Asbjørn Nåmdal

TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LEARNERSIN NORWEGIAN COMPULSORY EDUCATION

A TEFL course for college students of English and participants in in-service courses for foreign language teachers

BERGEN UNIVERSITY COLLEGEDEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

2005

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION 5

2.0 THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE TO YOUNG LEARNERS 7 A short introduction to some predominant ideas and principles for TEFL in a historical perspective - with particular reference to the teaching of English in Norwegian compulsory education 2.1 Background 7 2.2 The Latin method 7 2.3 The direct method 8 2.4 The audio lingual and the audio-visual teaching methods 8 2.5 The cognitive method 10 2.6 The concept of communicative competence or communicative ability 10 2.7 Communicative language teaching 11 2.8 The audio-lingual method and communicative language teaching compared 12 2.9 Acquisition and learning: the five essential elements in Stephen Krashen’s hypotheses 13 2.10 A shift of focus from teaching to learning 15 2.11 Suggestion for A balanced topic-based activities approach 17 Topics for discussion 19

3.0 CURRICULUM GUIDELINES FOR ENGLISH IN NORWEGIAN COMPULSORY EDUCATION FROM 1974 TO 2005 20 3.1 Introduction 20 3.2 The curriculum guidelines for English in M74 and M87 compared 20 3.3 The curriculum guidelines for English in M87 and L97 compared 21 3.4 What was essentially new in L97 22 3.5 Læreplan i engelsk 2005 ('Kunnskapsløftet') 22 Topics for discussion 23

4.0 WORKING WITH YOUNG LANGUAGE LEARNERS 25 4.1 The young language learner 25 4.2 Working with young language learners 25 4.3 English in the environment 26 4.4 Starting points for the teaching of English in grade 1/year 6 27 4.5 Introducing and activating vocabulary 28 4.6 Planning topic-based work 34 4.7 Using children's literature (stories) in the English classroom 36 4.8 Using songs and rhymes 37 Topics for discussion 37

5.0 THE CONCEPT OF TEXT 38 5.1 Different types of text 38 5.2 Discussing the term authentic 38 Topics for discussion 39

6.0 DEVELOPING LISTENING COMPREHENSION 406.1 Using listening material 40

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6.2 Listening comprehension activities 41Topics for discussion 42

7.0 DEVELOPING READING COMPREHENSION 447.1 Read! Why? 447.2 Choosing reading material 447.3 Pre-reading activities 457.4 The reading process 477.5 Approaches to reading 477.6 While-reading activities 487.7 Post-reading activities 507.8 Ideas for a classroom library 50Topics for discussion 51Appendix 1: The 'top-down'/'bottom-up' model (Christine Nuttall) See p 101Appendix 2: My Reading Diary. See p 102

8.0 READING ALOUD IN THE ENGLISH CLASS 528.1 Teacher reading aloud 528.2 Pupil(s) reading aloud 528.3 Towards oral proficiency 53Topics for discussion 56

9.0 DEVELOPING ORAL PROFICIENCY: FROM PURE PRACTICE TO COMMUNICATION 579.1 Using the textbook as a basis for developing the pupils' oral skills 579.2 Setting priorities and objectives 589.3 Some guiding principles for the realisation of objectives 589.4 Applying principles to an analysis of the textbook 599.5 Developing oral skills: practical ways and means 599.6 Towards communication in the classroom 629.7 Assessing spoken English in the classroom (based on the EVA Project) 65Topics for discussion 65

10.0 GRAMMAR AND USAGE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING 6710.1 The place of grammar: some principles to be considered 6710.2 Suggested model for explicit grammar teaching 6810.3 Suggestions for some practical tasks to be used in the process 69Topics for discussion 70

11.0 DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS 7111.1 Pre-writing activities: writing linked to other language skills 7111.2 Types of writing: the communicative purpose 7111.3 Requirements for good writing practice in English 7111.4 Writing as an interactive process 7211.5 Assessing written work (EVA project) 74Topics for discussion 75

12.0 PLANNING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING 7612.1 Background 76

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12.2 How to start your preparations 7612.3 Planning foreign language teaching: Didactic reflection and discussion 77/7812.4 Suggested outline for the planning of a teaching unit of 4 - 6 lessons 7912.5 Suggested outline for the planning of one lesson 8012.6 What to observe in your practice period. Some practical guidelines 81

13.0 COURSE BOOK EVALUATION 8313.1 Introduction 8313.2 Suggested criteria for Course Book Evaluation 83/84

14.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS 87

LIST OF USEFUL MATERIAL FOR TEFL IN THE PRIMARY AND COMPREHENSIVE CLASSROOMS 88

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

“... the complex circumstances of teaching and learning languages - with different kinds of pupils, teachers, aims and objectives, approaches, methods and materials, achievement - make it inconceivable that any single method could achieve optimum success in all circumstances.” From Peter Stevens, New Methods in Perspective (1980)

These few lines by Peter Stevens sum up the predicament of foreign language didactics and methodology over the years. New ideas and principles for foreign language teaching have emerged, but until some decades ago few of them had any profound effect on foreign language teaching (FLT), and were soon replaced by new ones. The bases of these ideas have often been linked to one or more of the areas psychology, linguistics (structuralism) or language for communication, and in later years this has been in combination with a view of "language as culture and culture language", with a related shift of focus from teaching to learning. Once a particular idea or principle has gained ground, it has been a popular 'sport' to jump on the bandwagon, tending to see foreign language teaching and learning from the new perspective only and forgetting about, and often being very critical of, other possibleapproaches, especially those just dumped on the didactical scrapheap.

When after some time the prevailing idea has proved not so profound and useful after all, there has always been another 'wave-crest' to jump onto. Some ideas have developed as reactions to others, creating 'pendulum swings' in the history of didactics. This has no doubt had a dynamic effect, leading to a lot of discussion, seminars and in-service courses about ideas and principles for the teaching of foreign languages in Norway, especially since the beginning of the 1970s. The Council of Europe has also played a prominent role in the spreading of these ideas in most European countries, and a great number of books have been produced on the various aspects of teaching and learning foreign languages. A typical sign of a more dynamic development in fairly recent years is the fact that prior to the 1970s, curriculum guidelines lasted for decades. Since then such guidelines have been replaced by others at increasingly shorter intervals, declining from about ten years, to just eight years for L97. The latest plan, Læreplan i engelsk (2005), differs from its predecessors in that it is less prescriptive when it comes to advocating particular didactic approaches and methodology. In the main, more freedom is given to the schools and the teachers in such matters, which is a challenge, especially for those English teachers in primary and comprehensive education who have little or no formal qualifications as English teachers.

Most of the theoretical discussions have taken place in academic circles, in the colleges and universities. It takes time, however, for new ideas to permeate the traditional boundaries of foreign language teaching in primary and comprehensive education. New textbooks have contributed a great deal to a positive development; in-service courses for teachers have helped, but there have been and are far too few of them. Moreover, among teachers working in the 'frontline' there is often a sound scepticism of ideas implementing profound and radical changes. Too many reforms have apparently fallen through having been implemented without the necessary trial periods and ensuing documentation that the changes will lead toimprovement. Many experienced English teachers welcome new ideas, but they rarely get dogmatic about them. They approach them with an open mind; they are definitely interested in ideas that have the potential to improve their teaching and the pupils' learning. They want to try them out and see if they work in practice, and/or if they can be adapted to and included

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in their own set of well-considered principles and practices. A variety of approaches to foreign language teaching are generally looked upon as essential (compare Stevens above), but they should be based on the clear objectives ('kompetansemål') and the conviction of all concerned that they promote language learning in the pupils in the best possible way. Whether they are 'modern' ideas, or not so modern, is of little relevance as long as they promote learning.

The following chapters are primarily intended for students of English in teacher training and for English teachers attending in-service courses. They provide a brief introduction to the main ideas and principles of the teaching of English over the years, and how these are reflected in the different curriculum guidelines for English in Norwegian compulsory education, especially since the 1970s. Furthermore, they introduce and discuss a variety of activities that can be used in a balanced topic-based activities approach to promote different aspects of English language teaching, including a cultural approach, with the main objective that they will lead to learning in the individual pupil. To meet this requirement is indeed a challenging task because there are so many uncertain and unpredictable factors that have to be considered in the process (again see Stevens above). It should thus be emphasised from the outset that the chapters below do not in any way claim that there is no other way towards the goal. On the contrary, the various ideas, approaches, and activities should be perceived as what they are: proposals based more on practical experience in the foreign language class-room than theoretical research, and they should be subject to discussion. They constitute an eclectic approach based on the assumption that not all that was done in foreign language teaching some years ago is reprehensible, nor should all new ideas be indiscriminately embraced until they have been carefully tried out and proven useful in the foreign language classroom. The teacher's attitudes, motivation, and views of foreign language teaching and pupils' learning will also play an important role. A teacher has to abide by the curriculum guidelines imposed by the school authorities at any given time, but within limits the guide-lines leave the teacher, pupils, and parents with the freedom to exercise sound judgement and decision-making in the best interest of the pupils.

I am grateful to Kåre Nitter Rugesæter for being instrumental in putting this material on the English Department’s website. Special thanks also to Barbara Blair for her thorough comments on presentation and language style.

Bergen 25 september 2005Asbjørn Nåmdal

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2.0 THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE TO YOUNG LEARNERS

A short introduction to some predominant ideas and principles for TEFL in a historical perspective - with particular reference to the teaching of

English in Norwegian compulsory education

2.1 Background

The history of 'modern' foreign language teaching is a relatively short one, only extending back to approximately the 1880s. Vietor's small book Der Sprachunterrricht muss umkehren (1882) initiated the discussion of the difference between the teaching of classical languages, Latin and Greek, and the teaching of modern languages (Aslaksrud/Thoren, 1961:78). The later development of foreign language teaching has often been described as 'the pendulum swings', sometimes from one extreme to another, sometimes stopping halfway. The development of foreign language teaching can thus hardly be called a consistent one. New theories about language teaching and language learning have emerged and been vehemently discussed; some have had a breakthrough and led to new teaching methods, which have lasted for a while, only to be replaced by new ones. The constant discussion of theories and the subsequent trying-out of methods in the foreign language classroom have been dynamic and fruitful - and have led to change in Norway, especially since the late 1960s. Rapid changes in society, which have led to changes in the situation of the individual, have also influenced the way people see and use foreign languages. The following is a short overview of some predominant ideas and principles of thisdevelopment seen from a historical perspective.

2.2 The Latin method

This method, also called the grammar-translation method, used to be predominant in the teaching of Latin and Greek. When modern foreign languages were introduced in the secondary school curricula in Norway from about the 1860s onwards, the Latin method was transferred more or less indiscriminately to the teaching of these languages. Essential characteristics of this method were:- deductive teaching of grammar, in which forms and structures were presented with the grammatical rules. It was essential to identify and practise relevant examples that were in accordance with the rules. Grammatical rules were to be learnt by heart, and thus grammar often seemed to be an end rather than a means to an end.- conscious and logical language learning in the sense that learning a foreign language was more or less an academic activity, in which analysis of language structures played a predominant role.- extensive use of translation, to begin with mostly from the target language, but later 'combined translations' became popular; this method was used in the teaching of German in lower secondary education as late as the beginning of the 1970s. The first half of a text was to be translated from the target language into language 1, and the second half from language 1 into the target language. A close study or analysis of the language of the respective parts of the text, 'combining' language items and analysing them on the basis of grammatical rules, became an all-important working method, turning foreign language teaching and learning into a study of the structure of the language rather than focussing on its use as a means of communication.

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- emphasis on reading literary and historical texts, and on writing based on the study of these texts, either by translating or reproducing them. In lower secondary education translation or reproduction of a story read aloud twice by the teacher was the only form of written work, in some places until the early 1970s.There was little room for creative writing, with the possible exception of analyses of texts from a literary or historical perspective at higher secondary level.- not much oral use of the language. When the language was used orally, it was of the type teacher/questions - pupils/answers based on a literary or historical text, or the language was used to practise vocabulary and/or grammatical structures. Most of the teaching was carried out in the mother tongue as its most predominant feature was teaching about the language.

2.3 The direct method

This method appeared as a reaction to the Latin method, and was in clear contrast to it; the pendulum swung in the opposite direction. Voices critical of the Latin method were heard as early as the 1880s. Vietor's trendsetting book has already been mentioned, and the Quousque-tandem movement in the Nordic countries exclaimed loudly that foreign language teaching was highly in need of change. Still, the Latin method was extremely tough, and in some respects it could be argued that it was alive and kicking in foreign language teaching as late as the early 1970s, nearly a hundred years later.

The direct method emerged when the influence of descriptive phonetics and psychology made themselves felt to language teaching in the 1920s. Essential characteristics of this method were:- emphasis on listening comprehension and speaking; for the first time the fact that a foreign language is a means of communication, was really taken into consideration.- emphasis on reading and writing; still on the basis of literary and historical texts.- no formal teaching of grammar, but the study of good examples was considered relevant as it would provide insight into the structure of the foreign language.- avoid use of the mother tongue; focus was to be on oral use of the foreign language. - use of imitation, indicating the influence of phonetics and the stress on good pronunciation and good language models.- no translation; meaning was to be conveyed through use of the foreign language, not through translation.Later a modified direct method was introduced. Use of the mother tongue was again allowed, and, in fact, looked upon as important when explaining language difficulties to the pupils.

2.4 The audio-lingual and the audio-visual teaching methods

The audio-lingual methodThe basis for the audio-lingual habit formation theory was B.F. Skinner's stimulus/response model, with its idea of conditioning and reinforcement leading to habit-formation, and the American structuralist tradition, with its stress on form and correctness, including the use of drills and pattern practice exercises in developing oral skills. A well-known slogan of the time (1961) was that “Language learning is a set of habits” (Simensen, 1998:58). These ideas were applied in foreign language teaching in the United States from approximately 1950 to 1965. In Norway many of the principles of the audio-lingual habit formation theory and 'structuralism' formed the basis of the curriculum guidelines for English in Mønsterplanen av 1974 (M74).Essential characteristics of the audio-lingual teaching method based on these theories were:

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- emphasis on the spoken language, another slogan of the time being "Language is speech, not writing" (Simensen, 1998:58); but the kind of language that was really spoken in the audio-lingual classroom, and what it was supposed to be used for (see below), may well be questioned.- the sequence in language teaching should be listen speak read write, the way the mother tongue is learned.- learning by heart, especially dialogues to enable the students to master everyday situations in the language ('situational English'). The M74 generation textbooks were full of such ready-made dialogues for use in various situations. A logical conclusion of this would be that situations would adjust to suit the dialogues, and not vice versa, which is indisputibly the case in real-life situations; this reflected the contrast between the idea of language as a 'static' entity versus the idea of language as a 'dynamic' and unpredictable entity that has to adapt to real-life circumstances. - extensive use of audio-taped material from the very beginning, with recordings of native speakers speaking at normal speed. The ideal was that "A Language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say" (Simensen, 1998:58). It was essential that the learners should become familiar with different accents, not only standard English, and audio-taped material became an important resource and supplement to the highly varied oral language skills of non-native teachers of English. Imitation was used a lot to practise and improve pronunciation and intonation patterns. - introduction of vocabulary based on frequency, and carefully planned progression in the teaching of grammar in accordance with a 'circular model' or 'spiral principle'. The curriculum guidelines for English in M74 introduced a long vocabulary list based on frequency, as well as extensive lists of grammar items to be taught in each grade, but the teaching of grammatical rules was to be kept at a minimum; focus ought to be on the good examples. - as language teaching aimed at creating habits ('habit-formation'), grammar was taught by using pattern practice, drill and repetitions. Substitution tables were common. The foreign language was to be internalised through overlearning of patterns to such an extent that it would lead to automatic or natural language use. Little or no use of the intellect was required. The language was practised in a 'mechanical' way, often regardless of the meaning of what was being said; the emphasis was on form rather than on meaning, and the dialogues sometimes bordered on the absurd. The M74 generation course books contained more than one example of such dialogues and pattern practices. Correctness was equally important. "Like sin, error is to be avoided and its influence overcome, but its presence is to be expected" (Simensen, 1998:58) was a third slogan. The following advice to the practising teacher also clearly discloses a strong behaviourist basis: "The principal method of avoiding error in language learning is to observe and practise the right model a sufficient number of times; the principal way of overcoming it is to shorten the time lapse between the incorrect response and the presentation once more of the correct model." (Simensen, 1998:58). Errors should be avoided; when they occurred, they should be dealt with immediately.

The audio-visual methodMany of the characteristics of the audio-lingual method also applied here. In addition, visuals (the real thing, photos, slides, flash-cards, drawings, posters, etc) were used extensively to develop comprehension and generate language. The idea was to prevent associations with the mother tongue by creating a direct link between the visuals and the vocabulary of the foreign language. Language teaching along these lines is still taking place in early foreign language teaching and learning as a first step in the development of communicative ability.2.5 The cognitive method

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The audio-lingual method prevailed for quite a few years, and many language teachers thought they had found the Method in foreign language teaching. In the 1960s, however, new learning theories appeared which argued that our power of perception is an active organising process, not just a passive, mechanical registration of details. These theories could hardly be reconciled with the audio-lingual habit-formation theory as they were in clear opposition to behaviourism. According to the cognitive code-learning theory, learning takes place by means of insight, creativity, inner activity, and personal experience. Conscious learning is essential. Noam Chomsky attacked the behaviouristic ideas expressed in Skinner's book Verbal Behaviour (1959). He argued that our ability to acquire language is based on a language acquisition device, LAD, in our brains which helps us organise our language from bits and pieces into comprehensible utterances and gradually more complex sentences. A child starts with a very limited number of sounds and words, and then seems to acquire a language based on regular patterns even though these are not being used in the child's environment. Chomsky claimed that there must a 'device' organising our Language 1, according to regular patterns at first; later, after succumbing to the strong influence of our surroundings, we also adopt the irregular patterns of natural language. It should be added that Chomsky did not argue that LAD plays a prominent role in the acquisition of a foreign language, which usually takes place at a later stage. Still, as long as we do not know exactly how language learning really takes place, its role should perhaps not be completely ruled out. Chomsky distinguished between two processes, linguistic competence, which is our subconscious grammatical knowledge, and linguistic performance, which is the realisation of this knowledge or these rules as sentences.

The cognitive method takes into use the analytical capacity of the learners as these are involved actively in analysis of the target language. Learner and teacher should be working together, and through this process develop the learner’s understanding of and insight into the structure of the language. Furthermore, contrastive analysis through comparison with the mother tongue was again viewed as an essential part of the learning process, and advocated in Mønsterplanen av1987 (M87). Errors should no longer "be avoided like sin", being considered a natural part of the language learning process; conscious practice and work on their own errors on the part of the learners would be important in the process towards further learning. Discussions of language problems and the teacher's explanations of difficulties were to be carried out in the mother tongue. In contrast to methods based on behaviourism,cognitivism describes methods that focus on developing the learners' awareness of how the language functions, rather than asking them to reproduce structures.

2.6 The concept of communicative competence or communicative ability

In the 1970s emphasis shifted to the use of foreign language for communication, and the terms communicative competence or communicative ability came into focus. Linguistic competence alone was not sufficient; it was only one of several 'competencies' covered by these terms. The foreign language should not be taught per se, in isolation from its social and cultural contexts, but should primarily function as a means of communication in thesecontexts. The term communicative competence was later broadened to encompassgrammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, including socio-cultural and discourse competence, and eventually strategic competence.

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J. A. Van Eek (1986) used the term communicative ability instead of communicative competence and gave clear-cut and useful definitions of each component or competence which together made up the whole concept of communicative ability:

* Linguistic competence: “Without a knowledge of vocabulary items and mastery of certain structural rules through which they are processed into meaningful utterances, no verbal communication is possible.”* Sociolinguistic competence: “... the communicator will have to be aware of ways in which the choice of language forms - the manner of expression - is determined by such conditions as setting, relationship between communication partners, communicative intention, etc ....”* Socio-cultural competence: “... the use of particular language implies the use of reference frame which is at least partly determined by the socio-cultural context in which that language is used by native speakers.”* Social competence: “The will to interact involves motivation, attitude and self-confidence; the skill to interact involves such qualities as empathy and the ability to handle social situations.”* Discourse competence: “... the ability to perceive and to achieve coherence of separate utterances in meaningful communication patterns.”* Strategic competence: “... the use of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies to compensate for gaps in the language user's knowledge of the code for breakdown of communication for other reasons.”From Objectives of foreign language learning, Volume 1: Scope, pp.34-35, quoted from Lisbeth Ytreberg, Engelsk i grunnskolen (1993:25).

A simpler and more straightforward definition of communicative strategies is that theyare systematic techniques employed by the speaker to express his meaning when faced withsome difficulty, how s/he 'gets around' the language difficulty. We generally talk about two main categories of communicative strategies, reduction strategies and expansion or achievement strategies; of these the latter are the ones we should try to acquire and apply when using the language for communication (for a more detailed discussion of communication strategies, see below).

2.7 Communicative language teaching

Use of the foreign language as a means of communication came strongly into focus in the mid-1970s, particularly through the work of Jan Van Eek and the European Council. Language functions and concepts became essential in foreign language teaching, the focus being on what we need the language for. M87 was partly based on these ideas, which were contradictory to the structuralistic approach of M74. The idea of language as a means of communication remains central in Læreplanverket av 1997 (L97) and Læreplan i engelsk (2005). Essential aspects of communicative language teaching are:- focus on use of the language in real-life situations; authentic use of the language. - emphasis on language as a means of communication, stressing the social and cultural significance of the language.- focus on language functions (what we need the language for) and notions (ideas we express

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through language).- focus on the learner ('the whole person') and the learner's language ('interlanguage' = Norwegian: 'mellomspråk'). When we learn a foreign language, our language will always be an interlanguage; we will always be somewhere along the path to perfection, but we will hardly ever reach it. Compare The humanistic approach below.- the importance of encouraging the learner to communicate in the language - not only practise it. There is no communication unless there are real information gaps or opinion gaps to be bridged.- the importance of encouraging the learner to use good communication strategies; expansion or achievement strategies, not reduction strategies. Rephrasing, appeal for assistance and non-verbal strategies (like body language) are good examples of the former, whereas topic avoidance or withdrawal from using the language in situation is an example of the latter. Furthermore, extensive use of the mother tongue in the foreign language classroom can, for obvious reasons, serve as an example of a totally negative strategy from the point of view of developing communicative ability.- attitudes and motivation are very important factors in language learning. A willingness to use the language to explore the unknown, to respond to stimuli in the environment, and to obtain knowledge and solve problems will lead to frequent use of the language and thus enhance language skills, whereas lack of motivation will have the opposite effect: little use of the target language will lead the learner into a vicious circle, with a negative effect on his/her learning. These learners in particular should be made aware that struggling with the language, however hard it may seem in the situation, contributes to the development of language proficiency. - emphasis on accuracy when the student practises the language, and emphasis on fluency when the student communicates in the foreign language. The degree of accuracy versus fluency is much discussed in connection with communicative language teaching. There is little doubt that too much focus on accuracy or correctness will discourage use of the language and thus the development of language proficiency. This is what Stephen Krashen calls overuse of the Monitor (see below). Appropriate use of the Monitor, on the other hand, is necessary to avoid the language declining into 'pidgin English'. Balancing the two could be a useful approach. - focus on classroom atmosphere and the role of the teacher. Compare The humanistic approach below.

2.8 The audio-lingual method and communicative language teaching compared

In the textbooks based on one or the other of the two approaches to foreign language teaching, language in situation is introduced in almost totally opposite ways.

The audio-lingual method:M74 contained several pages of vocabulary lists based on frequency, in addition to long lists of detailed grammar items for each level to be used by the textbook writers. When writing the texts, they often selected relevant topic-related vocabulary, phrases and grammar, and then 'created' a situation; sometimes the grammatical structure in focus was used so extensively in the text that the language could hardly be called natural or authentic. This approach could be illustrated as follows:

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VOCABULARY - PHRASES - GRAMMAR

S I T U A T I O N

LANGUAGE PRACTICE

Communicative language teaching:Communicative language teaching takes the functional-notional approach to foreign language teaching. Starting with real-life situations this approach asks: What do we need language for in this situation? How do we use it in order to do or achieve things? What ideas do we need to express through language? In the next instance we have to take into consideration which vocabulary, phrases and grammar we need in order to master these functions and notions, for example through oral speech acts; and which strategies should be used in order to get the message across. Furthermore, how we do it is not irrelevant; we need to assess the appropriateness of the language in situation. This approach could be illustrated as follows:

S I T U A T I ON STRATEGIES STRATEGIES

LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS AND NOTIONS

VOCABULARY - PHRASES - GRAMMAR

(PRACTICE if need be)

COMMUNICATION OUTPUT APPROPRIATENESS

These ideas were predominant in M87. The long vocabulary lists were abolished and the lists of grammar items considerably shortened. Instead, a simple list of language functions was introduced, and to master them for all practical purposes the use of topic-related communicative activities was advocated.

2.9 Acquisition and learning: the five essential elements in Stephen Krashen's hypotheses

No one knows all the processes that take place when we try to acquire and/or learn a foreign language. There are most certainly a variety of processes taking place, with individual differences from one learner to another. Many theories have emerged over the years; more often than not they have been discussed, tried out and rejected. Stephen Krashen's theories or hypotheses regarding these processes have been very much in focus in recent years.

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:Krashen argues that language acquisition and language learning are two different processes:acquiring a language is a subconscious process which results in the implicit knowledge of a language. In Norway more than in most European countries, we are exposed to a lot of English every day, and it is highly unlikely that we do not acquire a fair amount of the language subconsciously, particularly with respect to our oral use of the language. Acquisition of a foreign language is similar to a child's first language acquisition, but takes place at a later stage and after the child has acquired Language 1. It is described as 'picking up' the language through sources or channels other than formal teaching, and it initiates our utterances. Error correction has little or no effect here. Language acquisition is responsible for fluency, and the

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Organiser (compare Chomsky's LAD above) most probably plays a role in the acquisition of a foreign language, as well.

Learning a language, on the other hand, is a conscious process which results in 'knowing about' the language, i.e. gaining explicit, formal knowledge of the language, the kind of insight and knowledge that we get in school, where our language is monitored. Whereas language acquisition initiates our utterances, a Monitor or Editor only makes changes in an utterance after it has been produced. Language learning is a process where formal learning helps. Accuracy is stressed, and the Monitor helps supervise our language - and corrects it, if need be.

A distinction between language acquisition and language learning is, no doubt, useful in a theoretical discussion, in which the objective is to gain insight into and an understanding of a hypothesis about the two processes. Whether in actual fact they are as different and clear-cut in real life language could definitely be discussed. Most probably these processes are two of a number of processes including individual variants in the acquisition and learning of a foreign language.

The Natural Order Hypothesis:Language acquisition is a gradual process that can take many years. During this time it has been observed that the various aspects of the language seem to be learned in a certain order, some early and some late in the process so that a certain acquisition 'hierarchy' has been established. There are, however, individual differences to be considered, which make this hypothesis appear less important than the others.

The Monitor Hypothesis:With regard to the roles of the Monitor and the Organiser in language acquisition and language learning, see Acquisition-Learning above. However, the role of the Monitor should not be overrated. In fact, too much emphasis on accuracy, what Krashen calls overuse of the Monitor can inhibit use of the language and thus development of language skills, in particular speaking.

The Input Hypothesis:The level of the input should be given careful consideration. It is essential that learners are provided with learning materials slightly above their language level so that they have something to stretch for. Krashen calls this Language + 1.

The Affective Filter:All learning should ideally take place in an atmosphere of trust, confidence, support, enjoyment, and security. This is no less important in foreign language learning where it is necessary for the learners to expose themselves language-wise, and thus become vulnerable. In this situation age, personality, and experience are factors that have to be considered, especially where weaker and/or less extroverted learners are concerned. They may withdraw from the learning process, refusing to participate in activities in which they run the risk of becoming the laughing stock of their fellow learners. If this happens, they may set up an emotional barrier, an affective filter, around or in themselves, within which they have a sense of security. All input will be filtered, and the more filtering, the less acquired competence. Once such an emotional barrier has been erected, it takes a lot of patience and hard work to tear it down and convince the learners how harmful it is to learning. In the foreign language classroom today, it is one of the most important tasks of the teacher to ‘build down’ the

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affective filter - or better, to prevent it from being built up. A constructive, supportive, and encouraging classroom atmosphere is essential to the foreign language learning process (see also An affective-humanistic approach below).

2.10 A shift of focus from teaching to learning

In recent years new approaches to the question of teaching and learning have emerged and caused a considerable shift of emphasis from teaching to learning.

An affective-humanistic approach:An affective-humanistic approach was really stressed for the first time in M87. It permeated all of the guidelines, not only the ones for English, and it is also heavily stressed in L97 and Læreplan i engelsk (2005). Focus is to be on the learners. Respect for the emotional life of the individual is considered crucial and should influence all relations and all that is done in the classroom. It is the responsibility of everybody concerned, pupils as well as teachers, to contribute to a positive and constructive classroom atmosphere. Experience has shown that emotional blockage prevents learning.

A second focus is on new working methods and organisation. Through extensive use of group or pair work, the learners should work towards a common goal and support and help each other in the process. In L97 this aspect is stressed in connection with project work, which is even quantified on the different levels. The work should be organised in such a way that the learners can make use of all their skills and abilities, and develop their potentialities, each individual at his/her own pace. Still, they are supposed to use their social skills incollaboration with others in order to contribute towards achieving a common goal; this is altogether an ideal requirement, which is not always easy to meet in the classroom today.

Total physical response:Total physical response reinforces learning, as when young learners' use of the foreign language is combined with or expressed through physical activities. This group of learners cannot sit still for long; it is natural for them to move around, and it is important that we make the most of this fact to promote learning. Through physical response to a listening or reading stimulus, many learners have the opportunity to demonstrate comprehension without having to produce language, which is generally considered the most challenging part. They can show that they are capable of understanding much more of the foreign language than they are able to show through language production. This has become even more important since 1997 when English became compulsory from grade 1/year 6. The younger the learners, the more they need to be physically active and to respond totally and genuinely in the learning situation. If we can make the early learners play with the language, act it out, bearing in mind their urge to move around and express themselves in non-verbal ways that come naturally to them, there is a lot of potential for language learning - and probably not only in the lower grades.

The silent period:Many learners feel that the demand for language production is a strain. For various reasons they prefer receptive activities/skills like listening and reading to productive ones like writing and especially speaking, and they may appear rather passive in the classroom situation. This does not necessarily mean that learning is not taking place. On the contrary, while sitting quietly and apparently passive in the classroom, these pupils often acquire a lot of language, which suddenly manifests itself in the form of speech and other productive skills after a period of time - the silent period. These pupils seem to need some time to 'adjust to' or 'tune in

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to' the new language and possibly also to the classroom atmosphere, but having done so, they may turn into very active and motivated language users.

Towards learner autonomy in the FL classroom:For a few decades now the extent of learner autonomy in the learning process has beena topical discussion. The basis of this discussion is related to the problem of individualisation in the classroom and attitudes to the teaching-learning process. The question is to what degree the learners should be given responsibility for their own learning, and ultimately what this for all practical purposes would imply.

It is often argued that traditional, teacher-directed teaching tends to passify the learners and make them lose interest. Nothing or very little is left to their initiative; everything is decided for them, and they cannot influence their own learning situation in any way. In mixed-ability classes of some size, it is impossible to meet the needs of all the learners in this way; the clever ones will easily feel bored and the weaker learners will easily become frustrated and give up. In recent years, however, there is no doubt that steps have been taken towards breaking up the traditional pattern and introducing a higher degree of learner involvement in planning, decision-making, and to a certain extent responsibility for carrying out tasks and activities. The primary level has for various reasons (age, motivation, time, etc.) been more progressive in this respect than the comprehensive level as the latter has not the 'freedom' of the former. Tests, exams and other demands at the comprehensive level are constantly looming in the background and make it difficult for many conscientious teachers to let go of the real responsibility and leave it to the learners.

Practical approaches towards more learner autonomy in the classroom are currently in focus. In Denmark extensive development work in this field has been carried out by Leni Dam, Gerd Gabrielsen, and others. In her book Learner Autonomy. From Theory to Classroom Practice (1985), Leni Dam argues that in her experience there are five main differences between a teacher-directed teaching/learning environment and a teacher/learner-directed learning environment. What is needed is- a shift of focus from teaching to learning,- a change in the role of the learner,- a change in the role of the teacher,- evaluation, including self-assessment, as the pivot of the learning process, and- a view of the foreign language learning classroom as a rich learning environment, a workshop or laboratory.Essential aims should be to make the pupils aware of- why they are learning English, what to learn, and how to do it (compare L97 and Læreplan i engelsk),- possible activities supporting what and how to learn,- their own individual role in the learning process, as well as the role of the others.Furthermore, it is essential to develop in the pupils a readiness to contribute and co-operate, and a willingness to make choices and accept the responsibility for these. This does not happen overnight; it is a long-term, and often painful process, not least for the teacher, who has to reconsider what teaching and learning are all about.

How can we promote (more) learner autonomy in the classroom?We have already mentioned gradually increased pupil participation in planning and decision-making, and the attitude that responsibility for carrying out tasks and activities should rest more with the pupils. It follows that they should also be given an opportunity to assess their

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own work through simple guidelines for (self-) assessment: What have I learned? What was good/not so good in my work? Where do I go from here? Positive and negative experiences from the learning process will thus help the pupils develop good learning strategies, and the teacher good teaching strategies. In order to follow these processes closely and benefit as much as possible from them, diaries or logbooks are essential for the pupils, as well as for the teacher.

In English (as well as in other subjects) the idea of a common core may be important to help the learners feel that they belong together as a class or group. A large number of language activities can involve the whole class, and the teacher can provide the input. On the other hand, the pupils should gradually be given the opportunity to do open-ended activities on their own initiative. A variety of materials should be made available to the pupils so that they can try out and assess their own performance in the different skills and find out what they need in order to make progress. It is also essential that they are given the opportunity to contribute towards the achievement of a common goal, for example through project work that promotes language learning.

The role of the teacher in this process is, of course, a crucial one. S/he is not only a lecturer and controller, as in the past, but also an advisor and tutor. Working in this way could also help the learners to set their own homework. The teacher could set the core homework whereas the pupils could be responsible for the branching homework. This is not only a question of available resources and materials, but also a question of attitudes on the parts of the learners and teacher with regard to the learning process, and how to work towards a clearly defined goal. Self-discipline, motivation, and the ability and willingness to take on the responsibility for their work are essential on the part of the learners. Without these, ‘learner autonomy’ and ‘responsibility for own learning’ become phrases without any real meaning, which only serve to deceive and frustrate learners and teachers. The assignment of more responsibility to the pupils for their own learning takes its toll; in order to develop what may be called learning awareness and turn it into a positive experience for them, it might be an idea to introduce this way of working at a relatively early stage. Still, it is imperative that we act with caution and take care not to expose young children to more responsibility than they are prepared to take on at their age. As teachers, we must not forget that children should be allowed to be children, and that they need an adult with all the qualities of a good leader to relate to, who can act with authority in the classroom without being authoritarian.

2.11 Suggestions for a balanced topic-based activities approach

In the survey of ideas and principles above the focus has been on different, and oftencontrastive, approaches to foreign language teaching, approaches that sometimes waver between two extremes. In recent years we have also witnessed a shift of focus from an objective, text-based approach, to one which also takes into consideration the whole person in the teaching and learning processes.

The following suggestion for a balanced topic-based activities approach seeks to reconcile different views and at the same time focus on clear objectives for language teaching and learning, as well as realistic procedures for an activity-based FLT classroom in Norwegian compulsory education. It is an eclectic approach that focuses on a common goal; it is drawing on a wide range of ideas and principles, and it is based on the assumption that the best solution is often to be found somewhere between two contrastive views, not to speak of extremes:

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(For an interesting discussion of the place of conscious learning, comprehensible input, and a balanced activities approach, see Harmer (1999: 37-43).

INPUT:Specifying

OBJECTIVES

Joint planning and decision-making (choice of topic and working methods)

Implementation

using different approaches and available sources:

TOPIC Internet Lang. functions

Visuals COMPREHENSION Vocabulary (Pre-) listening OF Phrases (Pre-) reading LANGUAGE CONTENTS Structures

Introducing subject matter ('comprehensible input') using relevant language, applying different methods and inviting the learners to use their intellect as well as their senses.Developing comprehension (receptive) skills, but also to some degree productive skills.

How can we make our learners communicate in English - even at the input stage?

The role of the teacher and the role of the pupils to be considered.

___________________________________________________________________________

PRACTICE: (Semi-) controlled, guided practice of language items (vocabulary,

phrases, structures) - if need be.Focus on ACCURACY at the practice stage.

___________________________________________________________________________ OUTPUT:

Topic-based language 'tools' introduced and practised above to be used for

- presentation of topic-based work (product),

- communication in a wide sense, practising language functions through speech acts, bridging information/opinion gaps related to the topic.

Focus on FLUENCY at the output or production stage.

(SELF-) EVALUATION:

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Ongoing evaluation of the product and the whole learning process.Relevant questions to be asked: Why? What? How?

What have we learned?Have we reached our objectives?

What was good/not so good? What went wrong?Potential for improvement?

Assessment of language potential for language improvement?

Diaries or logs are important to gain insight into and improve the learning process.

Topics for discussion:

1. The direct method replaced the Latin method. Why did it go to the opposite extreme? Why was a modified direct method introduced after some time?2. Comment critically on the audio-lingual and audio-visual methods, viewed in the light of L97 and Læreplan i engelsk (2005).3. Why was Noam Chomsky so critical of the behaviourist ideas underlying the audio- lingual method?4. What did Chomsky mean by LAD - language acquisition device?5. What are the main ideas underlying the cognitive method?6. To what extent would you say that the cognitive method is a useful approach in the English classroom today?7. If the objective is communicative competence or communicative ability, what are the implications of this for foreign language teaching and learning in general? 8. Discuss the following concepts in Stephen Krashen's theories * the acquisition-learning distinction, * the organizer, * the monitor (overuse of the Monitor), * the affective filter. How relevant do you think Krashen's hypotheses are in the FLT classroom today?9. ‘Learner autonomy’ and ‘responsibility for own learning’ are two concepts that have been discussed a lot in recent years. To what extent do you think it is possible to put these concepts into practice in FLT today?10. Comment critically on the suggestion for a balanced topic-based activities approach to foreign language teaching and learning, with regard to possible shortcomings and ideas for improvement in particular.

3.0 CURRICULUM GUIDELINES FOR ENGLISH IN NORWEGIAN

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COMPULSORY EDUCATION FROM 1974 TO 2005

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter the focus will be on the curriculum guidelines for English from 1974 to 1997 because a study of them will tell us much about the prevalent views and priorities in foreign language teaching and learning during the last few decades. As far as possible, Læreplan i engelsk (2005), which has not come into effect at the time of writing, will also be taken into consideration. The four sets of curriculum guidelines will be discussed with reference to the principles and methods in foreign language teaching and learning surveyed in chapter 2.

3.2 The curriculum guidelines for English in M74 and M87 compared

M74 M87- Influence from the Audio-Lingual Habit - Influence from Cognitive Code-Learning Formation Theory and the Audio-Lingual Theory and the Cognitive Method, including Method. the ideas of Communicative Language Teaching.- Linguistic/grammar-based guidelines - Mainly a functional-notional approach to with a structural approach to FLT. FLT, but also to some extent a grammar- and topic-based approach.- The language needs of the individual. - The language needs of the individual and of society, the latter being implied rather than explicitly expressed.- English Language Teaching (ELT) - English Language Teaching (ELT) focussing on the four skills. focussing on communication, stressing language needs/what we need the language for. - No/little use of the mother tongue. - Important to use insight in/knowledge of the mother tongue. Use of contrastive analysis.- Drill of grammatical structures based - No use of 'mechanical' drills and incoherent on the idea of internalisation through exercises. Development from meaningful ‘automation’ of language. practice to language production/ communication- Accuracy essential; acquired through - Accuracy important when practising the pattern drills. language; fluency essential when communicating in the language. Exercises should lead to insight/knowledge. Comprehension before language production.- No lists of themes and language functions. - Strong emphasis on use of the language; the realisation of language functions through speech acts. List of themes and language functions.- Long and detailed lists of grammar items - Short list of grammar items. Choice of for each level (grade). items based on use of the language/what we need in order to realise the language functions through speech acts in situation. To understand and be understood most

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important.- Long lists of vocabulary based on frequency. - No vocabulary lists. Choice of vocabulary based on language needs in situation. The idea of social-and cultural factors as essential aspects of language learning. Focus on strategies (expansion, not reduction strategies) when using the language for communication.- Texts - often 3rd person, past tense - Texts - also 1st and 2nd person, present and narrative, but also situational dialogues future tenses, realising the personal to be 'learnt by heart'. Texts built up around language function: Expressing opinion, a language structure, which made them feelings, attitudes, and experience. 'artificial'. Stress on authenticity. 3.3 The curriculum guidelines for English in M87 and L97 compared

If we compare the objectives in these two sets of curriculum guidelines we will see more similarities than differences even though the phrasing may be slightly different. Both of them stressed - the four skills, especially use of the language for communication. - the use of the language to obtain more and better information about people and social conditions in other countries.- the fact that teaching in English should stimulate enjoyment of the language, and provide the basis for further learning.- helping the pupils to accept and gain insight into problems they will meet when using the foreign language, and use this insight for language improvement.Generally speaking, the objectives in M87 were more or less covered by the objectives in L97. The latter, however, put more emphasis on the cultural aspect of language learning in a wide sense, as well as stressing the importance of the pupils' gaining insight into and takingresponsibility for their own learning. The main differences can be summarised as follows:

M87 L97- Real communication in the classroom - Language used as much as possible for real as much as possible. Practice, if need be, communication. as a means to build communication. Use of communicative activities with in-built information gaps and/or opinion gaps.- The concept of text (see definition in M87): - The same definition of text applied here. A new and expanded definition of the word A wide range of suggested readers were given 'text'. Emphasis on authenticity. for the different levels (grades), but it was Less 'respect' for the textbook. More difficult to ascertain whether authentic readers freedom and responsibility granted to the (= the originals) were always intended for this teacher in the selection of teaching group of learners, or whether one should resort material. to pedagogic or level-adapted readers. Looking at some of the proposals, it seemed that obviously graded readers in one form or another must be the logical choice, as the originals were far too advanced. - Differentiation and pupils’ responsibility - Responsibility for own learning much more own learning, the latter not clearly clearly stressed.

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expressed.- Topic-based teaching, and stress on - An activity-based approach: Topic-based English as a 'tool' in other subjects. work in English expanded into project work Local community-based teaching: The idea (including English as a tool in cross-curricular of giving information about one’s own local work). The time spent on small projects and community or country to people abroad, integration of English in other subjects was not only obtaining information abroad. quantified at each level. Considerable time to See 'Norwegian Corner' in some of the text- be spent on this kind of working methodology. books, and local community-based projects (Nesna, Sogndal, Bærum, etc.)- Use of dictionaries and reference books. - Continued stress on use of dictionaries and reference books, in addition to much emphasis on the use of information technology as a means of accessing sources for project work.- Constructive attitude towards language - Encourage the pupils to obtain insight into errors essential to language improvement. the structure of the language, which was to be Encourage learners to 'take risks' and apply used as a basis for acquiring further expansion strategies when using the knowledge and skills, and thus extended language. proficiency.

Foreløpig læreplan i engelsk 1 - 3 klasse. Tillegg til M87 (1992):English was allotted two lessons a week over the first three years to be 'spread across' the three years or taught entirely in the third year. In this respect the Foreløpig læreplan was a forerunner to L97.

3.4 What was essentially new in L97?

- Focus on the very early learners as English was made compulsory from grade 1/year 6.- 'Playing' with the language in an activity-based approach at the early stages, with the aim of inspiring pleasure and enjoyment among the very young learners.- The concept of the curious pupil, a pupil eager to learn and aware of their own learning strategies.- Internationalisation (on a small scale to begin with): Contact with people in other countries. - The cultural aspect passing on our common cultural heritage: Language learning through working with rhymes, rhythms, poems, songs, children's literature (fairy tales), history, geography, important events, well-known persons, music and pictorial art.- The aesthetic dimension: great emphasis on kindling the pupils' imagination and developing their creativity, which was to be expressed in the foreign language through oral, written and/or pictorial presentations.- Amount of project work quantified.. - The new role of the teacher as advisor and tutor more than lecturer and 'controller'.- Use of information technology.

3.5 Læreplan i engelsk 2005 ('Kunnskapsløftet')

The objectives of the new curriculum guidelines of 2005 are not unlike the objectives in L97 in many respects, even though the structures of the two curriculum guidelines are totally different. In both of them there is great emphasis on the language used for communication, and on the cultural approach to language learning, especially through literature; however, in

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the former there seems to be more focus on language learning processes and the development of the individual ('dannelsesaspektet'). The role of English as a world language and thus the importance of the language in the pupils' own lives are heavily stressed, as isinternationalisation through contact with people in other countries.

Basic skills ('grunnleggende ferdigheter i faget') are linked to competence ('kompetansemål') and are largely the same as in L97, but linking English to maths ('Å kunne regne ...') is definitely a new turn. There is also strong emphasis on language learning awareness and strategies, linking the latter both to the mother tongue and the learning of other foreign languages ('tverrspråklighet'). The guidelines are structured along the same lines for the four different levels in primary and comprehensive school (in addition to Vg1 and Vg2), and they are extended at each level, after the second grade, the fourth grade, the seventh grade, and the tenth grade. The objectives at each level are linked to three main areas- language learning - communication, and- culture, society and literatureIn addition to acquiring basic skills, including use of digital tools in English, and English and maths, it is stressed that the pupils need to achieve satisfactory competence in the areas mentioned above. The detailed lists of competencies ('kompetansemål') will help the pupils become aware what they should be able to do in the language after they have completed the different stages; they can almost ‘tick them off’. It seems, however, as if it is left to the schools to decide how to reach the objectives. Despite the fact that the guidelines stress the objectives in detail, they do not suggest any specific methodology, nor do they, in contrast to L97, suggest any specific literature or teaching materials that the pupils should work with. Although the objectives are detailed, they leave the schools and the teachers, and also pupils and parents, with more responsibility for how to reach the goals. The teachers in particular will need to gain new insight, knowledge and skills in order to 'guide' the pupils towards the goals ('kompetansemål') in the best possible way. This represents quite a challenge to many teachers, and even more so because of the National tests introduced at each level to check that the goals have been reached. How this can be reconciled with the principle of teaching and learning processes adjusted to the needs of the individual pupil, working at his/her own speed, remains to be seen.

Another aspect of these curriculum guidelines that is new is the principle that they run through primary and comprehensive levels and straight into upper secondary education (Vg1 and Vg2). In the main they are structured in the same way at all the three levels, and they are supposed to make up one set of curriculum guidelines for grades 1 - 13.

Topics for discussion:

1. Compare the objectives in the two curriculum guidelines for English (M87 and L97) and - find similarities between them. - find aspects where the priorities are different.2. L97 identifies four main areas that the school-subject English should include. Which were they? Discuss to what extent these four main areas were represented in M87.3. Both curriculum guidelines (M87 and L97) contained proposals for topics with which the pupils were expected to work in the English lessons. Compare and assess the choice of topics.4. Above we have pointed out some areas that were essentially 'new' in L97. Which aspects of foreign language teaching and learning had been removed or toned down in the transition

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from M87 to L97? Discuss the changes.5. Which major changes do you think L97 brought about in the teaching of English in Norwegian compulsory education (grunnskolen)? How would you assess these changes?6. What is essentially new in Læreplan i engelsk (2005)?

4.0 WORKING WITH YOUNG LANGUAGE LEARNERS

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4.1 The young language learners

In Foreløpig læreplan i engelsk 1 - 3 klasse Tillegg til M87 (1992) English was introduced for the first time in the Norwegian primary school at a level below grade 4. As pointed out above, two lessons a week over the first three years were allotted to English, leaving to the schools to decide when to start. The two lessons/week could be spread across the first three years or taught entirely in the third year, at the discretion of the schools. The schools went for different options, some starting as early as the first grade, others waiting until the third grade. With the introduction of L97 English was introduced as a compulsory subject from grade 1/year 6, but with a 'soft' and carefully planned start. The very young learners were supposed to start by "playing with the language" or "acting it out". This early start English has been continued in Læreplan i engelsk (2005).

In her book Teaching English in the Primary Classroom (1992) Susan Halliwell argues that young children who are not native speakers of English do not come to the English classroom empty-handed. Nowadays this is certainly the case in Norway. English plays a very important role in the children's lives; they encounter it in many contexts and are generally motivated for learning the language. The young learners are open-minded and intuitive, and they bring with them an already well-established set of skills, which will help them learn another language, e.g. an extraordinary capacity for imitation. They have no problem whatsoever dealing with computer games in English before they start school. English lyrics and music come as naturally to them as if they were in their mother tongue, and they know many of the lyrics by heart. In Norway we are in the fortunate position that, with the exception of some children’s films and TV programmes, few are dubbed; they have subtitles in Norwegian. When pupils start school at the age of six, they have therefore already been exposed to a lot of oral English and are used to the sounds and intonation of the language. They have also gained some insight into the basic language structure and acquired a fair amount of vocabulary. Even though this has taken place in an 'unstructured' or 'un-Monitored' way, there is no doubt that many young learners in Norway today have been tuned in to English to such a degree that the language may be looked upon more as a second language than a foreign one. According to Susan Halliwell, this strong influence of English makes young learners very good at interpreting meaning without necessarily understanding all the words. They have also become very skilled in using their limited language creatively. The challenge for a Norwegian teacher of English is therefore to start in an appropriate way, building on what the children already know and can do in the language. It is therefore important to sound them out and take it from there.

4.2 Working with young language learners

Teaching English at an early stage is different from starting when the children are older. On the basis of what they already know and can do in the language, the teacher can start using the target language from day 1, but it needs careful planning of language use and progression. It is also essential at the early stages that the English teacher provides a good language model for his/her pupils. Furthermore, the teacher needs a thorough insight into and knowledge of British language and culture in order to make proper choices, since there is a lot of teaching material available.

Foreign language teachers generally find that young learners tend to learn best when they apply good learning strategies in all the main areas of the language, for example - when they are willing to practise both oral and, in due time, written language extensively,

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and as far as possible communicate with their teacher and fellow pupils in a simple way, making creative use of their limited language resources, and gradually expanding their use of the language.- when they have managed to develop an awareness of both the way they express themselves and the way others use the language, since both listening comprehension and response are essential aspects of communication. - when they are active while learning the language; the younger the children, the more physically active they ought to be, and in their language teaching the teachers should therefore try to make the most of the children’s urge to move around.- when they apply expansion or achievement strategies instead of reduction strategies, e.g. by rephrasing instead of resorting to the mother tongue when they get stuck.- when they want to correct and improve their language after having become aware of language errors.- when they have learned to apply their knowledge of the structure of the language in the learning process, searching for forms and structures that will improve their language.

In order to get closer to this ideal learning situation, it is not only important to provide the children with a language-rich environment and activity-based material, and encourage them to make the most of both; it is equally important to develop a positive classroom atmosphere and 'build down' learning barriers. The use of ‘ice-breakers’ in the form of group formation activities can be useful in this respect; some children may even need ‘a silent period’ toprocess the language environment.

As language teachers we should also try to do away with all tendencies to overuse the Monitor (see Krashen above). We should keep in mind that a strong demand for accurate production from the very beginning may lead to loss of confidence and interest, and may in fact inhibit language learning. Language errors should be allowed along the way; fluency is essential. However, attention should also be paid to accuracy - in due course. Dealt with properly, language errors can promote learning and improve correctness. At the end of the day the pupils should feel that their work is valued, which in turn will give them a sense of ownership to it, as in the presentation of small projects in English. Two very experienced English teachers in the Norwegian primary school, Angunn Bøkenes and Tove Laukeland, have recommended the following 'formula' for the teaching of early learners of English: Confidence + enjoyment/pleasure + encouragement + help/support = RESULT.

4.3 English in the environment

One possible starting point for the introduction of English to early learners is the environment of the English classroom. Generally, there is no particular English or foreign language classroom in Norwegian schools, and definitely not at the primary level. The classroom serves as the home room for the pupils where all or most of the teaching of the different subjects takes place. To introduce ‘English in the environment’ to any great extent will therefore mean competing for space and resources with other subjects. Still, there will always be some space available in which we can let the pupils' and our own creativity loose. The following are some suggestions for what we can do to turn (parts of) the classroom into a language-learning environment:

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Pupils' texts on various topics Poems, rhymes Maps (country, city) Letters, postcards Item labels Numbers and letters Topic-related vocabulary: Music/CDs English in the Labelling posters/drawings Notices and brochures. environment Birthday calendar. CD/book/video (covers) Calendars. Dates. Photos and posters Name of days, months, Magazines, comics seasons, and holidays. TV-set. Video. Time and today's weather. Computers. CD-Rom. Internet. On the bulletin board NoticesProject presentations. Writing centre English only!Letters (with envelopes) from Scrapbooks, pen and pencils, Do not disturb! I'm reading!. abroad (stamp, addresses, transparencies, coloured pencils, Wash your hands before geography). computers, dictionaries, etc you have lunch!Postcards (geography). available for writing activities. Please keep the classroom Poems, rhymes. tidy! Messages, invitations, notes. Our English Corner Please be quiet in the Children's books or booklets, English corner!'Healthy' messages comics, magazines, (picture) Eat apples! dictionaries, travel brochures, An apple a day, keeps ... ! and other material for language Drink milk, not Coke! games and activities. Milk is good for you!

Such an English environment may also prove useful if we want to organise our teaching along the lines of 'station teaching' ('stasjonsundervisning') where the pupils do various activities at the different 'stations' for a predetermined period of time. With regard to listening and oral activities, it would be an asset to our teaching and learning environment if a smaller room for one group was available, in which the pupils could take turns doing listening or oral activities without distracting their fellow-pupils.

4.4 Starting points for the teaching of English in grade 1/year 6

Why start English as early as grade 1/year 6?When early-start English was proposed in 1992/1993, it was argued by many teachers that introducing a foreign language at such an early age might interfere with the acquisition and learning of the mother tongue. All experience since then has shown that this is not the case. The children are perfectly able to distinguish between the languages, and the general attitude now is that it would be a shame not to make the most of young children's motivation and extraordinary capacity for learning a foreign language. Furthermore, this policy more or less acknowledges and normalises the actual language and cultural situation in Norway, since Anglo-American language and culture have played an increasingly important part in recent years. The current emphasis on internationalisation in education, as well as in Norwegian society in general, tends to support this view. A second foreign language may even be introduced in primary school in the very near future.

How then can we start teaching English from grade 1?

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It is important to get to know the pupils and establish a proper basis for the teaching of English and the pupils' learning. Questions like What do they know already? What can they do in the language? will be essential. Our objectives will generally be to start from there to expand their knowledge and develop their language skills, and in the process to motivate in the pupils to work more systematically with the language in different ways.

Vocabulary:Using objects/the real thing or visuals.

“Do you know the English word for this?”

Language games & Songs, rhymes activities to develop & rhythms.oral use of the Poems. language. Starting points for English in grade 1/year 6

Music & video Fairy tales/stories with

programmes for with visuals (+CDs/tapes) children to develop listening comprehension and stimulate imagination. Storytelling by teacher, as far as possible in an interactive way, using simple and repetitive language. A first step towards developing reading comprehension.

In order to promote oral proficiency: Basic questions and statements such as:

“What is your name?” “How old are you?” “Have you got a (nouns)?”, “Teddy thinks ... .” Gradually expand the use of topic-related language, using simple versions of activities like 'Spot the differences', 'Find someone who (+ be, have) ...', guessing games like 'Who am I?', matching games, etc. (For details, see 4.5 below).

4.5 INTRODUCING AND ACTIVATING VOCABULARY

A word is deadWhen it is said,

Some say.I say it just

Begins to live That day.

Emily Dickinson, "A Word"

In the English classroom it is possible to work with new (topic-related) vocabulary in a variety of ways. Approaches to new vocabulary can be organised in full class or group sessions, and then through teacher - pupils or pupil - pupil activities, or they can be organised as individual work. The main thing is that it is an activity-based approach on the part of the learner. If the work with new vocabulary is teacher-directed, it should be carried out through

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dialogue between teacher and learners, and should engage all or most of the learners' senses (listening, seeing, feeling).

Working with new vocabulary

Playing with the language is an approach suggested in the Curriculum Guidelines for English (L97), particularly in the early years of foreign language learning. Working with words in different ways is also very much in focus in the early years of English in Læreplan i engelsk (2005), in the form of comparison with the mother tongue, consideration of how useful the words are in situation, or working with them on the basis of the interests of the pupils. There are a number of activities that can be used for the purpose of introducing new vocabulary to our pupils, as well as keeping it active. Such activities could involve

- visual stimuli:* The 'real thing', linking object and word; identifying, describing, labelling items, and also encouraging the pupils to bring things from home for such purposes. A guessing game like ‘What's in my basket?’ could be useful here (see also Further work below).* Extensive use of various types of visual stimuli, such as drawings, photos, picture series, transparencies, flashcards, maps, etc., linking visual concept and word: guessing, identifying, describing, labelling, matching words with things and/or activities in pictures or posters.* A picture series of about 6-10 pictures. Pupils find one word expressing the content of each picture. The first letter in each word, together with the first letter in the other words, will make up a new word; in this way the pupils can check that they are on the right track.* A large picture can be used in a memory game. It is shown to the pupils for a limited period of time; the pupils try to remember and state what is in it. If need be, they can be helped along with questions like “Did you see ...?”, ”What ...?”, “Where ... ?” * Board games or card games as stimuli: Working in small groups, the pupils act in accordance with instructions on each card. They can throw dice, count picture cards on the board and tell the others “I've got a/an ... .”, “I'd like a/an ... .”, “I'm going to buy ... .” , or they can cut out each picture card from the board and use them as a deck of cards, drawing one card each, and telling the others what is on it.* Interactive use of CD-Roms, e.g. P.B. Bear's Birthday Party or Zak's Word Games. Further work (depending on level) could be to - say spell write the word, - say and write the plural,- make a sentence with the word in it, - find another word with approximately the same meaning (near-synonym),- find a word with the opposite meaning (near-antonym). - deducing meaning from oral context - or explaining orally in English:* “What is the word?” Guess the word from an oral context.* “Explain ... in English”: Explain what a given word means in English.

- deducing meaning from written context:* Fill in the missing word: Particular words (new vocabulary, verbs, prepositions, connectors, etc.) have been taken out of a text, or words have been taken out at strictly regular intervals, e.g. every 7th or 8th word ('cloze').* Put the words back: This is an easier version of Fill in the missing word since all the words

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are given below the text.* 'The Stranger': Which word (in a group of words) does not fit in?* Multiple choice: Three or four alternatives are given; in the context only one is correct.

- combining letters (and numbers), finding words:* Match the words: Two columns of words of the same meaning are introduced, one in English and one in Norwegian, but the words are given in a different order. “Which of the words match? Draw a line between them.”* The comb: Each letter in a long word makes up the first letter in new words.* The staircase: The last letter in a word makes up the first letter in a new word. * Hangman: Pupils are told the number of letters in a long word, and start giving individual letters in English in order to find which word it is. For each wrong letter (i.e. a letter that does not fit in) a line is added to the 'hangman'. There is an element of friendly competition in this activity as the pupils try to guess the word before the hangman is completed. This is a good way of practising the English alphabet and guessing words. * Break the code: The letters of the English alphabet are numbered. Number groups are changed into letter groups = words, practising numbers and the English alphabet, and eventually making up sentences and texts. This activity can be used with early learners together with Alphabet songs and Counting or Counting out rhymes, and/or as a prelude to Maths in English. * Word search/The square/The chequerboard: A certain number of words are put across and down a chequerboard. In the remaining open spaces any single letters are filled in to 'cover up' the words: “How many words can you find?” “Put a circle around them and write them below the square?” The idea is for the learners to recognise as many words as possible and write them down, focussing both on meaning and spelling. Sometimes words are also put in diagonally, which makes the word search considerably more difficult.* Crossword puzzles or Across and down. - making vocabulary clusters and topic webs:A topic web is used to build up or expand topic-related vocabulary, branching out fromgeneral words to more specific ones. It may consist of several so-called vocabulary clusters, which are groups of words linked together on the basis of certain criteria. How detailed topic webs and vocabulary clusters should be will depend on the level. “What do you think of ...?” “What do you associate with ...?” In an 'associogram' topic-related vocabulary suggested by the pupils can also be grouped indiscriminately around the topic and, if appropriate, structured on the basis of the same criteria as above. The point is to introduce new vocabulary as well as activate passive vocabulary by making the pupils come up with as many words as possible linked to the topic. Illustration: 'Brainstorming': “What do you think of when you hear the word holiday?” interrail summer house ship cabin guest house swimming oars rowing sailing boat snowboard travel beach relaxing

cheap Holiday expensive tent sunbathing (When do we have holidays ...?) barbecue hotel go abroad: (names of countries ... ?) play football reading camping site skis skiing alpine piste

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football pitch

Above we have put the pupils' immediate suggestions around the topic as they come up, and written them in an 'unstructured' way. During or after the brainstorming it is also an option to sort them into categories so that all the words form a more structured whole, a sort of topic-web with the vocabulary grouped in clusters around the main topic word. Such a topic-web can also appear in the form of ‘a word tree’ with the vocabulary clusters branching out from the trunk.

Illustration of a more systematic approach: (Vocabulary depending on level)

on the terrace in the mountains socialising on the beach go to the beach at sea, at the water's edge swimming, sailing, fishing, Christmas rowing Easter on the football pitch relax, visit family Whitsun play football Summer When? Where? Activities sunbathe Winter read, hike go skiing

go to parties, entertain go abroad: (countries ...?)

Holiday interrail We stay at /in travelling: train (accommodation) plane coach a guest house Meals bicycle/bike a tent a cabin For our activities we use/need a hotel a hostel exotic food a summer house (depending on country) a boat oars suntan oil a football a fishing rod skis snowboard boots swimsuit bathing suit change money (currency, exchange rate) This systematic approach, grouping the words into categories, will create a good overview or survey, but if we start out with it we may lose some of the immediacy of the 'free' and unrestricted brainstorming, which is so essential when it comes to activating the pupils' passive vocabulary. Pre-determined categories may also hamper the flow of the brainstorming as it may sometimes prove difficult to place a suggested word in any one category, but this is a minor matter of choice and variation. Either of these approaches, the free brainstorming or the more structured approach, can constitute a good basis for an introductory conversation on the topic as the pupils’ suggestions constitute topic-related language 'tools' (read: vocabulary) of their own choosing. By making the most of these tools orally, the pupils will haveinternalised them much more quickly. The next step could be to use them in written work of some kind.

- physical activities/miming:

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Such activities give the children an opportunity to move around, which in itself is good, and to learn a foreign language by doing so. Activities of this kind could be* showing listening comprehension by following directions on a CD or the teacher’s instructions, including classroom routines, from greetings and asking for/giving information to any organisation of teaching and learning activities, as well as practical administration of classroom routines. If such use of the language is carried out consistently in a positive atmosphere, it will constitute an important language resource in the classroom.* 'Simon says ...,' an activity, in which the pupils act on the command when the introduction ‘Simon says ...' is used, but not if it is omitted.* 'Aerobics' and similar physical activities based on instructions about what to do.* Guessing the word from miming: Teacher pupils, pupil pupils, or pupil pupil (pairs).

- expanding vocabulary and building phrases/sentences:* Using guessing games: “What's this (going to be)?” (Draw - or uncover a drawing gradually). “I spy with my little eye something beginning with ...“ “I'm thinking of ...” (Give a clue)* Using the relay technique to expand (topic-related) vocabulary: “In the picture/From our classroom window I can see houses and trees.” “In the picture/From our classroom window I can see houses, trees, and mountains.” “In the picture/From our classroom window I can see houses, trees, mountains, and ... “. Sport: “I like/dislike football” “I like/dislike football and ice-hockey.” “I like/dislike football, ice-hockey, and bandy.” “I like/dislike football, ice-hockey, bandy, and ... .” Food and drink: “I like ..., but I dislike ....”, which is a slightly more challenging task. * Using synonyms or antonyms: “Do you know another word for ...?” “What is the opposite of ...?”* The teacher throws a ball to one of the pupils and asks a question: “Peter, is it raining?” Peter answers and asks another pupil a new question: Pupil pupil pupil, the relay technique is used to make sentences/expand language.* Using instruction cards as prompts for building sentences: ‘Say it!’* Finding related words on the basis of certain criteria, e.g. - making topic-related wordlists (shopping list, menu, what to bring on a holiday, words to do with weather are ... , etc.), - groups of related words - action (verb) - action (noun) - doer of the action (noun): to travel - a travel - a traveller to explore - exploration - an explorer, - 'great' adjectives: Splendid, famous, wonderful, important, essential, grand, crucial gigantic, fantastic, unique, ... . - 'happy' words: Sweets, love, holiday, songs, birthday, presents, ... . * Expanding from noun, adding adjective, adverb, article sentence making: A good football player plays football well. Peter has got a very interesting book. It has got many beautiful pictures. John rides his new bike carefully.

- direct translation:

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* With idiomatic structures which cannot be translated directly into the mother tongue.* With some abstracts which would be difficult to explain in English.

Note: ‘Second’ use of teaching material (vocabulary) in other subjects: “What is ... called in English?” This is similar to the role of maths in the curriculum guidelines for English in Læreplan i engelsk (2005).

- using dictionaries or picture dictionaries:* Mostly for individual work. It is stressed in the Curriculum Guidelines for English that the pupils should learn how to use dictionaries so that they can make the most of the rich sources of English language that good dictionaries really are, for language use as well as for spelling and pronunciation. - using video to teach vocabulary: Freezing a film using the pause button provides an endless stream of 'flashcards', from which we can elicit descriptions and vocabulary. We freeze on * a person: “Who is he?” “Where is he from?” “What does he look like?” “What family does he have?” “What does he do?” “Is he rich?”* a place: “Where is this?” “Who lives there?” “Is it a nice place?” “Why?/Why not?” For further details, see Video in the English Classroom. Techniques for Successful Teaching. This video by Barry Tomalin shows how video can be used in the classroom to promote active learning.

- introducing new vocabulary through class conversation: Using topic-related class conversations focussing on relevant vocabulary. Pronunciation practice

As the pronunciation of English words often differs widely from the spelling representation, oral practice stressing the pronunciation of individual sounds and words, as well as the intonation patterns of larger structural units are often necessary to improve these aspects of the learners' English. Choir-reading using CDs or cassettes with native speakers as models may prove useful in this work. It could be carried out as- whole-class imitation,- group imitation, including the reading of dialogues or simple dramatisations, or- individual imitation.The focus of pronunciation and intonation practice should be accuracy.

New language used in communication - with the teacher.- with fellow pupils.Only when the pupils can use the new words, phrases, and structures for communicative purposes can they be considered an integrated part of the pupils' own language proficiency and thus internalised.The main focus of communication should be fluency.

Concluding remarks on vocabulary work

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As far as possible, discussion of the communicative meaning of words, phrases, and structures should be carried out in English. Learning through contextual understanding is important in foreign language learning, whether it takes place in speaking or reading, because this is how we often perceive the meaning of new words in real life. It has been argued, however, that if direct translation into the mother tongue is not used at all, learners may sometimes be left with a rather vague understanding of the meaning, especially with abstract and idiomaticexpressions. In any case, the extent of direct translation into the mother tongue should be considered carefully.

The writing of new words is also an important part of the learning process once the pupils are passed the initial stages. As pointed out above, the visual representations of English words are often widely different from the pronunciation. A vocabulary book or scrapbook will be of great help to the learners in acquiring writing skills, both through the writing of individual words, phrases, and idiomatic structures, focussing on spelling; and even more through the use of these in a wider contextual framework where text organisation and cohesion are taken into account. In recent years there has been a decline in the emphasis on writing and the more formal aspects of the language altogether, and more emphasis has been put on speaking. 'Muntlig bruk av språket er viktigst på alle nivå' (M87) seems to have been the guideline, and for a period rightly so. Yet in the history of foreign language teaching and learning the pendulum has swung, often from one extreme to another. Nowadays there seems to be a growing understanding and acceptance of the fact that the focus on formal aspects of language should regain some of its former position in the teaching and learning of foreign languages. In summing-up the work with new vocabulary related to a particular topic, a relevant question could be: Which new words and phrases have we learned? Such a focus couldprove useful as part of the overall assessment of topic-based work. 4.6 Planning topic-based work:

Topics related to children's knowledge of the world:

Our choice of topics should be related to children's knowledge and experience of the world, and preferably topics they consider relevant for themselves in their situation. The more they can identify with the topics, the more easily they will acquire the knowledge and accept the fact that they are introduced and dealt with in a foreign language. It is often worthwhile lending an ear to the children when it comes to making choices - or at least discussing our choices with them. Subject to these reservations, some proposals for topics are listed below as they often occur in teaching material for early learners:

- General: Greetings, numbers, colours, time (clock, days, dates, months), weather, ...- Myself and others: My body, family, friendship, ...- Everyday life: *The local scene: House and home, friends, playground, spare time activities, shopping, ... *School: Classroom, routines, school subjects, classmates, games and activities, school meals, ... - Seasons: Spring, summer, autumn, winter - and their characteristic features.- Holidays: Christmas, Easter, Whitsun - and the seasonal holidays. - The natural world: Animals/pets, trees/flowers, mountains, lakes, sea/oceans,

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(beautiful) scenery, ... and activities linked to these.- Entertainment and sport: Music/pop stars, film, TV, video programmes, games, sports, ...- Songs, rhymes, and rhythms: (For illustrations, see list below).- Children's literature: Fairy tales, stories, adventures, explorations, ... with available visuals and/or listening material.

Suggested organisation of topic-based work:

After choosing the topic, a useful approach is to ask the didactical questions

WHAT? HOW? WHY?

STARTING POINTe.g. - a topic-related song or story.

- a brief introduction to the topic.

FOCUSSING ON VOCABULARYLinking visuals and words.

Making a topic web and vocabulary clusters(see 4.5 Introducing and activating vocabulary above)

SPEAKING READING- Singing a topic-related song - The words of the song- Using visuals: - Word collections: ‘Which ... ?’ Labelling pictures/posters.- 'Spot the differences' using - Book of facts linked to the topic-related vocabulary. topic. - 'What is wrong/missing?' - Collecting information on - 'Can you tell me ... ?' the Internet. - Stories.

TOPIC LISTENING WRITING- 'I spy with my little eye ... ' - Writing vocabulary.- 'What am I?' - Making sentences. (Listening to description) - Writing/collecting topic-- 'Spot the mistake.' related poems/rhymes/ - 'Listen and do/make/draw/complete.' songs.- Listening to a story or factual text - Notices, ads. linked to the topic. - Postcards, letters. - Compositions.

PRESENTATION Oral or written.

EVALUATION

of- product, process, and language:

What have we learned? What new language and/or skills have we acquired?

What can be improved?

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(content, language, methods)

4.7 Using children's literature (stories) in the English classroom

In L97 the cultural aspects of foreign language teaching and learning are heavily stressed. One of the approaches is through children's literature, which is available in great abundance in English. Even though pedagogical readers exist, most of these books or booklets are not written for pedagogical purposes, but for children's enjoyment and as an inspiration and encouragement for further reading. In addition to giving the children the pure joy of reading, good and visually and thematically attractive books, will no doubt expand the learners' vocabulary and, dealt with in the right way, enhance their reading, listening, speaking and writing skills. Below, the use of children's literature (stories) in the English classroom will be discussed, with particular reference to Norwegian learners.

How can this type of literature be used? And why?- For the early learners a book or booklet can be read aloud or told/dramatised by the teacher. Appropriate visuals may be used to illustrate the story and enhance the dramatic effect.- Many of the stories are published with a CD or cassette recorded by professional actors, which can be used for the development of listening comprehension or as support for reading comprehension. An important benefit of this additional material is that the learners get the opportunity to listen to native speakers. (For further activities, see 6.0 Developing listening comprehension below).- Later, the stories can be read by the pupils independently so that they can develop their skill in reading comprehension. It is essential that the school has an appropriate selection of reading material for the different levels of learners, which should cater for a variety of interests. The learners should have something to stretch for, but if the reading material is too difficult with regard to content and/or language, the children may become frustrated and lose interest. It often feels like a 'victory' for a Norwegian young learner to finish reading his/her first book in English. Such a sense of victory may have far-reaching consequences for the children's attitude to reading English books or booklets in the future. - Stories can also be used as a starting point for discussions in order to develop the learners' oral proficiency, or for different types of creative expression, such as drawing or writing. - Reading in role-groups or dramatisation is also possible with texts that include dialogues (see 8.0 Reading aloud in the English classroom below). Stories can also be dramatised and enacted. 4.8 Using songs and rhymes

L97 introduces English for the very early learners in primary school, 1st graders or six-year-olds. As stated above, playing with the language is an essential part of early English learning. Acquiring the sounds and getting the rhythm of the language are two main objectives at this early stage. English has an abundance of songs and rhymes, which can also be used with Norwegian learners, since many of them have Norwegian versions familiar to the children.

Types of songs and rhymes for the early learners:

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Generally, songs and rhymes for the early learners focus on topics linked to the individual or the immediate environment. Such topics are

- Myself and others - Jazz chants for children- Alphabet songs and rhymes - Parts of the body- Daily activities - 'Aerobics', etc. - physical expressions - Counting or number songs and rhymes of songs and rhymes. Action rhymes.- Nonsense rhymes, tongue twisters, and riddles. - Story rhymes. - Skipping and counting out rhymes - School time- Clapping rhymes - Play time.- Colours - Home time. - Animals and plants - Food. Dinner time.- Greetings - Lullabies.- Time and seasons. - Christmas songs and rhymes.- Weather - Special Days (Birthdays).- Shoes and clothes rhymes - Praise and Prayer- Rhymes about grown-ups. - Etc.

Most modern English textbooks for early learners contain a lot of appropriate songs and rhymes for this age group. For other sources, see the appended List of Materials for TEFL in the Primary and Comprehensive Classrooms. For a collection of songs and rhymes, see also the website of Sogn & Fjordane College http://www.hisf.no under Nettverk for engelsk.

Topics for discussion:

1. In your opinion, which are the main characteristics of the young language learner? When do children learn best?2. How would you choose to start English in grade 1 (year 6)?3. Give a critical evaluation - of the various vocabulary activities suggested above. How relevant do you think they are in foreign language teaching and learning? - of the model for planning and organisation of topic-based work suggested above. How useful do you think it would be from a learning perspective to do topic-based work in this way?4. Choose a good story or fairy-tale for the level in question and discuss in groups or pairs how you would use this in class.*5. Select at least six songs, rhymes and/or poems for young learners and prepare to use them in class.*

* Collections will be made available.

5.0 THE CONCEPT OF TEXT

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5.1 Different types of text

M87 introduced a broader concept of text, which for all practical purposes proved to be useful. There is nothing in later curriculum guidelines, L97 and the new curriculum guidelines of 2005, that contradicts this concept, nor is there a clearer definition of text provided than the one below. Thus, it is worthwhile to study this more carefully as it can be applied to a variety of texts - not only text in the traditional sense of the word (written texts), but also texts in modern mass media and information technology, and texts composed by the pupilsthemselves.

“The word text is used here for all the material with which the pupils come into contact, material which they are to read, see or listen to. The texts can establish a basis for conversation, provide knowledge, stimulate the imagination and open up for experience.The pupils need to have a varied and differentiated selection of texts from the point of view of language and content. They should encounter English through authentic texts as soon as possible. This also applies to listening to texts representing different variants of the English language. Literary texts can be used when the language is simple enough for the pupils to understand. An important criterium for choice of texts is that they are in themselves good texts for the pupils.The pupils must practise reading longer texts on their own, either for the sake of experience or to obtain a picture of the text as a whole, to extract specific information, to note new words and expressions, etc. The pupils must also compose texts themselves. They will benefit from both the process and the product. Some of the texts will be appropriate for use in class; others for use in small groups or by individuals. The pupils must practise evaluating texts that they come across outside school, and here it is natural to coordinate English with other subjects.All pupils should be provided with opportunities to use many different kinds of texts. ... “.

From Chapter 27: English in Curriculum Guidelines for Compulsory Education in Norway, pp. 228-229.

5.2 The term ‘authentic’

The discussion below regarding what a text is, and how to use different types of texts, will largely be in line with the guidelines above. There are, however, concepts such as 'authentic text' that are being used indiscriminately in the latest curriculum guidelines without being properly clarified. Ian Drew, in his essay on What materials are suitable for extensive reading? on the Sogndal College website, argues that “... the authenticity of a text is complete if it communicates meaningfully with its reader. A wide range of materials, especially materials for foreign language learners, thus become not only authentic but also especially suitable for the foreign language classroom”. Thus, authentic materials could be defined as materials that are important to the individual in his/her situation. In her book Teaching a Foreign Language. Principles and Procedure (1998:168), Professor Aud Marit Simensen seems to take a different view when she distinguishes between three different types of graded readers: authentic readers, pedagogic readers and adapted readers. With regard to the first she states that “Authentic readers contain texts not written for pedagogic purposes. The texts are selected and published in their original or authentic form because they are rated as appropriate for particular language levels. Books written for native speaker children or adolescents are common in this type ”. Pedagogic readers and adapted readers, on the other hand, are texts

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especially written or prepared for L2 pupils, the latter being adapted from authentic texts to suit definite L2 levels.

Ideally we should use a variety of materials that enhance the skills, knowledge and insight of the learners in different ways. We should ask ourselves whether authenticity is always interesting per se in the classroom situation. Sometimes a good English textbook may serve our purposes or objectives better, being developed for a particular level, and containing materials selected and presented by experienced language teachers to suit the specific needs of the learners. We should keep in mind, however, that the selections in such cases have been made by adult textbook writers, and they may not always strike home with the young language learners. This is especially true if the textbook materials have been developed or adapted by non-native writers and therefore may be perceived as 'not real'.

'Reality' generally motivates and challenges, but as the language in materials not developed for pedagogic purposes is not selected, graded and/or structured, it could prove to be too difficult for the pupils. Such materials could also make too many assumptions about or demand too much cultural and social knowledge, and lead to loss of interest and/or confidence. The language proficiency of the teacher is also essential. Using this type of material makes greater demands on his/her skills and cultural knowledge than using an ordinary textbook written in simplified language.

Good and varied textbook materials are important as a basis for teaching in the Norwegian foreign language classroom, as are supplementary graded or adapted materials. However, this should not exclude the use of 'authentic' children's literature, video programmes, listening material, and at an intermediate or more advanced stage, magazines, newspapers, and even adult literature, for those who show an interest and will benefit from it. We have to take care though that our selection and use of these texts is appropriate for the individual pupil, and fully in line with clear teaching and learning objectives. Topics for discussion:

1. Try to find a good and useful definition of the term authentic text.2. Discuss the pros and cons of using authentic material in the English classroom.

6.0 DEVELOPING LISTENING COMPREHENSION

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6.1 Using listening material

Listen! Why? As soon as the children set foot in the Norwegian English classroom, it is important for them to start developing their listening comprehension skill since listening is such a vital part of the communication process. It all starts with the teacher’s use of simple language, prompting the learners to respond applying appropriate listening and communication strategies. The English teacher is usually not a native speaker. Using listening material will therefore support the teacher by "bringing native speakers into the classroom". In this way the learners will have the opportunity to hear different accents, the voices of men and women, and the voices of different age groups, particularly children. Furthermore, they will learn to deduce the meaning of words from context, and grasp the gist of what is being said by listening attentively.Listening material brings variety into the classroom in more ways than one, since there is a wide range of such material. The best form of listening at this level is one that activates the learners, particularly when it makes the most of the children's urge to 'move around' and show their comprehension through physical activity. Listening comprehension activities of this kind will generally show “that pupils are capable of understanding much more English than they are able to produce and that listening is a skill which has to be acquired like any other skill” (Wendy Scott,1980). Songs are another popular listening activity, although the teacher may need instrumental backing. Songs are important for young children because they combine language with music and rhythm. While the main function of such activities is comprehension, good and varied listening material is also useful for pronunciation and intonation practice.

Listen! How?All the modern English textbooks used in Norwegian schools are now supplemented by cassettes or CDs containing a variety of listening comprehension material. In addition, there is a lot of topic-related listening comprehension material available for use in the classroom. When using this material, we can apply the following procedure:

1. Introducing the topic/material: The context can be provided through discussion or other input material, reading, visuals, etc. A video can also be used to stimulate the discussion and introduce vocabulary, either by using silent sequences, or by covering the footage and using sound only for listening purposes. Pre-teaching of vocabulary - if need be. 2. If comprehension questions are being used, they should not be too specific, but rather focus on eliciting general information regarding people talking, or general comments on the gist of what is being said. Answers should be discussed.3. Use of comprehension questions means that the pupils will have to demonstrate their listening skills through language production, so they will not be able to demonstrate fully their listening comprehension skill. 4. If the listening tasks are of a specific nature, the text should be repeated twice so pupils can check their answers. The listeners often appreciate a second, or even third opportunity to fill in missing information or correct mistakes. It certainly benefits those who initially found the text very difficult, but who through discussion and/or one or two replays manage to gain a better understanding.6.2 Listening comprehension activities

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Some principles to be considered:1. The learners should be encouraged to understand the gist rather than all the details, unless they are asked to listen for specific information. 2. The aim of listening activities should be to make the learners do something other than just answer comprehension questions correctly, which is why such questions should preferably be used with global listening (see also 4. below). 3. The learners should sometimes receive support from other teaching material while they are listening (photos, drawings, slides, video, etc.) since we are generally receive information from many different sense impressions while we are listening. This material, however, should not be used if we want to focus strictly on listening comprehension, because it may distract the listeners.4. The listening material should be varied, preferably problem-solving and only occasionally of the type text + comprehension questions. The aim should be for our pupils to practise and develop their listening comprehension skill. As the above quote by Wendy Scott stresses, they are capable of understanding much more English than they are able to demonstrate through language production, so they must be allowed to express this skill in other ways. If we insist on language production, the learners’ development of the listening comprehension skills could, in fact, be inhibited.5. As far as possible, the listening material should consist of natural speech, with pauses, stuttering, repetitions, cut sentences, etc.6. A different type of listening activity is used for pronunciation and intonation practice, or vocabulary building. Some of these discrimination exercises have been included below, even though they are strictly speaking not listening comprehension activities (see 12, 13, and 14). Correct production of sounds and intonation patterns needs to be practised since it may have an impact on communication.(Adapted from an article by Alan Maley in The Modern English Teacher, September 1978, used in Anne-Karin Korsvold's review of Wendy Scott, Are You Listening in Språk og språkundervisning no 4, 1981).

Suggestions for listening comprehension activities:

1. Listen for gist: (story and possibly visuals) Retelling or reproducing the gist of the story orally or in writing. Key-words and/or visuals for support should be considered.2. Listen and predict: Stopping the tape/CD: “What do you think will happen next?” Check answers against text.3. Listen for specific information: Examples: The weather: Area, temperature, what the weather is like, etc. The news: Names (of people), numbers, places, countries, etc.4. Listen and do: (Physical activities) “Put up your hand when ...”, “Could you help me with ..., please?”5. Listen and follow directions: Information transfer, e.g. following directions on a (city) map, which requires map reading skills, or following instructions for a task or classroom activity.6. Listen and draw/colour/follow the numbers: Focussing on creativity, names of colours, practising numbers, ... .

7. Listen and complete:

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Filling in the missing information in forms or questionnaires, or filling in missing vocabulary in songs (lyrics), in which certain words have been erased (topic-related words, verbs, prepositions, etc, or use it as a kind of 'cloze', in which every 7th or 8th word has been taken out systematically). Completing a drawing/map.8. Listen and write/take notes: Either free note-taking of what is perceived to be the most important points, or an interview based on prepared questions: “Where does he come from?” “Which school did he go to?” “When did he leave school?” “What is his job now?” “What are his plans?” etc. The latter activity is bordering on listening for specific information.9. Listen and identify: Describing picture/thing/person/animal, etc.10. Listen and arrange/put things back: Putting pictures in a series, or placing things in the right order.11. Listen and react: Example: 'Simon says ... ', 'Aerobics' (see also 4. and 5. above).12. Listen for mistakes: Focussing on comprehension - or language items.13. Listen and discriminate: E.g. between sounds in minimal pairs where the different sounds have an impact on meaning: a boat - about, know - now, no - now, hear - hair, fear - fair, ... .14. Listen and repeat: Language practice: Pronunciation (sounds, stress, rhythm) and intonation patterns, e.g. “You know him, don't you?” has different meanings depending on the rise or fall of intonation in the tag. The textbook cassette or CD may also be used for such purposes, for example by introducing the right intonation pattern for 'choir-reading'.15. Listen and enjoy: Setting: The pupils are relaxed and comfortable in a friendly and secure classroom atmosphere, listening to music, songs (lyrics), poetry, drama, fairy-tales/stories on tape/CD, or being read to them or told/dramatised by the teacher.16. Listen and discuss: Listening as a stimulus for discussion: E.g. general thoughts about the text or analysis of situation and/or character.17. Listen and create: Listening as a stimulus for creative work, such as writing, drawing, painting, singing, etc.18. Listen and assess: True - False - Doesn't say/Not mentioned (advanced level) Listen to and assess information on the basis of true, false, or irrelevant statements.19. Listen and fill in a table: E.g: Filling in a timetable or a chart. 20. Listen and match/tick off: Listening to and matching information down and across a grid, ticking off the right match.

Topics for discussion:

1. What is meant by listening comprehension skills?2. To what extent do you think we should focus on developing this skill in foreign language teaching and learning?3. What kind of language material can be used as listening comprehension material?4. Which pre-listening activities may be useful before the learners start a listening activity?

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5. Assess the activities listed above with regard to developing the learners' listening comprehension skill: Which five would be at the top of your list? Give reasons for your choice.6. How can a listening comprehension activity be used as the basis for other language activities (post-listening or follow-up activities)?

For further work: Listening self-assessment form (EVA Project). See http://www.ecml.at/cando/files/start.htm

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7.0 DEVELOPING READING COMPREHENSION

7.1 Read! Why?

If we really start thinking about it, it is amazing how much we read during a day, and it would be hard to manage without this skill in modern society. Roughly speaking, our reading is generally confined to four main areas that partly overlap; we read for work or study, pleasure, and survival in everyday life. As Norwegians, our reading in a foreign language, even in English, is of course more limited, but as stated above, English plays an increasingly important role in our lives. If we go abroad, which we do more and more often, we depend upon it for survival nearly everywhere. At home in Norway, we can still largely manage without it in our daily lives, but our access to entertainment e.g. different TV channels, the computer world and many jobs or studies is really hampered without a certain level of knowledge and skills in the language. We have become so used to English in our environment that we hardly notice the fact any more that many shops now have got English names, that many Norwegian pop artists sing in English only, and that tourists approach us in the street without bothering to ask whether we speak English; they take it for granted. If we are able to read in the language, it will also enrich our lives in the way that it will open up to us a whole new world of information and literature. It will also give us the opportunity to read it in the original language.

7.2 Choosing reading material in the English classroom

In the English classroom we need a variety of texts and genres for the pupils to read, as well as a variety of activities related to the texts. If we work with a text as a full-class activity, we often need to contextualise the text, give it a kind of framework. Thus, we discuss background information with references to the author or other texts written by the same author, before the pupils approach the text itself and analyse it.

What can we ask our pupils to read in English? In principle, we can ask them to read anything, but there are certain limitations, including:- access,- legal and/or ethical limitations,- relevance; is the text a good one for enhancing the pupils' language skills and cultural insight and knowledge?- level of difficulty; is the text appropriate for the level of the pupils? Should we use adapted readers or the original texts? - what is appropriate for the teacher, the library, the school, etc,- and last, but not least, what is interesting reading material to the pupils; consult them if necessary. In addition, consider how to motivate them for reading material that is more challenging.

All of the above points relate first and foremost to more or less authentic textbook texts, some of them extracts, or even facsimiles from publications not originally intended for classroom use. Furthermore, we could ask our pupils to read authentic children's story books, fairy tales, legends, teen novels, short stories, biographies, plays, and even different types of pedagogical or graded readers. Finally, we could ask them to focus on very short texts that we need to read in everyday life, or texts that we see all around us in an English-speaking country, whether we need them or not, e.g.

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- labels and signs, - instructions (for activities), - advertisements, - newspaper or magazine articles,- recipes and menus, - jokes and cartoons,- tickets, - letters and diaries,- leaflets and brochures, - directions (maps), - posters and postcards, - etc.

Visuals will often constitute an important (aspect of the) text. They serve to illustrate and expand the written text, and make it more attractive, and easy to follow. Modern textbooks cover many genres, but English is so rich in useful supplementary material that there is no need to stick solely to the textbook. “Both pedagogic readers and adapted readers may function as a 'bridge' between textbook texts with various degrees of authenticity and authentic reading material” (Simensen, 1998:168). For that reason it is essential that a wide range of such material is available in the classroom or school library so that it is possible for the pupils not only to read them at school, where there is limited time, but also to borrow them to read at home. In the early years the aim should not be put too high. It is essential that the pupils manage to read a book in English however simple and adapted. This may encourage them to continue reading books in English. Through the world of literature they will not only gain more insight into English culture, but reading will also contribute to developing their language skills in general. The pupils should be consulted both in the process of purchasing books and in the organisation of the classroom or school library. In this way there is a greater chance for accommodating the interests of the pupils, as well as establishing a simple and functional library system.

7.3 Pre-reading activities

'Try not to go into the text cold. Prepare it in some way!' (Jackie Moody, The College of Ripon & York St John, York).

Much of the work in primary and comprehensive school classrooms is focussed on working with written texts, be it textbook texts or other types of written texts, graded or authentic. As the texts are written in a foreign language, it is essential that we make the most of working with them to achieve various goals before actually reading the whole text; for example:- introducing new vocabulary and other language items in context,- arousing curiosity about the content,- stimulating imagination,- and in the process, making our students communicate in the foreign language; this in turn can contribute towards developing their reading comprehension skill, as well as their oral proficiency.

Suggestions for pre-reading activities- Using heading/title/cover as a clue:A starting point for reading a book could be for the pupils to 'feel' it, leaf through it, looking at the pictures, the table of contents, the beginning, but NOT the end, as that would take away the suspense. The pupils can predict or guess the story; then read and compare this with the real text. - Introductory conversation relating the topic of the text to pupils' experiences:How much do they know about the topic already? In this case it is a question of eliciting and structuring information, and in the process making the pupils practise the language.

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- Vocabulary work focussing on expanding topic-related vocabulary:This can be done in a number of ways, e.g. by* making A Topic Web, A Word Tree , or A Word Map of key-words in particular.* using visuals or picture dictionaries.* studying / working with new words in context in other ways.(See Vocabulary work above).- Making 'associograms':“What do you think of / associate with ...?” ( Brainstorming)- Interviews:Interviews can be carried out in different ways. The pupils will need to know how to use the most common question words and the grammatical structures of different types of questions:* Pupils can interview the teacher about the contents of the text.* Half of the pupils read the text; the other half interview those who have read it.Question words like Who? How old? Where? When? What? can be used when asking for factual information, bridging information gaps.Questions like What is ... like? How? Why? - can be used when asking for opinions, explanations and reasons.* The written text and questions to the text can be copied and 'cut up': Text Questions to the textPupil A has got the first half of the text and the questions to the second half of the text.Pupil B has got the second half of the text and the questions to the first half of the text.A and B try to collect/give as much information as they can about the text, the questions giving them a clue as to what to ask about/answer. Similar interviews may also be used when the pupils have different texts.- Using visual texts (pictures or picture series):* Using a single picture: One pupil describes a picture and the other(s) take(s) notes, working in pairs or larger groups.* 'Cutting up' a picture series and giving two or three pictures to each participant in a group: The participants describe each of their pictures, discussing and putting them in the right order so that they express what is perceived by the group to be the correct sequence of events. One of the participants summarises the story. Afterwards the group compare their version with the original picture series.- Using listening as a stimulus:* The pupils listen to the first half of the story and predict the rest; then they listen to the rest before reading the whole text, comparing their predictions with the original story. - From pre-reading towards reading:* 'Cutting up' the written text: Each student in a group reads his/her part of the text and summarises the content for the others. By discussing each part, the group are to decide the logical sequence of events. One of the participants summarises the content. Afterwards the group compare their version with the original text.Some of these activities are bordering on while-reading activities, which will be discussed in more detail below.

7.4 The reading process

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Like listening, reading is a receptive skill, yet many pupils have difficulties in acquiring this skill, for various reasons, and therefore develop a negative attitude to reading. Christine Nuttall's famous models illustrate this problem clearly (for illustration, see appendix 1):

1. The Step-By-Step Model / The 'Bottom-Up' Model:In this model reading is based on the smallest 'units' of the language, syllables and even letters. The reader may struggle so much with these units that global reading is impossible and the overall message or gist of the text is lost. It is an exhausting process 'chopping one's way through the underbrush' that leads the potential reader into a vicious circle, as illustrated in appendix 1. After such an experience he/she does not feel motivated to continue reading, and definitely not in a foreign language. Therefore it is essential that teachers are aware of the problem more and more pupils seem to have in this respect, and try to accommodate their basic needs, by selecting appropriate texts and employing good reading strategies.

2. The Constructive Model / The 'Top-Down Model':In this model the 'signals' from the text lead to- production of images.- construction of hypotheses.- predictions about contents or meaning. - expectations.This creates interest and stimulates reading, ultimately producing a positive attitude to reading, as illustrated in the second circle in appendix 1. Rather than encouragement, this group of readers need guidance so that they can explore the world of literature, see the link between content and the way it is expressed through language, and thus take their reading further.

3. The 'Both - And' Model: 1. - 2.All readers will eventually find that their reading strategies are somewhere along the continuum from model 1 to model 2. Positive and encouraging attitudes to pupils' reading and good reading strategies can contribute considerably towards developing their reading skill and thus developing a more constructive attitude to reading.

7.5 Approaches to reading

How do we read?We may start by looking at the title, length, pictures, and text organisation. Depending on the text, we read in different ways; we browse the headlines to get an overall view, or skim the text to get the gist or the general sense without understanding everything, e.g. the way we read a tabloid newspaper. When browsing or skimming a text, we read for the main ideas, focussing on the key point in each paragraph. It is a way of speed-reading or efficient reading to get a lot of understanding in a short time without looking for anything in particular. If we scan a text, we read for specific information, selecting key information on a particular issue, e.g. in a report, or scanning a newspaper for the result of a particular football-match. It could be a detailed reading of a small part of a more extensive text, or scanning numbers and/or other facts to find their significance in the text; in other words, we are looking for something in particular.If we do detailed reading or study a text in a foreign language, it may be necessary to study or discuss vocabulary and grammar before actually reading the text, depending on what kind of text it is and what level the pupils are at. Furthermore, we may read the text closely because

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we need to, or because it is of interest to us. We may come up with supporting ideas, consider arguments for or against, and/or take notes for future use. We may study setting, plot and character in fiction, or relationships and conflicts, and feel that we learn something and gain a deeper insight into the human mind. Finally, reading for relaxation is something we do quite often, especially when reading certain types of fiction. We enjoy the pleasure of creating images in our minds, of building up suspense, and the excitement of seeing if our predictions and expectations come true. From a language point of view such reading can be very useful. It is essential that we establish good reading habits!

7.6 While-reading activities

A. Working with short texts (textbook texts) for the purposes of developing reading comprehension, as well as practising the language:

- Vocabulary development:* Reading the text, guessing or deducing the meaning of new words from the context.* Finding words in the text that have the same or almost the same meaning, as given words.* Reading the text and crossing off words from the text in an associogram which contains many more. - Gap-fill exercises:* Focussing on reading, and finding the right words for the blanks in a given context, e.g. a 'cloze', or an easier version, 'Put the words back', where the missing words are given below the text. * Focussing on the function of special words in context, e.g. connectors (therefore, so, and, because, however, on the other hand, etc), verbs, or prepositions. For an easier version, see above.* Completing a dialogue, in which several lines have been taken out, in such a way that the complete version will resemble a piece of natural speech in context. * Information transfer based on a written text; reading and pair work, in which one pupil reads the text and communicates information to the other, who may also request information or clarification, and takes brief notes. * Reading a text for information, filling in forms, grids, or questionnaires. - Matching exercises:* Matching text (captions) to pictures.* Matching names to information in the text, e.g. ‘Who is what?’, people and jobs; or matching names, with some information attached to them, to the text: 'Where would these people go?' 'What would these people do?'* Matching two halves of sentences given in a different order in two separate columns, so that they make up meaningful sentences, (practising sentence building).* Eliciting the main points of each paragraph in a text from another pupil; then matching them to the paragraphs containing those points. - Jigsaw exercises:* Finding the correct order for a series of extracts that have been cut up.* Fitting headings and subheadings into a text from which they have been removed.- Reformulation:* Reading for gist and retelling the story.* Retelling the story from pictures or keywords.- Studying:* Vocabulary analysis, using a dictionary and taking notes.

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* Analysis of grammar points and/or phraseology, using grammar textbooks.* Studying the text and noting essential points in the text, focussing on content.- Using reading as a stimulus to discussion or writing tasks.

- Read and predict: * Reading part of a text or story and guessing or predicting the rest.- Read and create:* Making something, following instructions.- Read and react/act:* Doing something, following instructions.- True - false - or doesn't say/no information:* Deciding whether statements related to the content of the text are true or false - or not mentioned in the text at all.- Multiple choice:* Deciding which statement about the content is correct out of 3 - 4 options.- Using comprehension questions:* Such questions are often used to check reading comprehension. We should keep in mind, however, that this requires language production skills, while we are trying to measure reading comprehension, which is after all a receptive skill.Some of the while-reading activities above may also be used with longer texts, but with care.

B. Working with longer texts (short stories / graded or authentic readers / novels):- Using text organisation:* Looking at headings, subheadings, cover, illustrations, and captions to pictures. * Understanding the main points of the text from the Introduction and Table of Content.- Silent reading / private study! Reading for pleasure. Free choice! - While-reading awareness tasks: When the pupils start reading a book, it is important that they have some 'guidelines' about what to look for while reading it. Such guidelines could be given in the form of an introduction and should be simple at first; the idea is to help the pupils make 'discoveries' which might otherwise pass them by. Furthermore, it may also be necessary to explain words like setting, character, conflict, relationship, and later on point of view and plot. In this way their reading will become more interesting. Still, there is always the dilemma in connection with reading fiction regarding how much the pupils should try to explore, discover and enjoy on their own, and how much we as teachers should come in and 'interpret' or 'analyse' the text for or with them. This is a dilemma that should be considered carefully.A general approach for the pupils include questions like:* What is the book about?* Where is the story set?* Who is it about? (Name(s)? How old ...? What does ... look like? What is ... like? What happens to him/her/them? etc)* Other people/characters in the book: What are they like? * Relationships/conflicts between the different people/characters. How do they develop?* What happened? How did it all start? Why? What was the outcome?* Happy ending? Why? Why not?When working with longer texts, and especially fiction, we should take care not to organise our pupils' reading to such an extent that it takes away the pleasure of reading. Striking the right balance between making them aware of essential points in the text and allowing them to explore and discover these points themselves is a delicate one. Stimulating our pupils’ interest in reading should be our main concern.

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7.7 Post-reading activities

There are a variety of post-reading activities that could be used in the English classroom, and we should preferably use activities that the pupils find meaningful and want to do of their own accord after having read the book. Such activities can be carried out orally and /or in writing, e.g.- give a presentation of the book to the others in the class, or write a book review,- write a brief summary of the story,- discuss and/or write about a character they like or dislike,- write a dialogue between two of the characters,- write about a situation or conflict in the book.Post-reading activities can also be given more artistic expression through drawings or illustrations linked to the written tasks above, or through dramatisation of the dialogue.

7.8 Ideas for a classroom library

As a consequence of what has been said above, it is essential that we provide our pupils with good reading material from the rich sources of children's literature in English, be these authentic children's books or graded readers written for pedagogical purposes. Læreplan i engelsk (2005) does not suggest any particular books, as L97 did, but stresses what the learners should know after having completed the different levels. It is left to the schools to decide the reading lists. New reading material is being published all the time. In order to keep up with recent publications, the teachers can ask to be put on the mailing lists of British and American publishers; they are more than happy to send brochures of their new publications, which contain information about the contents, as well as level (graded readers). A list of the Top Ten of the Month based on sales is also available in England. Furthermore, it has proved to be a good idea to consult the pupils before making new purchases for the school or classroom library.

The next step is to give the pupils easy access to the reading material. One way of doing this is to organise an English section in the school's library so that the pupils can borrow books in the same way as they borrow Norwegian library books. They can do this just to read for pleasure, getting accustomed to reading books in English. Getting through the first book in English often means crossing the threshold to more extensive reading in the language. The library should therefore be supplied with reading material that is of interest to different age groups. It is also possible to use a more active approach, giving the pupils assignments that involve reading the material in English for presentation in class, or for written work.

The following are a few practical ideas for how to build up a classroom library. We also suggest some simple working methods for the pupils borrowing books to help them along to an active approach to literature.

How to build up a classroom library- Start with books you can borrow from the pupils, or ask the pupils' advice, in order to make sure that you buy books they will appreciate. - Put the books on display in a sensible and attractive way in the Reading Corner, or

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alternatively on shelves or large tables in the classroom so that they are easily accessible. - Try to mix different types of books: graded readers, authentic, pedagogic and adapted readers, as well as documentaries, science magazines or magazine cuttings, cartoons, brochures, reference books, (picture) dictionaries, etc.- You may start with silent reading sessions in class to start with, and then encourage the pupils to take the books home and read them in peace and quiet. If you let them to do that, you need to decide on a simple borrowing routine with your class, involving the use of individual lending cards. The pupils should also keep a record of their reading through My Booklist and My Reading Diary (see Appendix 2 below). Such work cards are supposed to help the readers discover and explore the world of fiction while they are reading. It is primarily meant to challenge the imagination and inspire and motivate for further reading. It should not be designed with the prime intention of controlling and checking on the pupils' reading. If used for such purposes only, a work card may easily backlash and destroy the pleasure of reading.

Topics for discussion:

1. How would you assess the importance of using pre-reading activities with short texts (textbook texts) in the teaching and learning of English?2. The reading process: What do we actually do when we read?3. Which activities do you consider particularly useful when it comes to developing the learners' reading comprehension skill? You may use the suggestions above or choices of your own for illustration.4. Ideas for a classroom library: What kind of reading material should we keep in our classroom library? How should it be organised?

For further work: Reading self-assessment form (EVA Project). See http://www.ecml.at/cando/files/start.htm

Appendix 1: Christine Nuttall's 'top-down'/'bottom-up' model (see p 101).Appendix 2: My Reading Diary (see p 102).

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8.0 READING ALOUD IN THE ENGLISH CLASS

8.1 Teacher reading aloud

The reading aloud of stories, fairy tales, legends, poetry, etc. by the teacher is generally much appreciated by the pupils, especially if the teacher is good at arousing emotions, and creating suspense or excitement. Young children are often more responsive to a well-read story than older ones. Such a whole-class activity has a positive social effect; it allows teacher and pupils to share their imaginary experiences, and it can contribute considerably to helping the latter become enthusiastic readers. Furthermore, as suggested above, reading aloud is a good listening comprehension activity, which, if it invites response, can help the pupils develop their cultural competence as well as other aspects of their communicative competence.There is a significant difference between reading aloud and storytelling. The former tends to focus on the text, even though it may leave some 'elbow room' to the reader, whereas the latter tends to focus much more on the storyteller. Dramatisation of a text, used wisely by the teacher, may therefore have a stronger impact on the young pupils' imaginations than reading aloud.

8.2 Pupil(s) reading aloud

In the English classrooms in Norway the reading aloud of a textbook text at the beginning of a lesson is a long-established tradition. The idea has generally been to 'reactivate' the text, which the pupils have prepared at home, before it is discussed in class. Reactivating the text can also be done by listening to the tape or CD once more - or by individual silent reading. Pupils' reading aloud is often used, but whether it is good activity is often questioned and discussed.

Arguments against:The 'traditional' way of reading aloud in class- easily makes the pupils passive as only one of them is active at a time. This is particularly the case if the teacher has adopted the habit of only asking the pupils to read one paragraph of the text each in a predictable order. Such predictability will do away with any surprises that might focus the other pupils' attention.- puts a strain on many pupils, in particular those with poor reading ability or dyslexia, if the reading aloud is carried out in a full class.- can introduce and reinforce bad pronunciation and intonation.If reading aloud is to be used, it should at least be used for texts that people tend to read aloud to each other in real life, e.g. letters, postcards, summaries/reports, newspaper headlines and short articles, poems, stories, fairy-tales, etc. – as well as dialogues as a prelude todramatisation. Otherwise, it should be avoided since we do not generally read other types texts to one another outside the classroom.

Arguments for:Reading aloud- is an activity shared by everyone in the social environment of the classroom. A positive classroom atmosphere is a must if we want to make such an activity work properly for all the pupils.- gives the teacher the opportunity to check on pronunciation and intonation, and do remedial work, if need be.- should generally be organised in such a way that all or most of the pupils take part in the

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reading process simultaneously, either by reading or by listening attentively. Such active participation can be obtained through an extensive use of pairs or role groups (a role group = a storyteller reading everything in indirect speech + as many participants as there are roles in the text/dialogue).- gives the weaker pupils the opportunity to use the language without having to face the difficulty of producing language of their own, which is more challenging for most pupils than just reproducing language by reading it aloud. If they do not read to reactivate the text, they can focus exclusively on voice and pronunciation.- constitutes a basis for later freer use of the language, especially for the weaker pupils.Should we choose to introduce reading aloud in our teaching, we have to keep in mind that most of our pupils are not born actors, nor are they native speakers. Some of them may struggle with each syllable of the words, and should not be asked to read aloud in a full class session since such an experience may have an irreversible negative effect on the development of their reading.

8.3 Towards oral proficiency:

Norwegian learners' problems with pronunciation and intonationMistakes in pronunciation and intonation are often dealt with in connection with the pupils' speaking or reading aloud. It is essential that such mistakes are focussed on in context, in relation to a written text used for reading or an exclusively oral exchange, e.g. when the pupils use the language for pure practice or for communication. Corrections should, however, not occur while the pupils are using the language, but be discussed afterwards, in order not to interrupt their fluency. The focus here is on some common sounds that are difficult for Norwegian learners, and illustrate them partly through minimal pairs. Normally, the context will help clarify meaning should a sound be mispronounced, but there are contexts where confusion may arise, or the pronunciation sound strange to a native speaker (see illustrations below). The minimal pairs can be used specifically for the purpose of making the pupils aware how important it is to distinguish between sounds; they can also be used for practice.

The diphthong /əʊ/ and /aʊ/: a boat about no now know load loud phoned found tone town row (a boat) row (quarrel) sow (scatter seeds) sow (female pig)

Pronunciation and communicative meaning in context: I said no/now. I phoned/found him two hours ago.

The diphthongs /ɪə/and /eə/: fear fair hear hair beer bear (Note!)

Pronunciation and communicative meaning in context:

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There was a beer/bear on the table.

Some difficult vowels: /ʊ/: pull, push, bush /ʌ/: cut, but, run, come, duck, cup /ɜː/ /ɔː/: work - walk /ɪ/ /iː/: ship - sheep (length)

Pronunciation and communicative meaning in context: I worked/walked hard to catch up with him. I saw a ship/sheep on the beach.

Other problem sounds: /v/ - /w/: very - well veal - wheel vet - wet vest - west

Pronunciation practice: A very wet wild Viking went walking in the wide valley.

The -(e)s ending: / s / / z / /i z / caps boys brushes hits dogs roses

/ s / or / z /: peace peas loose lose place plays ice eyes lice lies niece knees

Pronunciation and communicative meaning in context: They wanted peace/peas. I would like to see the place/plays. He is full of lice/lies. She is sitting on his niece/knees.

The th- sound: /θ/ /ð/ think the thought (cp. taught) this thin than thick then

The -ed ending: / t / / d / /ɪd/ asked begged added worked stayed counted stopped answered

For possible ways of dealing with mistakes in pronunciation, see below.

Stress on the right syllable:Example: pho'tographer (NOTE possible interference from Norwegian: foto'graf, or from shifting position in English: ‘photograph)

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Common intonation patterns (falling or rising) in different types of sentences:Affirmative sentence: You saw him.(Statement)Negative sentence: I didn't see him.(Negative statement)Command / order: Send it back!Question-word question: Where did you see him?Yes / No question: Did you see him yesterday?Declarative question: You saw him?Alternative question: Was he drunk or sober?Tag question: You saw him, didn't you? (Two possible intonation patterns, with different meanings).'Same-way' question: So the Smiths left early, did they? (Meaning?)Reply question: - John went home early. - Did he?Illustrations of intonation patterns and pattern practice may make the pupils aware of their problems, but illustrations alone are not sufficient. The pupils need to use the different intonation patterns in context, either when reading aloud for dramatisation, or when communicating. A stepping-stone on the way to improved intonation could be choir reading of direct speech/dialogues, following closely the intonation pattern of native speakers on a recorded CD or cassette. Young learners are very good at imitating intonation patterns.

Possible ways of dealing with mistakes in pronunciation in class

1. Wrong pronunciation of relatively simple words:Teacher acts as model suggesting pronunciation pattern - or pupil suggests pattern

Class pronunciation practice

Individual practice

2. Wrong pronunciation of more difficult words:Teacher transcribes the words on the blackboard

(provided the pupils have learned the basics of phonetic script)

Teacher or pupil gives pattern

Class pronunciation practice

Individual practice

Finally, class pronunciation practice ('over-learning') of all the words on the blackboard.

3. To check on pupils' pronunciation we can prepare a conversation in which the words have to be used in a different context.

Topics for discussion:

1. Discuss the place of reading aloud in the foreign language classroom.2. In pairs, practise the problem sounds for Norwegian learners listed above.

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You should correct one another, if need be. Can you think of other problem sounds for Norwegian learners than the ones listed?3. Evaluate the strategies suggested for dealing with mistakes in pronunciation and intonation in class. To what extent should we focus explicitly on such problems?

9. DEVELOPING ORAL PROFICIENCY

From pure practice to communication in the English classroom

9.1 Using the textbook as a basis for developing the pupils' oral skills

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Textbooks have always constituted a core curriculum, if not the only curriculum, in the teaching of English in Norway. This is still largely the case, but the textbooks have changed considerably over the years. In the 1950s/1960s, the textbook texts for the lower levels were based on middle-class life, expressing middle-class values and attitudes. At more advanced levels, the texts were more or less exclusively of a literary or historical nature; very little language linked to everyday life was introduced or used in the classroom. From the 1970s onwards, the focus shifted to everyday life, especially the lives of young people. However, as the textbooks were also based on a structural approach to language teaching and learning, situations as well as language were felt to be rather 'artificial' or unreal. This changed with M87, with its emphasis on authenticity and 'real' language used for communication. These ideas were carried on into L97, which also stressed the cultural approach to language learning more than M87 had done. Texts on everyday life seemed to be deemphasised and, as a result of the cultural approach, there was a certain reemphasis on literary and historical texts. The same trend can be traced in Læreplan i engelsk (2005), in which one of the three main areas is culture, society, and literature, 'Kultur, samfunn og litteratur'; however, the concept is used in a much wider sense than just history and literature.

How did these changes effect the development of the pupils' oral skills?Before the 1980s oral activities were only limited to discussions of texts, which all parties concerned had read and prepared at home. There were hardly any information gaps left to bridge. On higher levels opinion gaps could provide a basis of discussions of literary or historical texts. In recent years this approach has been developed further in relation to more socially or politically oriented texts, e.g. texts on the social conditions of different classes or indigenous people, or on the environment. In these discussions, the teacher generally asked all the questions, and the pupils provided the 'right' answers from the text. In this oral reproduction there was often a demand for 'answers in full sentences', whether this was a natural way of using the language in context or not. The essential point was to make the pupils say as much as possible in English. And the pupils did to the best of their abilities, or the extent of their homework. At the lower levels this could hardly be called communication. At best, such activities could be called pure language practice. Gradually, the textbooks introduced Questions to text and Oral exercises. In combination with pair work this meant much more use of the language than the traditional, one-sided teacher - pupils conversation, but it was still largely language practice and not communication.

A change was initiated with M87 when use of the language for communication came into focus. These curriculum guidelines stated that 'Muntlig bruk av språket er viktigst på alle nivå' (M87, p.206), in the English edition toned down to 'Oral use of the language is important at all levels' (M87- English edition, p.223). At the time, there appeared to be a need to stress more oral use of the language in the English classroom, but the change seemed to take place at the cost of writing. This emphasis on language for communication was carried on into later curriculum guidelines, L97 and Læreplan i engelsk (2005), but now it seems that writing has regained some of its former position. Some ways of using the textbook to promote oral use of the language have already been discussed above under listening, pre-reading, reading, and other activities. Below we will go more in depth, starting with objectives and some guiding principles, and how these can be applied to an analysis of the textbook used for communicative purposes; then go on to practical ways and means; and finally ending our discussion with some views on assessment of spoken English in the classroom.

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9.2 Setting priorities and objectives

In our language teaching we should make the most of our pupils' natural abilities. Young children generally like to talk and move around, and they should be given the opportunity to acquire language in the process. Furthermore, we should help our pupils develop - positive attitudes to foreign language learning and culture,- language awareness: what language is for, and how it functions,- a basic communicative competence or ability to use the language, e.g. by developing good expansion or achievement strategies, and minimising use of reduction strategies, including overuse of the mother tongue in the English classroom,- an ability over time to use oral and written English for social, professional, and academic purposes.As language teachers we should not only set our own priorities and objectives, but state these explicitly and share them with pupils as well as parents. The latter may have somewhat biased opinions about language teaching and learning based on their own schooling some decades previously. Our priorities should therefore be clarified and discussed with everybodyconcerned in order to provide insight into and create awareness of what modern foreign language teaching and learning is all about.

9.3 Some guiding principles for the realisation of our objectives

Some central guiding principles could be- to find out where our pupils are languagewise before we start teaching them: what input they have received so far, what they know and can do in the language already; in short, find out where to start, - to make the most of the knowledge and skills they have acquired,- to create contexts or opportunities where our pupils can use the language for communicative purposes in the English classroom,- to encourage our pupils to use the language for such purposes, trying it out in order to find the proper way of conveying the message, not only practising the language by reproducing it,- to help our pupils discover their language needs, and in the process help them acquire in a variety of ways the language tools they will need for communicative purposes,- to draw our pupils' attention to language form and how it effects use,- to give our pupils feedback on both accuracy and fluency aspects of their language use.The Norwegian English classroom is not part of a native-speaking English environment, however much we might want it to be just that for our purposes. We have to take intoconsideration the Norwegian environment, the learners, and even the fact that most English teachers are not native speakers of English. In a language environment with 2-3 lessons in English a week, and with English as an inter-language for everyone concerned, we will have to create language situations and use a variety of activities to achieve our objectives. On the other hand, the increasingly strong influence from the English-speaking world on young people in Norway nowadays helps create an interest in the language, and a strong motivation for learning it.

9.4 Applying these principles to an analysis of textbooks

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If we apply these principles to an analysis of textbooks, the following aspects should be stressed. A good textbook should- offer a wide range of good and meaningful reading and listening material for young people by introducing topics which are of interest to them,- offer challenges to them in the form of texts that will expand their insight in and knowledge of the target culture,- give the pupils a lot of opportunities both to practise and to use the language freely in a number of different contexts,- help the pupils expand their active vocabulary and become aware of the structure of the language, - provide opportunities for them to experiment with the language in order to increase their language proficiency.

