1copyright 2010 mcgraw-hill companies. 2 perceiving our social worlds priming activating particular...
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1Copyright 2010 McGraw-Hill Companies
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Perceiving Our Social Worlds
PrimingActivating particular associations in memory
Example: Watching a scary movie at home may prime us to interpret furnace noises as a possible intruder
Perceiving and interpreting events Kulechov effect Spontaneous trait transference
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Perceiving Our Social Worlds
Belief PerseverancePersistence of one’s initial conceptions, as
when the basis for one’s belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives
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Perceiving Our Social Worlds
Constructing Memories of Ourselves and Our WorldsMisinformation effect
Incorporating “misinformation” into one’s memory of the event after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it
Reconstructing our past attitudesReconstructing our past behavior
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Judging Our Social World
Intuitive JudgmentsPowers of intuition
Controlled processing Reflective, deliberate, and conscious
Automatic processing Impulsive, effortless, and without our awareness
Schemas Emotional reactions
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Judging Our Social World
Overconfidence Phenomenon Tendency to be more confident than correct –
to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs Incompetence feeds overconfidence
Planning fallacy Stockbroker overconfidence Political overconfidence
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Judging Our Social World
Confirmation biasTendency to search for information that
confirms one’s preconceptions Helps explain why our self-images are so stable Self-verification
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Judging Our Social World
Remedies for Overconfidence Give prompt feedback to explain why
statement is incorrectFor planning fallacy, ask one to “unpack a
task” – break it down into estimated time requirements for each part
Get people to think of one good reason why their judgments might be wrong
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Judging Our Social World
Heuristics: Mental ShortcutsRepresentativeness heuristic
Tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member
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Judging Our Social World
Heuristics: Mental ShortcutsAvailability Heuristic
Cognitive rules that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory The more easily we recall something the more likely
it seems
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Fast and Frugal Heuristics
Table 3.1
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Judging Our Social World
Counterfactual ThinkingImagining alternative scenarios and outcomes
that might have happened, but didn’t Underlies our feelings of luck
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Judging Our Social World
Illusory ThinkingOur search for order in random events
Illusory correlation Perception of a relationship where none exists, or
perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists
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Judging Our Social World
Illusory ThinkingIllusion of control
Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one’s control or as more controllable than they are Gambling Regression toward the average
Statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one’s average
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Judging Our Social World
Moods and Judgments Good and bad
moods trigger memories of experiences associated with those moods
Moods color our interpretations of current experiences
Figure 3.3
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Explaining Our Social World
Attributing Causality: To the Person or the SituationMisattribution
Mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source
Attribution theory Theory of how people explain others’ behavior
Dispositional attribution Situational attribution
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Explaining Our Social World
Inferring TraitsWe often infer that other people’s actions are
indicative of their intentions and dispositions Commonsense Attributions
ConsistencyDistinctivenessConsensus
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Harold Kelley’s Theory of Attributes
Figure 3.4
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Explaining Our Social World
Fundamental Attribution ErrorTendency for observers to underestimate
situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others’ behavior Example:
Assuming questioning hosts on game shows are more intelligent than the contestants
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Explaining Our Social World
Why Do We Make the Attribution Error?Perspective and situational awareness
Actor-observer perspectives Camera perspective bias Perspectives change with time Self-awareness
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Explaining Our Social World
Why Do We Make the Attribution Error?Cultural Differences
Dispositional attribution
Situational attribution
Figure 3.7
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Expectations of Our Social World
Self-Fulfilling ProphecyBelief that leads to
its own fulfillment Experimenter bias Teacher expectations
and student performance
Figure 3.8
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Expectations of Our Social World
Getting from Others What We ExpectBehavioral confirmation
Type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people’s social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations