon vous vous ditesque vous nrsquoavez pas de chance en amour vous ne voyez pas ce quevous pourriez y changer (learned helplessness)

b Vous prenez du temps pour prendre soin de vous ou pour faire deschoses qui vous sont agreacuteables (attention reorientation)

c Vous essayez de vous sentir mieux en abusant de diverses substances(ex nourriture alcool marijuana meacutedicaments) (substance abuse)

d Vous vous confiez agrave un proche vous avez besoin de parler agravequelqursquoun de ce que vous eacuteprouvez (emotion expression)

e Vous essayez de vous reprendre en main (ex inscription agrave un club desport site de rencontres sortieshellip) Vous eacutetablissez vos prioriteacutesafin que le prochain soit le bon (situation modification)

f Vous regardez de vieilles photos en eacutecoutant des chansons tristes(rumination)

g Vous essayez de voir le cocircteacute positif des choses Cette rupture quoi-que difficile est lrsquooccasion de prendre un nouveau deacutepart de fairedes choses que vous nrsquoaviez plus le temps de faire et eacuteventuellement



de rencontrer quelqursquoun qui vous correspondra mieux (positive reap-praisal)

h Malgreacute la deacutecision sans appel de votre ex petit(e) ami(e) vousessayez de lela reconqueacuterir par tous les moyens (acting out)

5 Vous avez participeacute au dernier tirage de la loterie nationale car il yavait une grosse cagnotte en jeu Vous ecirctes chez des amis et vous leurdemandez de regarder les reacutesultats du tirage agrave la TV mecircme si vousnrsquoy croyez pas trop Lrsquoexcitation commence agrave vous envahir car vousremarquez avec stupeacutefaction que 4 des numeacuteros que vous avez joueacutessont sortis Vous avez gagneacute environ 1 000euro


a Vous sautez de joie vous exprimez votre excitation en reacutepeacutetant toutela soireacutee que vous ecirctes un(e) petit(e) veinard(e) (behavioural dis-play)

b Dans les jours qui suivent vous pensez agrave ce que vous allez pouvoirfaire avec cet argent Vous vous imaginez passer 10 jours au soleilpendant les prochaines vacances deacutecouvrir un restaurant eacutetoileacute vousoffrir une thalasso (positive mental time travel)

c Vous nrsquoarrivez pas agrave profiter pleinement du moment parce quedrsquoautres choses vous occupent lrsquoesprit (ex problegraveme avec un procheambiance au travailhellip) (inattention)

d Vous partagez cette joie avec vos amis vous leur montrez le bulletinet vous teacuteleacutephonez agrave vos proches pour leurs annoncer la nouvelle(capitalising)

e Vous essayez de ne pas exprimer votre eacutemotion et gardez cela pourvous car ldquoccedila ne fait pas bien de srsquoemballer chez des gensrdquo De plusvous nrsquoavez pas envie que vos amis vous jalousent (inhibition ofemotion expression)

f Vous vous sentez heureux(se) et profitez du moment preacutesent autourdrsquoun bon verre de champagne (par exemple) Ce nrsquoest pas tous lesjours que lrsquoon a lrsquooccasion drsquoencaisser presque 1 mois de salaire sansrien faire (savouring the present moment)

g Vous vous dites que 1000 euro ce nrsquoest pas trop mal Neacuteanmoins vousne pouvez vous empecirccher de penser que vous ecirctes passeacute(e) agrave 2 doigtsde gagner le gros lot Il se peut aussi que vous vous disiez que cetargent ne reacutesoudra pas vos tracas etou que vous vous sentiez obligeacutedrsquooffrir agrave vos amis une belle sortie ce qui vous empecirccherait de pro-fiter de la totaliteacute du gain (fault finding)



h Vous pensez que crsquoest trop beau pour ecirctre vraihellip La roue tourne et lachance ccedila ne dure jamais Vous anticipez deacutejagrave les eacuteventuels ennuisagrave venir (negative mental time travel)