9.5 Developing oral skills: practical ways and means

Classroom conversations based on the textbook have been and are still used in Norwegian schools to practise oral skills and check reading comprehension. It is generally organised as class conversation or conversation in pairs, or sometimes larger groups. PupilCLASS CONVERSATION: Teacher Pupil PupilThe 'traditional' class conversation is deep-rooted in the Norwegian English classroom. It gives the teacher ample opportunity to ask questions - and the pupils some practice in answering them. Making eye contact with the individual pupil, the teacher can differentiate his/her questions and 'spread' them. He/She is in control of the pupils' oral activities and can easily assess their vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and intonation, and give immediate feedback. On the other hand, the pupils rarely get an opportunity to ask questions and use the heuristic language function, which is so essential to the process of developing communicative skills. Furthermore, one should be aware that the pupils' output in class conversation of this kind is reproduction rather than communication. Moreover, active participation on the part of the pupils is limited in so far as only one pupil is active at a time, and the teacher cannot possibly get around to all the pupils in one session in a normal full-class situation. Class conversation organised along these lines results in very little production of the language on the part of the pupils; when it is used, it is rarely used for a communicative purpose.

Class conversation can, however, be organised and carried out in a less one-sided and teacher-centred way by using the 'relay-technique'

Teacher Pupil Pupil Pupil ...

In this way the pupils will have to ask questions as well as answer them. Anyone can be asked, and so all the pupils have to focus on the topic and listen attentively to be able to respond. It is important that the pupils discover how questions are formed in English, and that they practise various ways of direct questioning so that they can see the link between the heuristic language function and the responses it produces. The 'Ask if ... ' and 'Ask wh- ...' structures can be useful in this respect, as the pupils on the basis of this input will have to structure the questions themselves, e.g. using do-periphrasis, and answer them.

TEACHER 'Ask if ... '

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'Ask wh- ... ' Question PUPIL 1 PUPIL 2 Answer

Nevertheless, this is guided practice and not (or rarely) communication. Only conversation with a communicative purpose will produce free responses, real language. Free response to the answers given in the oral and social context is important. English is rich in vocabulary and phrases for every occasion, and the English are generally good at making the most of these. In the class conversation, with all its limitations from a communicative point of view, response should be varied, but natural in the context and to the point. Such responses will generally contribute positively to fluency. A demand for 'complete sentences' and/or use of a stock response should be avoided. They tend to make conversations stilted and artificial, and they inhibit fluency. Below we have taken the liberty of suggesting a few possible ways of responding to answers in typical class conversations, but we hasten to add that this is rather a hazardous task since the flow and content of a natural conversation will dictate the proper responses. Still, responses like the ones below will often occur when we express our reactions, opinions, agreement/disagreement, giving reasons, etc.:"Yes, that's right." "Are you sure?" "Good!""Fine!" "Any other suggestions?""Pardon?" "No, that's not quite right, but you're "Could you speak louder, please?" getting close.""Say that again, please. "Do you agree with him, Anne?" I didn't quite catch that." "Well, you may have a point there, but ... .""Yes, I agree..." / "No, I disagree completely because ..."It may sometimes be necessary to point out that an answer is not (quite) correct, but in so doing we should take great care not to discourage the pupils from further use of the language.

CONVERSATION IN PAIRS

This way of organising oral activities has many advantages:- From a social point of view, the pupils get closer to one another. Each pupil has eye contact with only one pupil. Physical focus on one individual makes personal contact much better than in the traditional full-class situation; this is essential if the objective is to create the best conditions possible for conversation in the classroom. Reducing the affective filter is probably more important in the foreign language classroom than in any other classroom. It is much easier for a weak or shy pupil to use English orally in a pair than in the full class, provided the two 'accept' one another.- All the pupils are active at the same time, speaking or listening attentively in order to be able to give a proper response. This means that the language is practised or used actively for at least 10-15 minutes during one English lesson, which is much more than in full-classconversation. In Better English in the Classroom (1984:56) Margaret Bautz discusses the problem of making the pupils speak English in school: “There have been many attempts to work out how much English the average pupil actually speaks during English lessons in school, and although the results vary somewhat, it would seem that the average Norwegian pupil speaks English for as little as 15 to 20 minutes during the entire three years in the comprehensive school! Since Mønsterplanen stresses the importance of speaking, it is obvious that something must be done to improve the situation.” Reducing the teacher’s speaking time is, no doubt, one way of improving the situation; organising the pupils in pairs for oral activities is another, which would also help 'passify' the teacher. Many teachers feel, however,

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that reorganising the class results in disciplinary problems and loss of control. Such problems must be addressed and discussed so that the pupils become aware that the reorganisation is to the advantage of everyone concerned. It can only be carried out if the pupils take the responsibility for forming groups in a minimum of time and with as little noise as possible. Teachers may also complain about too much noise when so many pupils are speaking simultaneously, and that the pairs disturb one another. As long as the noise is constructive, which means that only English is used, the tolerance level should be high. All experience shows that each pupil is generally so preoccupied with speaking or listening to his/her partner(s) that the noise represents no problem whatsoever. On the other hand, should the pupils resort to Norwegian to get round language problems, there is cause for concern, and a discussion of good strategies in foreign language learning would be appropriate. Thequestion of language control is a relevant one. By using pair activities the teacher renounces some of his/her control, no matter how much s/he listens in on the groups. However, the question is which should be considered more important: control and accuracy, or freer use of the language and fluency. Some flexibility in this respect is also an option.

FROM PURE PRACTICE TO COMMUNICATION

So far we have discussed how to organise oral activities to achieve maximum use of the language in the English classroom. The question of pure practice with its emphasis on accuracy, and communication with its emphasis on fluency have been briefly hinted at, the former being particularly important in the early stages and the latter taking up proportionally more class time at the later stages. (See illustration by Brumfit in Malmberg, 1985:268).Our overarching priorities and goals are primarily to develop positive attitudes, language and cultural awareness, and communicative ability in the language. The pupils should be given tasks where they have to bridge information gaps or opinion gaps, and apply appropriate strategies for conveying the message. To do this they must be willing and motivated to expand their use of the language, even 'struggle' with it, which is one of the most fruitful strategies in foreign language learning. The strategy of rephrasing should be encouraged; the activities should be such that the pupils are given the opportunity to employ a variety of speech acts and communicative strategies when expressing different language functions, as well as develop an awareness of how the language is used for such communicative purposes.

The language function asking for/giving factual information does not usually generate much language. Our pupils will often give or reproduce the fact(s) in the form of a short answer to the question Who ... ? Where ... ? When ... ? What ... ? Which of ... ? and in some contexts How ... ? From the point of view of extended use of the language, the How... ? What sort of ... ? What is/was ... like? and Why ... ? questions are much more useful. The pupils are asked to explain, assess or evaluate, give reason(s) for - and convey the message in English, a task which is much more demanding than just reproducing with factual statements to bridge an information gap. In the English classroom we have to use both, as we do outside the classroom, but we should focus more and more on making our pupils use the language to express opinions, attitudes, feelings, thoughts and ideas, bridging opinion gaps. As far as individual differences in the class are concerned, an awareness of these aspects ofcommunication may help develop the communicative ability of all our pupils.

Both in class conversation and in conversation in pairs the pupils tend to use short and simple sentences, and an answer rarely exceeds one sentence. To counteract this tendency, the pupils should be encouraged to make long and fairly complex sentences as soon as possible, but always sentences which relate properly to the context, and not sentences which are the results

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of the traditional demand for 'full sentences' in any situation or context. Our main concern should be to develop natural language in context. The pupils could be given tasks in which they have to use the language to give a coherent account of something they have read, seen, watched, done, created, written, or listened to. Such tasks could be- Tell the story ... .- Tell about ... .- Give a report or summary of ... .- Tell what's in the picture/picture series/video/film ... .- Describe (name of person, event, scenery, building, ..., etc.). - Present (name of topic) in class... .Tasks could be based on keywords, visuals, listening material, or the pupils' own written work. On a more advanced level open-ended questions could be used, e.g.- What do you think of ... ? - What is your opinion about ... ?

9.6 Towards communication in the English classroom

A variety of oral activities can be used to encourage our pupils to communicate in the classroom, which means that they have to use the language to bridge information or opinion gaps. Some of these are topic-based activities that 'expand' language related to the topic in the textbook text, others are freer activities; the main point is that they meet the above requirements. As a prelude to communicative activities, fairly controlled oral activities like the ‘split dialogue’ or the ‘discourse chain’ may be used. In the former a dialogue is split into two, a role for Pupil A and one for Pupil B, which can hardly be called a communicative activity according to our criteria. The latter is slightly more demanding since the pupils in the two roles are given instructions about what to say, but they have to structure questions and answers themselves, which in itself is good language practice, but again hardlycommunication.

The communicative activities below illustrate the types or models of such activities, but the list is by no means exhaustive. It should also be noted that the same kinds of activity can easily be adjusted to various topics and levels; it is only a question of varying content and language, although we have to bear in mind the skills involved in the activity. Some activities are fairly closed, focussing on communication of facts; others are open-ended and/or problem-solving, and therefore more challenging. A brief description or set of instructions has been attached to each activity.

1. Getting to know each other:Instructions: Establish pairs by giving each pupil a picture and having them find the person with the identical picture. Pupils: Walk around the classroom, approach people politely, and try to find your partner by describing your picture in detail to the people you meet - until you have found the right person. Interview your partner taking turns asking questions. Take brief notes. A list of keywords for what you want to ask may be useful during the interview. Then join the nearest pair and pass on the information about your partner to the new members of the group. They will take notes from your oral report, as they are expected to give a summary afterwards.Sum up the information you have collected about the different people you have met.Language practice: Focus is first on 1st and 2nd, and then 3rd person singulars; it is also on vocabulary, asking for/giving information, different types of questions, mainly question-word

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questions and/or yes/no questions, and perhaps reply questions, the do-periphrasis (depending on level), polite phrases, listening comprehension, note-taking, reporting.Language use: Parts of this activity could be transferred to 'real-life' situations with new pupils or guests in class, or when meeting English-speaking people outside school.

2. Find someone who ... / Go and find out ... / Excuse me, are you/do you ... ?Instructions: Walk around the classroom and ask for/give specific information on the basis of the instructions in the handout. Take down the name of the first one who answers in the affirmative.Language practice: A parallel activity to the 'Ask if ... ' and 'Ask wh- ...' structures above. Focus on vocabulary, polite phrases, and in particular the do-periphrasis if the present or past of lexical verbs are being used (depending on level). This activity can also be used at very early stages with to be and to have.Language use: A fairly guided activity, which may be used as a prelude to questioning or interviewing (see below).

3. Find/Spot the differences/What is different?Instructions: Work in pairs. Each pupil has a picture and these are basically similar; one is the original, the other one has been 'doctored' so that there are a certain number of differences between them. Pupils describe their pictures in detail to their partners, trying to spot the differences between them by using language only. Put a circle around and/or write down the differences, and eventually sum them up.Language practice: Focus on and expanding (topic-based) vocabulary and directions since the whole picture is discussed, even details, step by step to find all the differences. In some cases non-verbal language may also be an option, but no pointing at a specific part of the picture. Language use: Collecting and comparing information orally.

4. Put the things back:Instructions: Work in pairs. One pupil has a complete picture, the other has an empty frame with all the items in the first picture in bits and pieces below. You need a pair of scissors and a stick of glue, and then you follow the oral instructions from your partner until the picture is complete. You may ask for oral assistance from your partner.Example: Such an activity could be topic-related, e.g. 'Furnish the Room' in connection with the topic 'House and Home', or 'The Breakfast Table' in connection with the topic 'Food'.Language practice: Focus on vocabulary and prepositions/directions.Language use: Exchanging information, orally linking visuals and vocabulary, including prepositions/ directions.

5. Describe and draw or Complete the drawing:Instructions: Work in pairs. One pupil has a complete drawing, the other an empty sheet, or a partly finished drawing, e.g. a simple map. Pupils give/ask for information, and the 'artist' is allowed to ask questions both to collect information and verify information in order to draw or complete the drawing as correctly as possible.Language practice: Focus on and expanding (topic-based) vocabulary, as well ascomprehending exact and detailed description.Language use: This is a listening comprehension activity to some degree, but it also entails exchange of information, linking visuals and vocabulary through creative expression. Such an activity may also appeal to the artistic interests of the participants. Furthermore, minute description and precise use of the language are required.

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6. Puzzles: Describe and arrange tell the story.Instructions: Work in groups of 3 or 4. Cut up a picture series that tells a story through visuals and distribute 2-3 pictures to each participant. Present the pictures to each other first orally, then spread all the pictures on the table. Discuss and arrange the pictures in the order all or most of the participants agreed as the correct sequence of events. Then one participant tells the story, leaving the others free to ask questions or come up with alternative versions. Follow-up work could be to write the story.Language practice: Focus on vocabulary and descriptions.Language use: A problem-solving activity; interpretation of visuals with a view to creating a narrative.

7. Using information brochures or materialThere are such vast quantities of brochures available that can be linked to topics like travel, entertainment, house and home, restaurants and hotels, etc. This is authentic material in the sense that it was not originally made for teaching, but some of these brochures should be available in 'Our English Box'.Instructions: Select a topic-related brochure and study it carefully. This is where you want to go/what you want to see/where you want to eat/stay/live, etc. Work in pairs trying to persuade your partner to accept your choice, but in the end the two of you have to reach an agreement as to which alternative is the better and give your reasons why, because you want to go/stay there/see it together.Language practice: Topic-related vocabulary, different types of questions and answers, negotiating language expressing agreement/disagreement/compromise/decision-making.Language use: Describing, asking for and giving information, arguing, agreeing/disagreeing, compromising, and making joint decisions in a near-authentic situation.

8. Using pictures for identification or role-play: A. Guessing game: Who am I? Who is it? What is it? Instructions: For homework, pupils find a photo of a well-known person (or a photo of an interesting 'thing' in a wide sense of the word) in a newspaper, magazine, book, etc. and glue it to a piece of cardboard. Study it carefully, look up vocabulary in the dictionary, and prepare to answer a limited range of questions about it at school. In class keep the picture covered while your fellow-pupils try to guess who 'you' are or what the 'thing' is, using only yes/no questions, apart from How old ... ?Language practice: Topic-related vocabulary, guessing using information obtained almost exclusively through yes/no questions and short answers.Language use: Making guesses through restricted use of the language. This activity can be used as a stepping-stone towards free or natural use of the language (see B. below). B. Role-play: Meeting people:Instructions: For homework, pupils find a photo in a newspaper, magazine, book, etc. showing a (young) person in a situation that gives background information about him/her. Glue it to a piece of cardboard. Study this person and his/her background carefully as you prepare for an interview or meeting as this person. Look up vocabulary in the dictionary, if need be. In class work in pairs: You will meet a fellow-pupil who is also playing a role. Keep your photo in front of you so that your partner can see it, because in this role-play you pass as the person in your photo. Ask for/give as much information as possible about one another. Language practice: Vocabulary about people in situations, e.g. jobs. Any type of question can be used.

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Language use: Meeting and getting acquainted with a person in a situation, with free and natural use of the language. As such, this activity is as close to recreating a real-life situation as it is possible to get in the classroom.

9. Interviews:Interviews can be used with a variety of topics, such as People and jobs, Sport, The football match between ... , A film ... / A concert ..., Meeting a celebrity ... , Making plans for the holiday, Booking a room at a hotel, Asking for information about a town, or ... . A related activity is The Quiz.Instructions: Prepare questions for an interview with ... on the topic ... . The interviews can be prepared individually or in pairs. Carry out the interview in groups of 3-4. Follow-up work can be carried out in the form of oral presentations or written reports.

10. Role-plays:Role-plays can range from fairly simple activities in pairs to dramatisation of plays with many roles. The latter are generally based on manuscripts and constitute a special form of communication, since actors communicate with each other as well as with an audience. For our purpose, role-plays will more often be organised as topic-based or freer activities; the more open-ended and problem-solving they are, the more challenging they will be from a language point of view.

The FOLLOW-UP WORK for many of these activities could be to put them in writing, e.g. in the form of summaries or reports, letters or postcards, or more traditionally, compositions. In this way we can make the most of such oral, pre-writing activities to develop writing skills.

9.7 Assessing spoken English in the classroom (Based on the EVA Project)

- Speaking self-assessment form.- Classroom observation form - spoken English.- Pupil profile: spoken language.- Criteria scales for spoken English: * Message and fluency. * Language structures and vocabulary.See http://www.ecml.at/cando/files/start.htm

Topics for discussion:

1. Which priorities and objectives would you set for your teaching of English?2. Which principles would be the most important ones in your teaching in order to develop the oral skills of young learners?3. What would you look for in a textbook to fulfill the principles under 2. above?* In your discussion you should keep the ‘pure practice – communication’ distinction in mind.4. Suggest three different 'types' of communicative activities that you consider to be particularly useful when working with young learners. You should give reasons for your choices - with reference to context. To what extent are the three 'types' represented in the textbook you have studied under 3. above?

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Can you think of useful types of communicative activities other than the ten listed above?5. Discuss practical ways of using the textbook to develop the pupils' oral skills.*6. Which criteria would you use as a basis for assessing your pupils' spoken English/oral skills?

* Textbook will be made available.

10.0 GRAMMAR AND USAGE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING

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10.1 The place of grammar: some principles to be considered

The place of explicit grammar teaching in foreign languages has been discussed a lot over the years. The attitudes have swung from one extreme to another. At one end of the pendulum was the Latin method that looked upon grammar more or less as an objective in its own right and dealt with it as if it were an intellectual game; at the other end was the tendency to largely 'ignore it' or sometimes look upon it as a negative approach to language teaching that did more harm than good. The structural approach was at the former extreme, linking grammar strongly to guided practice and over-learning through drills and ready-made situational dialogues.

From the late 1970s onwards there has been less focus on the formal aspects of the language. Language for communication came into focus; linguistic competence was only one of several 'competencies', and insight into the structure of the language was largely shelved. Grammar was supposed to be learned implicitly through natural use of the language. The ‘Language in use approach’ dominated M87 and L97, alongside the cultural approach to foreign language teaching and learning. The long and detailed lists of grammar items and vocabulary found in M74 had been dramatically reduced; lists of language functions and relevant topics for the different levels had taken their place. This did not mean, however, that language learning as such was looked upon as less important than before, there was just a change of didactical approach. The language was supposed to be acquired both through the strong influence of English in the pupils' environment and learned through all the work going on in English classes in school. Explicit teaching of grammar, vocabulary and phraseology was reduced to a minimum, and so was the focus on spelling, punctuation and other formal aspects of the language. Fluency took the centre stage from accuracy, and the functional and, later, cultural approaches from the structural approach. For many reasons there is no doubt that the learners became better users of English, first of oral English, but also partly of written English. The writing tasks became much more varied, the learners used the language more freely for various purposes in different contexts, and they were encouraged 'to take risks' when using the language.

Nevertheless, experienced teachers seem to agree that over time there has been a decline in the formal competence of the language, in elementary grammar, and particularly in spelling. In the Læreplan i engelsk (2005) language learning ('Språklæring') is once again one of the three main areas of competence, together with language for communication('Kommunikasjon'), and culture, society and literature ('Kultur, samfunn og litteratur'). Together these constitute the entire 'kompetansemål' for the learning of English in the new curriculum guidelines. It is to be hoped that the renewed emphasis on the formal aspects of the language expressed in 'Språklæring', especially for the final years of comprehensive school, will lead to improved correctness as well.

No doubt a lot of grammar can be picked up through active use of the language, be it listening, reading, or active oral or written use. By letting the pupils 'bathe in the language' in various ways it is thought that they will gradually acquire much of it and, implicitly, many of the grammatical structures they need to use it properly. This is especially true in the first years of primary school when a cognitive approach to grammar and language teaching would be a waste of time. Later on, and particularly at the comprehensive level when the cognitive abilities of the pupils have developed further, it may sometimes be appropriate to focus more closely on a grammar item and analyse it to see how it functions in a communicative context:

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What language do we need in this situation? What are we actually saying if we use this structure? What if we use that one instead? By gaining an insight into how the language functions and is actually used, the pupils may develop more precise and correct use of it. Contrastive analysis can be useful, especially in cases of interference from the mother tongue. Comparison with another foreign language may also be an option, especially now that a second foreign language may be compulsory in comprehensive school, and perhaps also in the final years of primary school. Contrastive analysis, which was in fact stressed as one of four objectives in the curriculum guidelines for English in M87, seems to have reappeared under 'Språklæring', 'Kompetansemål etter 10. årstrinn', in the Fagplan i engelsk (2005). In school and higher education grammar is not an end, but a means to an end, for learners other than those who are, or are going to be, pure experts in this field. Grammar is and should be a support for the learner in the process of acquiring and learning a language, and it is the opinion of this writer that a flexible or eclectic approach to the teaching of grammar, including explicit grammar teaching if need be, will benefit the learners more than a more 'dogmatic' or one-sided approach. This is also the case for language teaching in general. In the history of didactics and methods, 'dogmatic' views may have prevailed for a while (at least in theory), but at the end of the day have proved to be short-lived. The pendulum has swung, if not all the way, at least halfway back, as has so often been the case.

10.2 Suggested model for explicit grammar teaching

If we accept the fact that sometimes the pupils at the intermediate or advanced level will benefit from a closer, explicit study or analysis of a grammatical structure, a suggested model for such work is presented below for discussion. This does not necessarily mean that the full model should be applied to all grammatical items. Nevertheless, it may be useful to discuss the complete model or survey below because it draws on different concepts of language teaching and learning, ranging from the structural approach to communicative language teaching. It could thus be characterised as an eclectic approach:

1. Give a short and simple introduction to the new grammar item: In the process sound the pupils out. What do they know already?2. Practice: Practise the structure orally with the pupils. Use many examples in a class 'conversation'. Take care to use them in a clear pattern, but without turning to 'artificial' use of the language. Try by all means to avoid meaningless structures of the type: "How many heads have I got?" "Have you got three legs?" Language is for meaningful communication, and even in a teaching situation where we are primarily concerned with practising a particular structure, we should try to apply it in a language context as close to natural use as possible. Appropriate visuals may prove useful for illustration and as a basis for practising the language pattern. If used properly, it is often surprising how much language can be initiated by good material, especially in the form of drawings. Some guided drill with emphasis on accuracy may be used at this stage.3. Examples in the form of sentence structures: Write a few good examples of the grammatical structure on the board. Use simple vocabulary, as focus should be on the grammar item.4. Analyse the examples/sentence structures together with the pupils: Through this discussion or dialogue, we could use questions to 'guide' our pupils towards an understanding of how the structure works in a communicative context, and try to make them work out in their own words basic grammatical rules from the examples.

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Write the rules on the board below the examples so that the pupils can take them down in their notebooks. In this way they can make their own mini grammars, which will hopefully foster increased language awareness and insight into the workings of the language.5. Oral reinforcement using relevant communicative activities: Oral reinforcement could include the use of the grammatical structure in freer contexts, with emphasis on fluency. Communicative activities may prove useful at this stage.6. Written work: Further reinforcement could be through written work, going from guided exercises to freer use of the language.7. Evaluation: What have we learned about form and usage?8. Further and more advanced use of the grammatical structure orally and in writing once the basic structure has been acquired: Remedial work - if needed.