6 Vous ecirctes venu(e) avec votre petit(e) ami(e) agrave une soireacutee ougrave sont reacuteu-nies de nombreuses personnes Durant la soireacutee alors que vous vouseacutetiez un peu eacuteloigneacute(e) de votre partenaire vous lrsquoapercevez en trainde converser avec quelqursquoun Chacun des deux semble tregraves inteacuteresseacutepar ce que dit lrsquoautre Ils se regardent intenseacutement et rient ensembleagrave plusieurs reprises Vous voyez votre partenaire animeacute(e) et plein(e)drsquoentrain alors qursquoilelle eacutetait venu(e) agrave cette soireacutee en traicircnant lespieds Agrave la vue de ce spectacle vous commencez seacuterieusement agrave sentirla jalousie monter en vous


a Vous les surveillez du coin de lrsquoœil Vous ruminez mais nrsquoen laissezrien paraicirctre (rumination)

b Plutocirct que de vous eacutenerver vous deacutecidez de vous changer les ideacuteeset de passer une bonne soireacutee (ex vous discutez avec des gens vousdansezhellip) (attention reorientation)

c Vous exprimez votre jalousie agrave votre partenaire sans vous eacutenerverVous lui dites que vous nrsquoappreacuteciez pas qursquoilelle srsquoamuse autantavec une personne du sexe opposeacute (emotion expression)

d Vous vous sentez envahi(e) par une bouffeacutee de colegravere et degraves quevous en avez lrsquooccasion vous vous facircchez avec votre partenaire(acting out)

e Pour oublier ce que vous venez de voir et pour vous calmer vousallez au bar et vous passez votre soireacutee agrave boire (substance abuse)

f Vous envisagez les diffeacuterentes solutions afin de faire face agrave cette dif-ficulteacute Vous planifiez la strateacutegie que vous allez adopter afin quecette situation ne se reproduise plus dans le futur (situation modifica-tion)

g Vous vous sentez triste et abandonneacute(e) Vous pensez qursquoun jourilelle finira par trouver une personne plus inteacuteressante ou plus deacutesi-rable que vous Que peut-on y fairehellip (learned helplessness)

h Malgreacute la jalousie vous vous dites qursquoil est important que votre par-tenaire srsquoamuse drsquoautant plus qursquoilelle ne fait rien de mal En lelalaissant tranquille ilelle sera de bonne humeur en rentrant agrave la mai-son (positive reappraisal)



7 Vous passez un week-end en amoureux Le cadre est idyllique Votrepartenaire est radieux (se) et vous vous sentez particuliegraverement heu-reux (se)


a Malgreacute un week-end tregraves agreacuteable vous ne pouvez pas vous empecirc-cher de ldquotiquerrdquo sur les quelques deacutetails neacutegatifs qui empecircchent votreseacutejour drsquoecirctre parfait (fault finding)

b Vous essayez de savourer pleinement ce moment en mettant tout lereste de cocircteacute (savouring the moment present)

c Le week-end est parfait Crsquoest trop beau pour ecirctre vrai Vous craignezun retour de flammes (negative mental time travel)

d Vous riez blaguez eacutetreignez votre partenairehellip Bref vous vouslaissez aller et vous exteacuteriorisez pleinement votre joie (behaviouraldisplay)

e Une fois seul(e) vous repensez aux bons moments passeacutes ensembleetou aux raisons qui font que votre relation est si preacutecieuse (positivemental time travel)

f Vous passez un bon moment mais pour diffeacuterents motifs (ex peur duridicule ce nrsquoest pas votre style culpabiliteacutehellip) vous essayez de nepas vous ldquoemballerrdquo voire de contenir votre joie (inhibition of emo-tion expression)

g Dans les jours qui suivent vous partagez ce bon moment avec vosproches (ou journal intime) (capitalising)

h Le week-end est parfait Cependant vous nrsquoarrivez pas agrave laisser tota-lement de cocircteacute vos preacuteoccupations du moment (ex travailfamillehellip) (inattention)

8 Vous devez preacutesenter un exposeacute oral devant de nombreuses person-nes Vous avez deacutejagrave reacutealiseacute cet exercice preacuteceacutedemment et cela ne srsquoestpas tregraves bien passeacute Vous avez reccedilu beaucoup de critiques sur votrepreacutesentation Lrsquoideacutee de refaire un exposeacute en public dans quelquesjours vous terrorise


a Vous essayez de vous distraire en faisant une activiteacute qui vous estagreacuteable Vous avez preacutepareacute votre exposeacute et vous verrez bien le jourvenu comment cela se passera (attention reorientation)



b Vous nrsquoarrecirctez pas drsquoy penser vous vous focalisez sur ce qui pourraitmal se passer et vous stressez jusqursquoau jour de la preacutesentation (rumi-nation)

c Vous faites part de vos craintes agrave votre entourage et recherchez leursoutien etou leurs conseils (emotion expression)

d Vous eacutetablissez un plan drsquoaction afin de mettre toutes les chances dereacuteussite de votre cocircteacute Vous deacutefinissez le problegraveme et vous envisagezles diffeacuterentes solutions qui permettraient de vous sentir plus sucircr(e)de vous (reacutepeacutetition relaxation renseignements sur les moyensdrsquoameacuteliorer votre preacutesentation) (situation modification)

e Vous vous dites que vous nrsquoy arriverez jamais et vous vous senteznul(le) (learned helplessness)

f Les jours preacuteceacutedant lrsquoexposeacute vous consommez des produitsrelaxants (ex alcool marijuana meacutedicamentshellip) pour diminuervotre anxieacuteteacute (substance abuse)

g Vous essayez de voir le cocircteacute positif de la situation crsquoest un bon exer-cice pour vous et mecircme si les choses se passaient mal ce ne seraitpas la fin du monde (positive reappraisal)

h Depuis lrsquoannonce de la date de lrsquoexposeacute vous ecirctes envahi(e) par lestress Ce dernier vous paralyse et vous empecircche de travailler survotre preacutesentation Si crsquoest possible vous trouvez une ldquoexcellenteraisonrdquo qui vous empecircche de preacutesenter cet exposeacute (acting out)

9 Lors de votre dernier jour de vacances dans un pays eacutetranger vousfaites une balade avec des amis Apregraves quelques heures de marchevous deacutecouvrez une cascade tout agrave fait par hasard Lrsquoendroit estmagnifique et sauvage Lrsquoeau la verdure en abondance le coucherde soleil les sonshellip Vous ecirctes totalement eacutemerveilleacute(e) par la beauteacutedu paysage


a Le paysage est idyllique dommage que vous ayez mal aux piedsqursquoil fasse un peu frisquet ou encore qursquoil y ait des moustiqueshellipLes petits deacutesagreacutements de ce genre vous empecircchent drsquoappreacutecierpleinement la situation (fault finding)

b Vous exprimez votre eacutemerveillement agrave votre maniegravere (ex vous vousextasiez vous criez vous versez une larme vous sautez dans la cas-cadehellip) (behavioural display)

c Le spectacle est magnifique mais vous contenez vos eacutemotions vouspreacutefeacuterez faire preuve de reacuteserve en public (inhibition of emotionexpression)



d Dans les jours qui suivent vous prenez plaisir agrave vous remeacutemorer labeauteacute des lieux etou agrave voir et revoir les photos (positive mental timetravel)

e Vous partagez cette eacutemotion avec les personnes qui vous accompa-gnent Dans les jours qui suivent vous recommandez cet endroit agravevotre entourage (capitalising)

f Le spectacle est gacirccheacute par la penseacutee que crsquoest votre dernier jour devacances et qursquoun tel moment ne se reproduira pas de sitocirct (negativemental time travel)

g Vous laissez tous vos sens srsquoimpreacutegner de lrsquoendroit afin de savourerpleinement cet instant (savouring the present moment)

h Lrsquoendroit est superbe mais vous nrsquooubliez pas de reacutefleacutechir agrave lrsquoitineacute-raire du retour au repas du soir etou au travail qui recommencedemain (inattention)