As some of the pupils at this level may lack the necessary terminology or capacity to understand and discuss grammatical items properly in English, it should be consideredcarefully whether Norwegian might be an option when talking about the language, for example in points 1 and 4 above. However, as we generally keep the use of grammatical terminology at a minimum, it might be worthwhile trying to carry out such discussions in English, but then checking carefully on the pupils' understanding of the problem. If necessary, Norwegian may be used for support, but 'jumping back and forth' between the two languages is not recommended.

10.3 Suggestions for some practical tasks to be used in the process

Structure: Preposition + -ing

Oral practice in class linked to situation: What are you- good at? I'm good at __________________________________________________- fond of? I'm fond of __________________________________________________ - happy about? I'm happy about __________________________________________- afraid of? I'm afraid of ________________________________________________

Communicative activity:Find someone who is Name- good at swimming. ______________________- fond of travelling. ______________________- happy about doing his/her homework. ______________________- afraid of flying. ______________________- clever at playing the guitar. ______________________

Written work:Choose three and write something about yourself. cleverafraid of scared at (somebody)hopeless ininterested with (something)succeed

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Oral work/reporting: Work in pairs and give this information to your partner. Sum up the information you receive from your partner.

Discussion of the grammar item:Discuss with your partner the way you have written the sentences. Then compare with Norwegian and discuss possible differences (contrastive analysis).

Topics for discussion (full-class session or groups):

1. Discuss the principles and suggestions above and note the pros and cons.2. If you disagree with the whole concept of grammar teaching suggested above, can you suggest possible alternatives?3. Choose the model above or an alternative and plan how you would deal with a grammar item of your own choice in class. Level to be decided.4. Prepare to work with the grammar item in 'class'. Your fellow students will be your 'pupils'.5. Discuss your experience with your fellow students, focussing on possible improvements.

11.0 DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS

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11.1 Pre-writing activities: writing linked to other language skills

Before introducing much writing in topic-based teaching, we generally start by doing many pre-writing activities linked to the topic, such as listening, reading and various oral activities. Introducing and activating vocabulary, phrases and structures permeate the work so that most of the language 'tools' have been internalised and can later be used to further develop the pupils' writing skills. The pupils are supposed to acquire reading and writing skills during the first years of primary school; by the second year most of them are expected to read and write at their own speed. (For a fuller discussion of Early Learners and writing, see Ion Drew, L97 and Writing, http://www.hisf.no under Nettverk for kompetanseutvikling i engelsk). 11.2 Types of writing: the communicative purpose

We can roughly distinguish between six different types of writing: Personal, public, creative, social, institutional, and study and academic writing. These texts can be anything from single words and simple structures to advanced essays or articles. For our learners of English there will always be a strong link between oral use of the language and written production. To begin with the emphasis will be on transforming letters and syllables into words, and then gradually starting to build simple sentences and develop coherent texts in English.

The communicative purpose is essential in all writing. We have to ask ourselves: For whom are we writing? What are we writing about? And why? In school nearly all writing takes place to develop the pupils' writing skill. Creative writing is encouraged, and so are (semi-)personal and (semi-)social writing. A variety of genres have now been introduced in primary and comprehensive education; the traditional compositions that prevailed for many years still exist, but they appear in different guises. Striking visuals are often used as prompts: What do you see in the picture? What do you think it is about? Can you describe the person, animal,thing (using adjectives)? What do they look like? Notes, keywords, headlines, ads, poems, brief introductions, statements/quotations, and even an introductory paragraph are also used to trigger the pupils' imaginations and creativity. In the first years the pupils are exposed to a lot of songs, rhymes and poems. Why not let them write their own? Writing brief notes in the form of shopping lists, recipes, invitations, and Valentine, Birthday or Christmas cards are also good practice as these are genres linked to real-life written text production. These genres can later form the basis of more extensive writing: informal or formal letters, stories, articles, reports/summaries, argumentative essays or compositions, and at an advanced level even text analysis: Which genre is it? What is it about? What are your reactions to it? Are the arguments well substantiated? Etc.

11.3 Requirements for good writing practice in English

As stated above, pre-writing activities in English will often be instrumental in preparing the pupils for the writing process, and in providing the language 'tools' they will need when they are going to write. Furthermore, the pupils should be encouraged to generate ideas and develop good writing strategies; they need to learn how to structure their writing in such a way that their ideas are expressed clearly and to the point, and how to solve problems when they are stuck. We should also help them find suitable ways for assessing and correcting their papers’ content as well as language, and for learning from their mistakes. To begin with pupils' written work will often be text-related. A possible plan for writing of this type could be as follows (with variations depending on topic and level):

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Introduction

Where? When?

WHO?

The characters: Description

What is he/she/are they like?Relationships?

Conflicts?

WHAT HAPPENED?

Who is telling us about it?

How did it start? How did it develop?

How did it end?

WHY?

Concluding remarks(depending on topic)

11.4 Writing as an interactive process

Writing clarifies our thoughts and helps us structure them. Therefore it is important that we let our pupils write as much as possible, not only individually, but also in such a way that they develop their writing skills in an interactive process with their peers in the classroom. They should learn to exchange ideas, insight and knowledge, and give constructive feedback oneach other's work, thus making the most of what each of them can contribute to the progress towards a common goal. A positive side effect of this process is that it provides an opportunity to develop other skills. As teachers our role is that of a tutor.

Using process writing in EnglishThe following steps are generally the ones followed in the writing process:

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1. Choice of subject: When choice(s) and joint decision of subject are to be made, the level, interests and skills of the pupils have to be taken into consideration.2. Pre-writing: Once a decision has been made the pupils start generating ideas ('brainstorming') on the topic in the communicative context, structuring ideas and relevant vocabulary, e.g. by developing the 'flower', 'mind map', 'associogram', vocabulary clusters, etc. A response group for feedback on the ideas that have come up may prove useful at this stage. As it is often necessary to limit and/or 'streamline' the ideas related to the topic after a brainstorming session, the ensuing discussion may lead to a clearer focus on the task. 3. First draft (rush-writing): In the writing process sharing is essential, not writing in isolation or for the teacher. The pupils may read to each other what they have written.4. Responses/feedback on/discussion of contents.5. Second draft.6. New responses/feedback on/discussion of the revisions, but this time focus will be on the language.7. Revising/'polishing' the text: Editing should not take place too early as it may impede the pupils' full exploitation of the potential of the context. 8. Presentation: 'Publishing' of some kind is a must. When the pupils have shown motivation and put in a lot of work, it is encouraging for them to feel that their work is valued. The presentation may take different forms, or a combination of forms; it can be oral, written, or both; it may appear as a leaflet, in a class book, or as illustrations, with captions or other written texts attached to them displayed on the bulletin board; or it may simply be handed in for assessment by the teacher, which has been the traditional way of assessing written work. We should note, however, that there is a lot of learning potential in 'guided' self-assessment or peer-assessment. Material focussing on alternative forms of assessment has recently been developed through the EVA-project. From a practical and pedagogical point of view it should be carefully considered whether it is necessary to always go through all these stages. Unnecessary harping on methods may easily lead to boredom, and a sensible integration of some of these stages or steps may be just as successful. The model as such must not take priority over the needs of the pupils.

Interactive process writing needs careful planning and preparation. The pupils often feel that they do not know enough about text development when they are to start the writing process. A foundation is needed from which to start; we have to focus on what a text is and approach this question both on the content level and the vocabulary sentence paragraph level: What does ‘text’ mean? How should it be structured to convey the message in the clearest possible way? Through these and similar questions it is possible to 'trigger' writing, expanding topic-based sentences into paragraphs, and the paragraphs into a complete text. It is important that the pupils discover how ideas are logically linked together (coherence) and developed, ultimately creating a unity of thought in the form of the complete text. Secondly, a change of attitude is necessary with regard to contributing to and/or sharing the joint effort of generating good and relevant ideas and assessing the writing skills of one another. In mixed-ability classes there will always be a wide range of knowledge and skills, and what is a real challenge for some pupils may be felt to be a waste of time for others. There is no clear-cut solution to this problem. The social environment of the classroom is all-important. This way of working demands discipline and, more importantly, self-discipline and concern for others. The pupils

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will have to accept the strengths and weaknesses of each other, but they are individuals at a vulnerable age, and flexible solutions may sometimes be called for.

11.5 Assessing written work

When we are to assess a pupil's written work in a foreign language, we have to assess both content and language, but the two are generally so intertwined that they make up two complementary aspects of the same unit or text. Good and precise language is indispensable when we want to convey a message properly, present solid argumentation in a convincing way, and avoid misunderstandings. On the other hand, even the best and most elegant language cannot disguise the truth for long if the content is rather thin or non-existent, and the arguments weak. Below we have for practical purposes partly separated the two in order to focus more closely on what to assess with regard to - content:A starting point could be the communicative purpose. Why do we ask our pupils to write - or why do the pupils themselves decide to write - this text? In school we often have to simulate real-life situations as they are presented to us in the textbook or similar sources, and make our pupils write on the basis of these contexts to practise the language as well as acquire knowledge. It should be added, however, that real exchange is much easier nowadays through email and chatting, and many schools have established contact with schools abroad for real communicative purposes. Where content is concerned, we assess insight into and knowledge of the topic, creativity in approach and presentation, the ability to express viewpoints and opinions logically and argue convincingly, using good text organisation in the process; in short, the ability to communicate meaning and make the text interesting and readable.- language: When assessing the language of written work, we have to distinguish between different types of writing, and accordingly style and degree of formality. In this respect there is definitely a difference between the language of a postcard and that of a formal letter or an essay. Nevertheless, we have to assess grammatical correctness and identify grammatical mistakes, use of vocabulary and phrases/idioms, and spelling and punctuation, in order to facilitate language improvement. While doing so, we may have to set language priorities, as it would hardly be fruitful to deal with a wide range of language problems simultaneously. In case we have pupils who have serious problems with the language and really are struggling with it, we have to be particularly careful and focus only on a few items at a time. We should take heed of the fact that nothing is more discouraging for a pupil than always be handed back a paper full of corrections in red ink, and graded accordingly. Such cases are always difficult, and especially so with pupils who are doing their absolute best, apparently without much success. Discussing their work with these pupils, if possible on a one-to-one basis, is probably the best way of dealing with these problems.

In the process of assessing written work we can make use of in-class corrections with references to teacher's explanation of language problems and/or to elementary grammars or dictionaries, in combination with full-class or group discussions, and individual guidance. Depending on type of written work, type of mistakes, but first and foremost classroom atmosphere, there is no doubt that there is a lot to gain from organising post-writing activities as peer-correction and group discussions.

Topics for discussion:

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1. How early can the pupils in general be expected to read and write?2. What is meant by the communicative purpose?3. How can writing be linked to other language skills (pre-writing activities)?4. Give a critical evaluation of the interactive writing process as it is outlined above. What do you think are the advantages/disadvantages of such an approach to writing.5. What should, in your opinion, be stressed the most when we assess our pupils' written work? Suggest a possible working method and give reasons for your choice of method.6. How should the pupils correct their own written work so that they make the most of the teacher's marking?

For further work:

- Writing self-assessment forms (EVA - project): See http://ecml.at/cando/files/start.htm- National tests of English: *10th Class: Assessment form for communication of meaning (task specific). *10th Class: Assessment form for language (not task specific). See http://bite.intermedia.uib.no/tests/w_assessment_criteria.page

12.0 PLANNING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING

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Students' preparations before the practice period(s)

12.1 Background

This chapter is intended as a basis for your preparations before the practice period(s) in English. Some of you may have considerable teaching experience already, although not in English. Some of you may have no training or experience at all. What all of you have in common for better or for worse, is vast experience as learners of English. It goes without saying that you will have different needs when it comes to preparing for your practice periods in English. The experienced students will no doubt have an advantage as a result of their general pedagogical studies and training so far, and so will the experienced teachers among you. In a situation like this we have two options: Either keep the experienced and inexperienced students apart when we do the preparations, or organise all the students in practice groups of 3-4 students, in such a way that each group will consist of both experienced and inexperienced students. The latter option is probably the better, primarily because there is a learning potential through 'peer teaching' that should not be overlooked.

12.2 How to start your preparations

The ideal starting point would be to make initial contact with the school, the teaching supervisor, and the pupils well before the practice period, as such a visit could provide essential information for your planning. Since this is not always possible, one educational avenue could be to draw on the knowledge and experience of the experienced students, and encourage questions from the less experienced, in a discussion of the following:

- Which elements should in general form the basis for didactic reflection or thinking in the English classroom?- What would be your priorities where the pupils are concerned (on the basis of the available information)?- How would you go about planning a topic-based teaching unit (over a period of 4-6 lessons)? (What? How? Why?)- How would you go about planning a single English lesson based primarily on the course pack? (What? How? Why?)- What do you plan to observe in particular in you teaching supervisor's 'demonstration lessons'? Discuss and make a list of your priorities.- Topics of your own choice that you think ought to be discussed during your preparations.

Initially, this should be a 'free' discussion with no other guidelines to hamper it. The outcome could form the basis for further exploration, which could be supplemented by the suggestions below; or those suggestions could be submitted for discussion in the groups. However, this should not take place until you have had the opportunity to exhaust the potential of your own views and reflections. Over the years many students have proved themselves fully capable of coming up with a profusion of fresh ideas for innovative teaching, which should not be 'inhibited' from the start by the introduction of prepared material by the college teacher.

The suggested supplementary guidelines below start with a survey of the overall didactical elements that together generally constitute the basis for planning foreign language teaching. The second and third forms, on the other hand, narrow the scope and suggest practical outlines for the planning of a teaching unit of about 4-6 lessons, and an individual English lesson. Finally, there are some suggestions for practical guidelines for what to observe during

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your practice period(s), with particular reference to participant-observation in the English classroom. The aim is to help you make the most of the experience. The observations should be recorded in your individual logs for later use in your practice reports.

Before the practice period you will be given practical planning tasks related to different types of teaching material, which will be made available by the English Department. Time permitting, these planning task will be tried out in pre-teaching sessions at the College.

12.3 PLANNING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING

(See next page)

PLANNING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHINGA suggested basis for didactic reflection and discussion

Objectives: (Levels) School See L97 or Læreplan for engelsk 2005. These reflect the needs of the individual

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+ to some degree the needs of society. L97 Læreplan for engelsk 2005Subject matter: Subject Knowledge Language learning.Choice, planning and decision-making Skills Communication. on topic, language use, etc. Enjoyment Cultural approach. Acceptance Competencies ('Can do') Pupils: Lesson (See Unit- and Lesson Planning) Analysis of objectives ('kompetansemål') and the pupils' needs and abilities. Teaching methods: Free choice. Informative (One-way communication): Teaching principles: Lecturing, story-telling, explaining / tutoring, etc.Motivate Heuristic (dialogue): Teacher PupilActivate Pupil PupilConcretise Project work: Exploring/finding out and presenting. Vary Demonstration.Individualise Dramatisation/physical involvement.Cooperate Foreign language teaching methods: Which? Why? Organisation: Framework / teaching aids:Full class. Economic resources number of pupils. Groups/pairs. Allocation of teaching periods (See L97/L.pl.2005)Individual work. Building/rooms. Working conditions: Cooperation/leadership/support, teaching aids, etc. Evaluation: Formal and informal assessment. Process and product evaluation.

The role of the (student) teacher and the pupils in the planning, implementation, and evaluation.Some important factors are the teacher´s- personality and age, - didactic reflections or considerations/view of learning. - choice of foreign language teaching methods, with particular reference to Læreplanen i engelsk (2005). - view of the role of the teacher.- knowledge/insight into the subject matter.- own language skills.

The role of the pupils:Discuss to what extent it is possible for the pupils to take responsibility for their own learning.

12.4 Suggested outline for the planning of a teaching unit of 4-6 lessons

PLANNING A TEACHING UNIT

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School: ___________________ Class/group: _______ Students: _________________

Topic: _____________________________________________________________________

Objectives: _________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

Organisation (and special concerns): ___________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Time period

Topic

What? Why?

Topic-related texts in Course book Building vocabulary. Activities

Supplementary reading texts Building voc. Pre-reading While-reading activities. Which? Why?

Supplementary listening texts Building voc. Pre-listening While-listening activities. Which? Why?

Visuals Video/film/transp. cards/photos/ drawings Building vocabulary. Pre-viewing While-viewing activities. Which? Why?

Oral communicative activities

Which? Why?

Written work: Type/genres

Which? Why?

Form of presentation: _______________________________________________________

Assessment of plan after the teaching period: Potential for improvement? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

12.5 Suggested outline for the planning of one lesson

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LESSON PLANNING

Name: ___________________ Date: ______ School: _______________ Group: _______

Course book: _______________________________________________________________

Topic:_____________________________________________________________________

Objectives ('Kompetansemål'): ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Teaching aids: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

When I anticipate using Norwegian and why:______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT HOW WHY

After the lesson: Brief notes on your teaching experience to be shared and used for discussion with fellow students and teaching supervisor, including comments on your use of Norwegian: _________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

12.6 What to observe in your practice period. Some practical guidelines.

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I Your practice school

1. YOUR PRACTICE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION - How does it function?

2. THE 'CULTURE' OF YOUR PRACTICE SCHOOL - Try to gain an insight into the pedagogical, academic, administrative, and social 'culture' of the school.

3. THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER - What does it mean to be a teacher? Teachers’ own views on the role of the teacher (see also 2. above).

4. TEACHER COOPERATION / TEAM WORK - The role of the teacher today is much less an individual role than it used to be some years ago. How is teacher cooperation/teamwork organised at your practice school?

5. THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHER - education, language skills, ideas about foreign language teaching. - aids/equipment for FL teaching.

II Participant-observation in the English classroom

1. ORGANISATION - How is the teaching of English organised?

2. THE PUPILS IN THE GROUP - How active are they? - What is the discipline like? - To what extent do they focus on tasks and assignments? - To what extent do they participate in and contribute to joint activities, e.g. group and project work? - What is their attitude to the use of English in the classroom? - What do they do well in the language? What can be improved? - Try to make a 'map' of the group. Who need(s) a lot of help?

3. THE TEACHER - PUPIL RELATIONSHIP - Which 'roles' does the teacher have in the classroom situation? - How does s/he activate the pupils? - Does s/he reach all/most of/only a few of them? Are there any 'outsiders'? In that case - who? Can you find possible reasons for this? - What do you think the pupils' experience of this lesson is? - Other positive/negative aspects of the teacher- pupil relationship that you have noticed in particular?

4. THE TEACHING PROGRAMME - How was the teaching programme carried out? How did it work compared with plan/intention? What worked well/not so well?

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- Have you any alternative proposals for (parts of) the teaching programme - or the way it was carried out?

5. THE TEACHING PROGRAMME FOR THE NEXT LESSON - Make a programme using key-words where you suggest objectives, methods and teaching aids. You should be prepared to give reasons for your choice of programme and methods by applying the keyword WHY? to all aspects of your planning.

6. ORAL USE OF THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN CLASS - Is Norwegian, in your opinion, used too much ('unnecessarily') during the English lessons? - How are the oral activities organised? * As class conversation (teacher/questions - pupils/answers)? * In pairs? * In larger groups? * In other ways? - Try to assess the oral activities on the basis of what is pure practice and what is communication? In addition, try to assess the extent to which the focus is on accuracy rather than on fluency. - Have you any ideas or suggestions of your own as to how the oral activity could possibly be increased in this group - particularly, oral use of the language for communication (communicative activities)?

7. PRACTICE THEORY - Which theories about foreign language teaching and foreign language learning do you think constitute the basis of the teaching of your supervisor. A discussion of theories linked to practice might prove interesting and useful.

8. OTHER OBSERVATIONS

III Your practice report (individual report)

The observations you have made, both those focused on above, and other observations you have made during your practice period and noted in your log, could form the basis of your practice report, which should be handed in no later than ________________________. Please note that the main part of your practice report should focus on your reflections on what you have witnessed and experienced during your practice period.

13.0 COURSE BOOK EVALUATION

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13.1 Introduction

During the latter half of the Twentieth Century new curriculum guidelines for all subjects in primary and comprehensive school emerged at intervals of about ten years. Shortly after each new plan 4-6 publishing houses in Norway were on the market with the first course books. Sample copies were distributed to the schools, and the teachers started comparing and discussing, and at the end of the day they had to decide on the set of textbooks that they considered most promising. This decision was based on one, or possibly, two sets of sample copies (for two levels), but without seeing the books for the other levels, since they were produced over the next few years. In fact, they more or less chose these books without actually seeing them first, and they had no guarantee that the follow up books would have the same qualities as the first sample copies.

This is probably the way it has to be, but that makes it all the more important to make a wise choice in the first place. The teachers may have established some sort of criteria for what they think are good course books, but more often than not their choice is based on rather vague notions, or more likely a 'gut feeling' regarding what they think will appeal to their pupils and be appropriate for their own style of teaching.

It is one thing to compare and discuss course books with colleagues; it is quite a different cup of tea to use the same set of books and supplementary material in class. Quite a few primary and comprehensive school teachers, myself included, have found out the hard way that their choice was not so good after all, but, unfortunately, too late. Once the first set has been purchased, it is difficult, although not impossible, to change to another set for higher levels; teachers and pupils will be stuck with at least the first set for quite a few years to come. School budgets do not generally allow for excessive purchases, and it is therefore very important that course book purchases are carefully considered and based on well-established criteria. These may not provide answers to all the questions, or solve all the problems, and they cannot absolve the teachers from all responsibility when it comes to making the right choices. Still, a set of criteria may be of some help in the process, and one attempt has been made below, focussing on some essential aspects of foreign language teaching and learning. As it is intended for use both by primary and comprehensive school teachers, some criteria may be more important than others at the respective levels. Nevertheless, it is hoped that they will on the whole prove useful.