10 Vous devez preacutesenter un projet important pour lequel vous avezbeaucoup travailleacute Le jour J est arriveacute Le matin on vous annonceque votre preacutesentation est reporteacutee et que crsquoest votre rival(e) quipreacutesente son projet Cette nouvelle vous met particuliegraverement encolegravere


a Vous vous rendez immeacutediatement dans le bureau de votre collegraveguepour exprimer votre colegravere et en ressortez tregraves eacutenerveacute(e) (acting out)

b Vous vous lancez deacutelibeacutereacutement dans une activiteacute sans rapport avec lasituation le temps de laisser retomber votre colegravere Ainsi vous nereacuteagissez pas agrave chaud (attention reorientation)

c Vous envisagez la situation comme un problegraveme agrave reacutesoudre Vouseacutetablissez un plan drsquoaction afin de faire reconnaicirctre votre travail etoudrsquoempecirccher que cela ne se reproduise (situation modification)

d Vous ne dites rien vous avez parfois du mal agrave vous affirmer dans cegenre de situations Cela provoque en vous une profonde lassitude(learned helplessness)

e Vous ruminez comment votre collegravegue est-ilelle capable drsquoecirctreaussi arriviste et malveillant agrave votre eacutegard Sans passer agrave lrsquoactionvous imaginez mille et une faccedilons de lui rendre la monnaie de sa piegrave-ce (rumination)

f Vous deacutedramatisez la situation etou essayez drsquoen retirer les ensei-gnements La prochaine fois ce sera vous (positive reappraisal)



g Lorsque vous rentrez chez vous vous consommez diverses substan-ces (alcool marijuana meacutedicamentshellip) afin de vous deacutestresser(substance abuse)

h Vous demandez des explications agrave votre collegravegue Vous lui faitespart poliment mais fermement de votre meacutecontentement puis vouslui laissez le temps de vous donner son point de vue (emotion expres-sion)

11 Suite agrave une restructuration dans votre entreprise vous ecirctes muteacute(e)dans un nouveau deacutepartement agrave 10 km de votre ancien lieu de tra-vail Cela vous rend triste car vous aviez au fil du temps noueacute desrelations intimes avec vos collegravegues dont certains eacutetaient mecircmedevenu des ami(e)s


a Votre tristesse se transforme en ressentiment agrave lrsquoeacutegard de votre entre-prise voire de vos anciens collegravegues plus chanceux Votre mauvaisehumeur transparaicirct clairement (acting out)

b Il vous faut du temps pour oublier votre ancienne situation Vous ypensez souvent (rumination)

c Vous vous efforcez de regarder directement le cocircteacute positif des choses(ex nouvelles rencontres nouvelles perspectives de carriegraverehellip)(positive reappraisal)

d Vous essayez de trouver du reacuteconfort en buvant en fumant en pre-nant des meacutedicaments voire des drogues (substance abuse)

e Vous faites part de votre tristesse agrave votre entourage et recherchez dureacuteconfort aupregraves de vos amis (emotion expression)

f Vous essayez de trouver une solution au problegraveme Srsquoil est impossi-ble de reacutecupeacuterer votre ancien emploi vous posez des actes concrets(ex conversations invitations agrave souperhellip) pour ameacuteliorer votrenouvelle situation professionnelle (situation modification)

g Vous essayez immeacutediatement de reprendre des activiteacutes agreacuteablescelles qui vous procurent des petits moments de bonheur (attentionreorientation)

h Sur tous les travailleurs de votre eacutequipe il a encore fallu que celatombe sur vous Vous vous sentez deacutecourageacute(e) et ne trouvez paslrsquoeacutenergie pour reacuteagir (learned helplessness)

12 Apregraves des mois de travail acharneacute vous venez enfin de deacutecrocher lediplocircme ou la promotion de vos recircves Ce nrsquoeacutetait pas facile et vousavez beaucoup de meacuterite drsquoecirctre arriveacute(e) jusque lagrave Vous ecirctes tregraves



fierfiegravere Des proches se sont reacuteunis pour organiser une petite fecircte envotre honneur


a Pendant la fecircte vous ne pouvez pas vous empecirccher de penser agravedrsquoautres choses (ex appreacutehension lieacutee agrave votre nouveau statut soucispersonnels) (inattention)

b Dans les jours qui suivent vous repensez reacuteguliegraverement agrave votre reacuteus-site efforts et qualiteacutes dont il vous a fallu faire preuve fierteacute de cer-tains proches perspectives drsquoavenirhellip (positive mental time travel)

c Alors que tout le monde vous feacutelicite vous pensez que vous nrsquoavezpeut-ecirctre pas tant de meacuterite que cela Crsquoeacutetait sucircrement un coup dechance et cela ne risque pas de se reproduire (negative mental timetravel)

d Vous ecirctes fierfiegravere de vous et vous vous laissez aller agrave le montrer(ex crispleurs de joie gestes de victoirehellip) (behavioural display)

e Malgreacute le plaisir de la reacuteussite une partie de vous ne peut passrsquoempecirccher de penser que vous auriez pu faire mieux (fault finding)

f Crsquoest votre moment de gloire et vous en profitez pleinement Vousavez travailleacute dur et vous meacuteritez bien tous ces eacuteloges (savouring thepresent moment)

g Vous ecirctes fierfiegravere de vous mais pour diffeacuterentes raisons (ex peurdu ridicule modestie reacuteservehellip) vous vous empecircchez drsquoexprimervotre fierteacute et de fecircter pleinement votre succegraves (inhibition of emotionexpression)

h Dans les jours qui suivent vous annoncez la bonne nouvelle et par-tagez votre succegraves avec votre entourage (capitalising)

13 Aujourdrsquohui vous participez agrave une matineacutee de preacutesentation de reacutesul-tats dans votre entreprise Vous ecirctes plusieurs collegravegues agrave deacutefiler lesuns apregraves les autres debout sur une estrade agrave cocircteacute de lrsquoeacutecran de pro-jection Vous deacutetestez ce genre de situation Vous trouvez que tousvos collegravegues sont meilleurs plus inteacuteressants plus agrave lrsquoaise Apregravesvotre preacutesentation vous retournez vous asseoir dans le public justederriegravere deux collegravegues qui nrsquoont pas ducirc srsquoapercevoir de votre preacute-sence Lrsquoun drsquoeux murmure agrave lrsquoautre ldquoHeureusement qursquoEacuteric faitccedila bien ccedila rattrape la preacutesentation preacuteceacutedente (crsquoest-agrave-dire lavocirctre)rdquo Lrsquoautre a opineacute en souriant Vous vous sentez rougir dehonte




a Pour ne plus avoir agrave vivre un tel moment vous eacutetablissez un plandrsquoaction agrave suivre pour la prochaine preacutesentation Vous planifiez leseacutetapes pour arriver agrave un bon exposeacute (contenu de la preacutesentation atti-tude posturehellip) (situation modification)

b Vous partez sans rien dire Vous vous sentez ldquonul(le)rdquo Malheureu-sement vous ne pouvez rien changer agrave la situation les preacutesentationsce nrsquoest pas votre truc (learned helplessness)

c Vous restez lagrave derriegravere eux sans dire un mot Vous ruminez sur ceque vous venez drsquoentendre Drsquoun cocircteacute vous pensez qursquoils ont raisonDe lrsquoautre vous leur en voulez terriblement La scegravene repasse enboucle dans votre tecircte vous vous demandez comment remettre cescollegravegues agrave leur place comment retrouver votre honneurhellip (rumina-tion)

d Vous vous confiez agrave un proche et vous lui expliquez agrave quel point vousavez honte de vous ecirctre ridiculiseacute(e) devant tous vos collegravegues (emo-tion expression)

e Dans les jours qui suivent vous essayez drsquoeacuteviter de croiser vos col-legravegues (acting out)

f Afin de vous deacutebarrasser de ce sentiment de honte vous vous laissezaller agrave consommer des produits relaxants (alcool marijuana meacutedica-mentshellip) (substance abuse)

g Apregraves ce moment assez deacutesagreacuteable vous avez envie de vous chan-ger les ideacutees et vous vous engagez dans une activiteacute agreacuteable (atten-tion reorientation)

h Crsquoest vrai que cette preacutesentation nrsquoa pas eacuteteacute une totale reacuteussite Neacutean-moins vous essayez de voir le cocircteacute positif des choses Crsquoeacutetait pourvous un nouvel exercice vous avez appris quelque chose et vousvous ameacuteliorerez pour la prochaine fois (positive reappraisal)

14 Un(e) ami(e) vient de gagner un somptueux voyage pour deux per-sonnes sur une icircle paradisiaque Ilelle vous annonce qursquoilelle aime-rait que vous lrsquoaccompagniez Vous aviez justement besoin de vacan-ces et vous lui en ecirctes donc extrecircmement reconnaissant(e)


a Mecircme si cette annonce vous fait plaisir vos preacuteoccupations dumoment (ex soucis personnels ou professionnels stresshellip) vousempecircchent de profiter de lrsquoinstant preacutesent (inattention)



b Vous vous laissez aller agrave lui montrer votre reconnaissance et votreaffection (ex remerciements embrassades invitation au restau-ranthellip) (behavioural display)

c Avant mecircme le deacutepart vous appreacutehendez deacutejagrave le dur retour agrave la reacutea-liteacute Ces huit jours seront si vite passeacutes et ce type de vacances ne sereproduira certainement pas de sitocirct (negative mental time travel)

d Vous savourez pleinement ce cadeau (savouring the presentmoment)

e Vous ecirctes tregraves reconnaissant(e) envers votre ami(e) Cependant dansles jours qui suivent vous ne pouvez eacuteviter de penser agrave certains eacuteleacute-ments neacutegatifs qui vous empecircchent drsquoecirctre pleinement satisfait(e) (exce nrsquoest pas la destination que vous auriez choisie les dates duvoyage neacutecessitent de modifier fortement votre agenda vous devrezlui rendre la pareillehellip) (fault finding)

f Vous pensez agrave la chance que vous avez drsquoavoir un teltelle ami(e) etvous reacutealisez que ce geste contribue agrave renforcer votre amitieacute etouvous pensez deacutejagrave agrave toutes les choses agreacuteables que vous allez pouvoirfaire durant ce voyage (positive mental time travel)

g Vous parlez autour de vous du voyage et vous faites lrsquoeacuteloge de lageacuteneacuterositeacute de votre ami(e) (capitalising)

h Vous avez envie de lui exprimer pleinement votre reconnaissancemais diffeacuterentes raisons (ex gecircne peur du ridicule timiditeacutehellip) vousempecircchent drsquoecirctre deacutemonstratif(ve) (inhibition of emotion expres-sion)

15 Suite agrave des reacutesultats drsquoexamens meacutedicaux votre meacutedecin vousapprend que vous devez subir une intervention chirurgicale Votresanteacute nrsquoest pas directement en danger mais si vous ne faites rien lasituation pourrait se deacutegrader drsquoici quelque temps Mecircme si votremeacutedecin est confiant quant au deacuteroulement de lrsquoopeacuteration celle-ciest assez lourde et cela vous fait tregraves peur


a Vous ressentez le besoin de parler de cette opeacuteration avec des pro-ches ou avec des personnes qui ont deacutejagrave veacutecu ce genre drsquointervention(emotion expression)

b Vous annulez lrsquointervention Vous preacutefeacuterez ne pas vous faire opeacutererpour le moment vous avez veacutecu comme cela pendant des anneacuteesalors pourquoi intervenir maintenant (acting out)



c Cette annonce drsquointervention chirurgicale vous deacuteprime en plus devous faire peur Vous avez lrsquoimpression que le sort srsquoacharne survous sans que vous ne puissiez rien y changer (learned helplessness)

d Vous essayez de mettre les choses en perspective en vous disant quede nombreuses personnes se font opeacuterer tous les jours et que le risqueque lrsquoopeacuteration se passe mal est vraiment infime Par contre lesbeacuteneacutefices pour votre santeacute sont importants (positive reappraisal)

e Vous pensez tregraves souvent agrave lrsquoopeacuteration et vous imaginez tout ce quipourrait mal se passer (rumination)

f Vous essayez de ne plus y penser jusqursquoau jour de lrsquoopeacuteration Degravesque la peur revient vous tacircchez de vous changer les ideacutees en vouslanccedilant dans des activiteacutes distrayantes (attention reorientation)

g Vous consommez des produits relaxants (ex alcool meacutedicamentsstupeacutefiantshellip) afin de reacuteduire votre stress et votre peur (substanceabuse)

h Vous consideacuterez le problegraveme et vous envisagez les diffeacuterentes solu-tions Lrsquoopeacuteration est la meilleure solution Vous eacutetablissez les eacuteta-pes agrave suivre avant et apregraves lrsquoopeacuteration afin que tout se deacuteroule pourle mieux (situation modification)

Received December 10 2009Revision received June 9 2010

Accepted June 14 2010



they are of the wrong type when they come at the wrong time or when theyoccur at the wrong intensity level In these cases emotions must be regulatedThe two most common circumstances in which people regulate their emo-tions are (1) when their emotions impede goal achievement and (2) when theiremotions do not match with the grouprsquos emotional display rules Emotionalregulation (ER) refers to the processes through which individuals influencewhich emotions they have when they have them and how they experience orexpress these emotions (Gross 1998) ER includes a wide range of automaticand controlled physiological behavioural and cognitive processes (Gross2001)

Though emotion regulation in everyday life predominantly involves thedown-regulation of negative emotions most individuals also attempt to reg-ulate their positive emotions (Gross Richards amp John 2006) Positive emo-tions can be (1) down-regulated (eg when we try to decrease love for a col-league who is married) (2) maintained (eg when we engage in social shar-ing in order to prolong the effects of a positive event) and (3) up-regulatedsuch as when we try to enjoy a long planned vacation despite disappointingweather food and housing (Mikolajczak 2009)

Despite the paucity of research on the topic the ability to maintain and up-regulate positive emotions is of particular relevance for well-being andhuman flourishing (Tugade amp Fredrickson 2007) Indeed positive emotionsbroaden the scopes of attention and cognition thereby facilitating the build-ing of personal resources and initiating upward spirals toward increasingemotional well-being (Fredrickson 2001 Fredrickson amp Branigan 2005)Numerous studies show that positive affect engenders success across multiplelife domains including marriage friendship income work performance andhealth (for a review see Lyubomirsky King amp Diener 2005)

The ability to adequately regulate onersquos emotions (down-regulate nega-tives ones up-regulate positive ones) is of great importance (Cicchetti Ack-erman amp Izard 1995 Thompson 1991) Efficient ER is indeed crucial formental health (eg Gross amp Levenson 1997 Watkins amp Brown 2002)physical health (eg Suls amp Wan 1993 Suls Wan amp Costa 1995) socialrelationships (eg Lopes Salovey Cocircteacute amp Beers 2005) and work perform-ance (eg Leroy amp Greacutegoire 2007 Quoidbach amp Hansenne 2009) to namethe most significant outcomes Notwithstanding the importance of ER indi-viduals highly differ in their ability to regulate their emotions People whocannot manage their emotions are at risk for mental disorders (eg depres-sion generalised anxiety disorder) physical illnesses (eg psychosomaticdiseases such as migraines or cardiovascular diseases) or social relationshipsproblems

The above-mentioned literature leads to three major points (1) emotionregulation has a major impact on the most important domains of life (2) there












































Overview





Method



Measures

























Results

Factor structure











40

25

40

50

18

47

36

73

40

69

53

18

59

29

54

10

61

21

20

51

20

65

40

64

30

41

57

23

73

49





ERP-R and gender


p le 0001 p le 001 p le 005




Convergent validity






ERP-R total score 116 298 18965(1075)

16339(1109)

t(412) = -2182

-17 -14 42 46


116 298 9509(767)

5760 (740)

t(412) = -4519

-24 -14 25 26


116 298 9964 (526)

10869(598)

t(412) = 1410

-5 -7 22 23









Criterion validity
















ERP-R and happiness







N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix































































































































































































































Overview





Method



Measures

























Results

Factor structure











40

25

40

50

18

47

36

73

40

69

53

18

59

29

54

10

61

21

20

51

20

65

40

64

30

41

57

23

73

49





ERP-R and gender


p le 0001 p le 001 p le 005




Convergent validity






ERP-R total score 116 298 18965(1075)

16339(1109)

t(412) = -2182

-17 -14 42 46


116 298 9509(767)

5760 (740)

t(412) = -4519

-24 -14 25 26


116 298 9964 (526)

10869(598)

t(412) = 1410

-5 -7 22 23









Criterion validity
















ERP-R and happiness







N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix
























































































































































































psychobelg2011_1book 3 Tuesday January 4 2011 1027 AM





























Overview





Method



Measures

























Results

Factor structure











40

25

40

50

18

47

36

73

40

69

53

18

59

29

54

10

61

21

20

51

20

65

40

64

30

41

57

23

73

49





ERP-R and gender


p le 0001 p le 001 p le 005




Convergent validity






ERP-R total score 116 298 18965(1075)

16339(1109)

t(412) = -2182

-17 -14 42 46


116 298 9509(767)

5760 (740)

t(412) = -4519

-24 -14 25 26


116 298 9964 (526)

10869(598)

t(412) = 1410

-5 -7 22 23









Criterion validity
















ERP-R and happiness







N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix

















































































































































































































Overview





Method



Measures

























Results

Factor structure











40

25

40

50

18

47

36

73

40

69

53

18

59

29

54

10

61

21

20

51

20

65

40

64

30

41

57

23

73

49





ERP-R and gender


p le 0001 p le 001 p le 005




Convergent validity






ERP-R total score 116 298 18965(1075)

16339(1109)

t(412) = -2182

-17 -14 42 46


116 298 9509(767)

5760 (740)

t(412) = -4519

-24 -14 25 26


116 298 9964 (526)

10869(598)

t(412) = 1410

-5 -7 22 23









Criterion validity
















ERP-R and happiness







N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix























































































































































































Method



Measures

























Results

Factor structure











40

25

40

50

18

47

36

73

40

69

53

18

59

29

54

10

61

21

20

51

20

65

40

64

30

41

57

23

73

49





ERP-R and gender


p le 0001 p le 001 p le 005




Convergent validity






ERP-R total score 116 298 18965(1075)

16339(1109)

t(412) = -2182

-17 -14 42 46


116 298 9509(767)

5760 (740)

t(412) = -4519

-24 -14 25 26


116 298 9964 (526)

10869(598)

t(412) = 1410

-5 -7 22 23









Criterion validity
















ERP-R and happiness







N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix










































































































































































































Results

Factor structure











40

25

40

50

18

47

36

73

40

69

53

18

59

29

54

10

61

21

20

51

20

65

40

64

30

41

57

23

73

49





ERP-R and gender


p le 0001 p le 001 p le 005




Convergent validity






ERP-R total score 116 298 18965(1075)

16339(1109)

t(412) = -2182

-17 -14 42 46


116 298 9509(767)

5760 (740)

t(412) = -4519

-24 -14 25 26


116 298 9964 (526)

10869(598)

t(412) = 1410

-5 -7 22 23









Criterion validity
















ERP-R and happiness







N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix





























































































































































































40

25

40

50

18

47

36

73

40

69

53

18

59

29

54

10

61

21

20

51

20

65

40

64

30

41

57

23

73

49





ERP-R and gender


p le 0001 p le 001 p le 005




Convergent validity






ERP-R total score 116 298 18965(1075)

16339(1109)

t(412) = -2182

-17 -14 42 46


116 298 9509(767)

5760 (740)

t(412) = -4519

-24 -14 25 26


116 298 9964 (526)

10869(598)

t(412) = 1410

-5 -7 22 23









Criterion validity
















ERP-R and happiness







N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix
























































































































































































ERP-R and gender


p le 0001 p le 001 p le 005




Convergent validity






ERP-R total score 116 298 18965(1075)

16339(1109)

t(412) = -2182

-17 -14 42 46


116 298 9509(767)

5760 (740)

t(412) = -4519

-24 -14 25 26


116 298 9964 (526)

10869(598)

t(412) = 1410

-5 -7 22 23









Criterion validity
















ERP-R and happiness







N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix




























































































































































































Criterion validity
















ERP-R and happiness







N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix






























































































































































































ERP-R and happiness







N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix























































































































































































N Total ERP-R




62 -55 -53 -44










N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix




























































































































































































N Total ERP-R












rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix





























































































































































































rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange








rced

hi

erar

chic

al

orde


djus

ted

Rsup2

F ch

ange





Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix






















































































































































































Discussion












References











































































































































Appendix





























































































































































































References











































































































































Appendix



























































































































































































































































































































Appendix





















































































































































































psycho.belg.2011 1.book page 49 tuesday, january 4, 2011 ... psychobel 2011pdf.… · nelis,...

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