13.2 Suggested criteria for Course Book Evaluation

(See next page)

COURSE BOOK EVALUATION

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Title: _______________________________ Author: ____________________________

Publisher: ____________________________ ISBN: _____________________________

Price: _____________________________________________________________________

Level:1. Age of pupils: _____ Grade: _____ Level (Beginners, Intermediate, Advanced): ______

* * * *

COURSE BOOK ORGANISATIONPEDAGOGICAL AND CULTURAL APPROACHES

1. Textbook: _______________________________________________________________

2. Workbook (enclosed or separate): ___________________________________________

3. Supplementary material (Cassettes, CD, CD-Rom, TRP = Teacher´sResource Pack, extra reading material, etc.): _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Visuals: - What type? ________________________________________________________________- How are they used? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Vocabulary: - Where can new words or vocabulary lists be found?________________________________- How is new vocabulary presented? _____________________________________________ * Through abundant and relevant illustrations of good quality? _______________________ * By using English - English vocabulary lists? ____________________________________ * By using translation English - Norwegian? _____________________________________- Do the vocabulary lists also show pronunciation/offer phonetic script? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. The four skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking):- Are they all represented? _____________________________________________________ - What emphasis is placed on each of them? _______________________________________- What activities are there to develop each of them? _________________________________ * Reading: ________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ * Listening: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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* Speaking: (See also 7. Communicative activities below) _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ * Writing: _________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Communicative activities (see also Speaking under 6. above):- What types of activities are there that can be said to bridge info gaps or opinion gaps? ___________________________________________________________________- To what extent do they * offer exposure to varied and meaningful input with a focus on communication? _______ * create a real need and desire to use English (given the frame of the textbook)? ________ * provide opportunities for the pupils to use the language freely and experiment with their new language? ___________________________________________________________ * provide opportunities to practise and use the language in different contexts? __________- How are the activities organised? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Choice of topics / texts:- How do you think the topics will appeal to the pupils? ______________________________- Are the texts authentic or written for educational purposes? _________________________- To what extent are different genres represented in the text material? ___________________- Is there an abundance of language games, songs, rhymes and rhythms, good children’s stories, or fairy tales (for early learners, in particular)? ______________________________- Are the topics (or the way, in which they are presented) culturally biased?______________- Everything considered, does the text material have a sound cultural approach that will suit this group of learners? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. Dialogues and situations:- Are they realistic and useful? _________________________________________________- Is the language real or constructed? _____________________________________________- Are the pupils given the opportunity to use the personal language function (not only talk about Mary or them, but use I and you)? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. The Course books:- Compare Study book and Workbook/Activity book: * How do they correspond? __________________________________________________ * Do they constitute an integrated teaching unit? __________________________________- How are oral and written activities organised? ____________________________________- The grammar part: * How is a grammar item introduced? __________________________________________ * Are the exercises meaningful or ´mechanical´? __________________________________

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- Can you find any attempt at solving the problem of differentiation? ___________________- Do the course books offer ideas for (topic-based) project work? ______________________- Does the Workbook / Activity book offer additional material of any kind? ______________ If it does, which material? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

11. Choose ONE chapter and evaluate it for- main language points. _______________________________________________________- possible appeal to the pupils. __________________________________________________- practical relevance for use outside the classroom. __________________________________- background information. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

12. The Teacher´s Guide: Does the guide offer- a clear didactical and methodological approach/a discussion of objectives? _____________- a systematic survey of teaching points? __________________________________________- diagnostic material after each section? __________________________________________- ideas for (topic-based) project work? ___________________________________________- references to useful literature or websites? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

13. The Whole Unit:Consider- the follow up book. Does it have the same good (?) qualities? ________________________- layout in general. Will these course books appeal to your pupils? _____________________- authenticity. Is this what English-speaking children really say? _______________________- usefulness. Is this the kind of language your pupils need? ___________________________- progression. Is it appropriate for the level in question? _____________________________- level of difficulty. Is it appropriate for the level in question? _________________________- the price. Compare with other course books. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

14.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS

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For a person to tell others how to teach is fairly easy, but it should be kept in mind that such information will always be coloured by this person's experiences and subjective views of teaching, even when their aim is strict objectivity. Another person who adopts the same ideas without any further consideration and tries to carry out the teaching along the same lines in primary or comprehensive classrooms may run into difficulties. Both teaching and learning are highly personal and complex processes that differ from one individual to another. Passing on 'teaching tips' alone to students, or to teachers attending in-service courses, may work up to a point, but is far from being adequate. Some insight into the theories and principles that form the basis for the practical teaching is necessary if the teachers are to be able to assess and set up clear objectives and make proper choices for their own teaching so that they create the best possible conditions for their pupils' learning.

To meet the requirements of each individual in a group of about 30 pupils in a foreign language classroom is no easy task. The 'ultimate' teaching, the one that suits all teachers and leads to a maximum of learning for all learners, does not exist. As we have seen above, there are many individuals in or around a classroom, and opinions about good teaching and effective learning will always differ. There is no 'bottom line' to provide us with clear and indisputable information as to whether the result is good or bad. Exams, term papers and National tests can give us some clues about the situation, but what they actually test or measure can always be questioned. If the objective is to develop 'the whole person', they are probably not anywhere near capturing all the essentials. On the other hand, they may give us some feedback on the learner's development with regard to certain acquired knowledge and skills in a subject, and perhaps that is the best we can achieve.

The foregoing chapters do not aim to offer readymade solutions only, or 'tips for teachers' for that matter, to be taken straight into the classroom. The main objective has been to offer suggestions for a wide range of activities based on prevailing ideas and principles of foreign language teaching and learning; these are to be assessed and discussed by the students. It is hoped that this process will help the students develop critical attitudes and ideas for change with the prime objective of establishing a solid and sensible platform for their teaching practices.

LIST OF USEFUL MATERIAL FOR TEFL IN THE PRIMARY AND COMPREHENSIVE CLASSROOMS

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Didactics and Methods in ELT: Books for the Teacher's Library:Aslaksrud, Lars/Thoren, Birger, Moderne språk. Metodeproblemer i språkundervisningen. Aschehoug 1967.Bautz, Margaret, Better English in the Classroom. NKS-Forlaget 1984. ISBN 82-508-0388-4.Brumfit, Christopher/Moon, Jayne/Tongue, Ray (editors), Teaching English to Children. From Practice to Principle. HarperCollins Publishers 1991. ISBN 000370288X.Bøkenes, Angunn Leirstein/Laukeland, Tove Karin, Engelsk 1. - 3. klasse. Ideer og metodiske opplegg. (Idehefte i engelsk). Universitetsforlaget 1992. ISBN 82-00-21707-8. Chandler, Jonathan/Stone, Mark, The resourceful English teacher. A complete teaching companion. First Person Publishing Limited 1999. ISBN 0 953 30981 9.Dam, Leni, Learner Autonomy - From Theory to Classroom Practice. Authentik 1995.Doff, Adrian, Teach English. A training course for teachers. Trainer's handbook. Cambridge University Press 1988/1990. ISBN 0-521-34864-1. Douglas Brown, H., Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Second edition. Prentice-Hall Inc. 1987. ISBN 0-13-701491-0 01.Drew, Ion/Sørheim, Bjørn, English Teaching Strategies. Methods for English Teachers of 10 to 16-year Olds. Det Norske Samlaget 2004. ISBN 82-521-6362-9.Edge, Julian, Essentials of English Language Teaching. Longman 1993. ISBN 0-582-02565-6.Eik, Liv Torunn (red.), Storyline. Tverrfaglig tilnærming til aktiv læring. Tano Aschehoug 1999. ISBN: 82-518-3890-8.Ellis, Gail/Sinclair, Barbara, Learning to Learn English. A Course in Learner Training. Cambridge University Press 1989. Second printing 1991. Learner's Book ISBN 0 521 33816 6. Teacher's Book ISBN 0 521 33817 4. Cassette ISBN o 521 32876 4.Ellis, Rod, Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press 1985. Third impression 1987. ISBN 0 19 437081 X.Engelsk i fådelt skule - tankar og tips. Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1986.*Ericsson, Eie, Undervisa i språk. Språkdidaktik och språkmetodik. Studentlitteratur 1989. ISBN 91-44-27441-6.Farmer, Paul/Quinlan, Josephine, Engelsk i barneskolen. Studiehefte. NKS Fjernundervisning. Telemarksforsking - Notodden 1997. ISBN 82-508-1943-8Fried-Booth, Diana L, Project Work. Oxford University Press 1986. Second impression 1987. ISBN 0-19-437092-5.Grant, Neville, Making the most of your Textbook. Longman 1987/1989. ISBN 0-582-74624-8.Gundem, Bjørg Brandtzæg, Engelskfaget i folkeskolen. Påvirkning og gjennomslag fra 1870- årene til først på 1970-tallet. Universitetsforlaget 1989. ISBN 82-00-02742-2. Halliwell, Susan, Teaching English in the Primary Classroom. Longman 1992. ISBN 0582071097.Harmer, Jeremy, The Practice of English Language Teaching. New Edition. Longman 1991. Thirteenth impression 1999. ISBN 0582 04656 4. Hubbard, Peter/Jones, Hywel/Thornton, Barbara/Wheeler, Rod, A Training Course for TEFL. Oxford University Press 1983. Sixth impression 1987. ISBN 0 19 432710 8.Ibsen, Elisabeth/Johansen, Svein/Keller, Siri Lundin (red.), Veilednng i fremmedspråk. Senter for lærerutdanning og skoletjeneste. Universitetsforlaget. Revidert utgave 1994. ISBN 82-00-03291-4.

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Johnson, Keith/Morrow, Keith, Communication in the Classroom. Longman 1981. Fourth impression 1983. ISBN 0 582 74605 1.Korsvold, Anne-Karin, Engelsk i 10c. En fortelling fra klasserommet. Universitetsforlaget 2000. ISBN 82-518-3934-3.Lightbown, Patsy M./Spada, Nina, How Languages are Learned. Revised edition. Oxford University Press 1999/2004. ISBN 0-19-437000-3.Little, David, Learner Autonomy. Definitions, Issues and Problems. Authentic Language Learning Resources Ltd 1991. ISBN 1 871730 02 3.Littlewood, William, Communicative LanguageTeaching. An introduction. Cambridge University Press 1981. Fifth printing 1984. ISBN 0 521 28154 7.Malmberg, Per, Engelska. Liber Utbildningsførlaget, Stockholm1985. ISBN 91-40-70806-3.McLaughlin, Theories of Second Language Learning. Edward Arnold Ltd. 1987. ISBN 0-7131-6513-8.Munden, Juliet/Myhre, Astrid, Twinkle Twinkle. English 1-4. Høyskoleforlaget AS 2002. ISBN 82-7634-463-1.Nunan, David, Language Teaching Methodology. A textbook for teachers. Prentice Hall 1991. ISBN 0-13-521469-6.Olsen, Sverre August, Språksyn - metoder. Temahefte nr. 1. Institutt for praktisk pedagogikk, Universitetet i Bergen 1988.Scott, Wendy/Ytreberg, Lisbeth, Teaching English to Children. Longman 1990. ISBN 058274606X.Simensen, Aud Marit, Teaching a Foreign Language. Principles and Procedures. Fagbokforlaget 1998. ISBN 82-7674-400-1.Thoughts and Ideas. Engelsk for Alle. Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1984.*Ur, Penny, A Course in Language Teaching. Practice and theory. Trainee Book. Cambridge University Press 1999. Reprinted 2002, 2003. ISBN 0 521 65624 9.Wright, Tony, Roles of Teachers and Learners. Oxford University Press 1987. ISBN 0-19-437133-6.Ytreberg, Lisbeth, Engelsk i grunnskolen. En fagdidaktisk introduksjon. Tano 1993. ISBN 8251830834.

Visuals for use in the English classroom:Clark, Chris, The Oxford ABC Language Learning Cards. Oxford University Press 1986. Fourth impression 1992. ISBN 0-19-421851-1.English Today! Flashcard Pack. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-433169-5.Hill, David A., Visual Impact. Creative Language Learning Through Pictures. Longman 1990. ISBN 0-582-03765-4.Pike, Hugh, Children's Picture Posters with Teacher's notes. A set of 11 English Language Teaching posters for children. Longman 1990. Fifth impression 1993. ISBN 0-582-06078-8. Teacher's notes ISBN 0-582-06080-X.Wright, Andrew, 1000+ Pictures for Teachers to Copy. Revised Edition. Longman 1984. Fourth impression 1997. ISBN 0-17-556878-2.Wright, Andrew / Haleem, Safia, Visuals for the Language Classroom. Longman 1991. Second impression 1992. ISBN 0-582-04781-1.Picture dictionaries for Early Learners of English:Abbs, Brian, Longman Picture Wordbook. Illustrated by Giles Waring. Longman 1986. ISBN 0-582-55595-7.

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Amery, Heather, The Usborne First Thousand Words. Usborne Publishing Ltd. 1979. Copyright 1989. ISBN 0-7460-0387-0.Burridge, Shirley, Start with Words and Pictures. Pictures by Katy Sleight. Oxford University Press 1985. Second edition 1986. Sixth 1992. ISBN 0-19-431200-3.Burridge, Shirley/Adam, Max, Using a learner's dictionary in the classroom. Oxford University Press.Edmonds, William, Fun with English. GOOD WORDS. Kingfisher Publications Plc 1999. ISBN 0-7534-0369-2.Elementary Dictionary. Longman. ISBN 0-582-96405-9.Fletcher, Mark/Hargreaves, Roger, Activating Vocabulary. Functional Units. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd 1980. Third impression 1989. ISBN 0-17-555816-7.Gairns, Ruth/Redman, Stuart, Working with Words. A guide to teaching and learning vocabulary. Cambridge University Press 1986. Fifth printing 1990. ISBN 0-521-31709-6. Hill, L. A./Innes, Charles, Oxford Children's Picture Dictionary. Oxford University Press 1981. Second impression 1987. ISBN 0-19-431260-7 (hb). Tenth impression 1991. ISBN 0-19-431240-2 (pb).Holderness, Jackie, Start with Words and Pictures. Oxford University Press 1991. ISBN 0-19-431196-1.Parnwell, E.C., Oxford English Picture Dictionary. Oxford University Press 1977. Thirteenth impression 1987. ISBN 0-19-431160-0.Parnwell, E.C., The New Oxford Picture Dictionary. Oxford University Press 1988. ISBN 0-19-434199-2.Seal, Bernard, Vocabulary Builder 1 with full key for self-study. Longman 1987. ISBN 0-582-96500-4. Vocabulary Builder 2. ISBN 0-582-96501-2. Solem, Rigmor, 2. My body in the Word by Word series: My face, My room, Clothes, Jumble sale, Carnival. Gyldendal Norsk Forlag 1989. ISBN 82-05-18516-6.Underhill, Adrian, Use Your Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-431104-X.Wright, Andrew, Picture Dictionary for Young Learners. Includes notes for parents and teachers. Nelson 1992. ISBN 0-17-556565-1.

Collections of songs and rhymes for the English classroom: Byrne / Waugh, Jingle Bells and Other Songs (with cassette). Oxford University Press. Book, ISBN 194333450. Cassette, ISBN 0-19-433346-9.Dakin, Julian, Songs and Rhymes for the Teaching of English (with cassette). Longman. ISBN 0-582-51380-4.Graham, Carolyn, Jazz Chants for Children. Illustrations by Anna Veltfort. Oxford University Press 1979. ISBN 0-19-502496-6.Hughes, Annie, JET Songs & Rhymes. English and American Children's Songs with CD/cassette. A book of photocopiable activities devised by Annie Hughes. Mary Glasgow Magazines. Scholastic 2002. ISBN 1-900702-66-5. It's Christmas Time (with cassette). Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1982.*Kniveton, Julie/Monterubio, Myriam, Sing in English (with cassettes). Delti. English Language Teaching Publications 1996. ISBN 968682006-X.Ludlow, Karen/Reilly, Patricia, Heinemann ELT Hits. 10 original pop songs. Photocopiable with cassette. Macmillan Heinemann. ISBN 0435-251007.Organised Noise in the Classroom (with cassette). SANGER, REGLER OG RIM m.m. for begynnerundervisningen i engelsk – barnetrinnet.

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Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1984.*Songs and Rhymes for the Teaching of English (with CD). Texts available on the website: See http//www.hisf.no under Nettverk for kompetanseutvikling i engelsk. Strawberry Fair. 51 traditional songs chosen by Sue Williams. A & C Black Publishers Ltd 1985. Reprinted 1986, 1993. ISBN 0-7136-2676-3. Recorder arrangements Abracadabra Recorder 9: tunes from Strawberry Fair. ISBN 0-7136-5542-9.The Twelve Days of Christmas. Ladybird Books Ltd 1987/1994. ISBN 0721496318.Urrestarazu, Singalong with Snap (with cassette). Heinemann. ISBN 0435289063.

Collections of stories, fairy tales, nursery rhymes, and children´s poems: Adams, Georgie and Young, Selina, A Year Full of Stories. 366 Stories and Poems. Orion Children´s Books 1997. ISBN 1 85881 1821.Ahlberg, Alan, Please Mrs Butler with cassette. Puffin. ISBN 0-14-031494-6.Andersen, Hans Christian, Fairytales. Illustrated by Svend Otto S. Carlsen, Copenhagen 1972. Translated by Patricia Crampton 1985. Printed 2003 in Denmark. ISBN 87- 562-3018-4.Bravo, Mr. William Shakespeare presented by Marcia Williams. Walker Books Ltd 2000. ISBN 0-7445-6793-9.Collins Treasury of Poetry. Selected by Stephanie Nettell. Illustrated by Penny Dann. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. 1995. ISBN 0-00-193946-7.English Nursery Rhymes for Young Learners (with cassette). Nelson 1994. ISBN 0-17-556826-X.Fairy Tales. Retold by Brian Morse. Illustrated by Peter Stevenson. Ladybird Books Ltd. 1994. ISBN 0-7214-7557-4.Frank Baber's Mother Goose Nursery Rhymes, Eurobook Limited 1988. ISBN 0 85654 061 7.Hands on Poetry. Using Poetry in the Classroom. Edited by Sue Ellis and Myra Barrs. Centre for Language in Primary Education. ISBN 1-872267-07-6.Henry, Ernest, New Improved Limericks. The Limerick Book Publishing Company. ISBN 1-9018-7900-3.My Best Book of Nursery Rhymes. Illustrated by Pamela Storey. Brown Watson Ltd 1988, England. ISBN 0-7097-0488-7Nursery Tales. Retold by Brian Morse. Illustrated by Peter Stevenson. Ladybird. ISBN 0-7214-7556-6.Once Upon a Modern Fairytale. Edited by Pat Edwards and Margarette Thomas-Cochran. Longman Australia Pty Ltd. 1995. ISBN 0-582-80332-2.Organised Noise in the Classroom. Sanger, regler or rim m.m. for begynnerundervisningen i engelsk - barnetrinnet. Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1984.*Oscar Wilde, Stories for Children. Bookmart Limited 1999. Reprinted 1999, 2000 (twice). ISBN 1-90046-582-5.Owls and Pussycats. Nonsense verse by Edward Lear and Lewis Caroll. Illustrated by Nicky Palin. Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-272282-4.Playtime Rhymes. A Collection of Traditional Rhymes to Sing and Dance to. Ladybird. ISBN 0-7214-1774-4.Poetry. Compiled by Wes Magee. Scolastic Collections. Scholastic Ltd 1992. ISBN 0-590-53021-6.Roald Dahl's Revolting Rhymes with illustrations by Quentin Blake. Puffin Books 1984.

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ISBN 0-14-050423-0. Round and Round the Garden. Play rhymes for young children. Compiled by Sarah Williams. Illustrated by Ian Beck. Oxford University Press 1983. Reprinted 1998. ISBN 0-19-272282-4. The Collins Book of Nursery Rhymes. Illustrated by Jonathan Langley. Collins 1990. ISBN 0-00-183163-1.The Hutchinson Treasury of Children's Literature. Edited by Alison Sage. Foreword by Quentin Blake. Hutchinson Children's Books, Random House UK Limited 1995. ISBN 0-09-176144-1.The Hutchinson Treasury of English Poetry.Edited by Alison Sage. Foreword by Michael Rosen. Hutchinson Children's Books, Random House UK Limited 1998. ISBN 0-09-176748-2.The Kingfisher Book of Children's Poetry. Chosen by Michael Rosen. ISBN 0-86272-784-7.The New Oxford Treasury of Children's Poems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-276137-4.The Orchard Book of Nursery Rhymes. Compiled by Faith Jaques. Rhymes chosen by Zena Sutherland. Orchard Books 1990. Reprinted 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994.1995,1997. ISBN 1-85213-056-3.Treasury of Nursery Rhymes. Selected by Alistair Hedley. Illustrated by Kate Aldous, Claire Henley, Anna Cynthia Leplar, Karen Perrins, Scott Rhodes, Jane Tattersfield and Sara Walker. A Parragon Book 2000. Republished 2001. ISBN 0-75253-567-6.Twilight Verses Moonlight Rhymes. Compiled by Mary Joslin. Illustrated by Liz Pichon. A Lion Book/Lion Publishing plc 1997. ISBN 0-7459-3817-5. Collections of games and activities for ELT and ELL:Ashworth, Julie/Clark, John, Playground games with rhymes and chants. Collins ELT HarperCollins Publishers 1992. ISBN 0-00-370788-1.Baudains, Richard/Marjorie, Alternatives. Games, exercises and conversations for the language classroom. Pilgrims. Longman 1990. Fourth impression 1993 ISBN 0-582-03767-0.Byrne, It's Your Turn. Macmillan. Student´s Book. ISBN 0906149150. Teacher´s Book. ISBN 0906149169.Byrne, A First Book of Board Games. Macmillan. Student´s Book. ISBN 090614907X. Teacher´s Book. ISBN 0906149088.Carrier, Michael and The Centre for British Teachers, Take 5. Games and Activities for the Language Learner. Harrap 1980. ISBN 0 245 53630 2.Chamberlin, Anthony/Stenberg, Kurt, Play and Practise! Graded games for English Language Teaching. Dreyer. ISBN 82-09-02427-2.Deller, Sheelagh, Lessons from the Learner. Studentgenerated activities for the language classroom. Pilgrims. Longman 1990. Third impression 1991. ISBN 0-582-07004-X.Douglas, Ann/Ellis, Valerie/Boucher, Jim, Developing Maths. Book 1 for 8-9 year olds. Project 7-11. Charles Letts & Co Ltd 1989. Reprinted 1990. ISBN 0-85097-836-x.Griffiths, Jenny, An Early Start to Drama. Simon & Schuster Education 1991. ISBN 0-7501-01199.Holderness, Jackie/Hughes, Annie, 100+ Ideas for Children. Topic-based activities. A Teacher's Resource Book of topic-based activities for children (photocopiable) with accompanying cassette. Heinemann 1997. ISBN 0-435-24544-9.Jet Primary Teachers' Resource Book 1 and 2. 40 photocopiable activities for teaching

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English to young children. Compiled by Karen Gray. Delta Publishing. Scholastic Inc.1996. ISBN 1-900783-13-4.Lane, Sheila/Kemp, Marion, Developing Reading and Writing. Book 2 for 8-9 year olds. Project 7-11. Charles Letts & Co Ltd 1989. ISBN 0-85097-829-7.Let's Play It in English. Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1986.*Price, Robin, Movers & Shakers. Classroom Activities for Elementary and Intermediate Students. Delta Publishing. English Teaching professional, 1998. ISBN 0 953 30980 0.Rixon, Shelagh, How to Use Games in Language Teaching. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1981. ISBN 0-333-27547-0.Thomassen, Bjørg S./Rydstrøm, Marit R., Food and Drink. Informasjonssenteret for Språkundervisning 1990.*Wright, Andrew/Betteridge/Buckby, Michael, Games for Language Learning. Cambridge University Press 1979. Fourth printing 1982. ISBN 0-521-22170-6.

Developing communicative ability: Brown, Gillian/Yule, George, Teaching the Spoken Language,. An approach based on the analysis of conversational English. Cambridge University Press 1983. Fifth printing 1989. ISBN 0-521-27384-6. Cassette with Recorded extracts: ISBN 0-521-25378-0.Byrne, Donn, Techniques for Classroom Interaction. Longman 1987. ISBN 0-582-74627-2.Communicative Activities in the Classroom. Ways and Means. Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1983.*Hadfield, Jill, Elementary Communication Games with photocopiable material. A collection of games and activities for elementary students of English. Longman 1984. Fourth impression 1997. ISBN 0-17-555695-4.Hadfield, Jill, Intermediate Communication Games with photocopiable material. Longman 1996. Tenth impression 2003. ISBN 0-17-555872-8.Hadfield, Jill, Advanced Communication Games with photocopiable material. A collection of games and activities for intermediate and advanced students of English. Longman 1996. Fourth impression 1996. ISBN 0-17-555693-8.Holden, Susan, Drama in Language Teaching. Longman 1981. Third impression 1982. ISBN 0-582-74600-0.Hover, David, Think Twice. Communication activities for beginner to intermediate students. Cambridge University Press 1986. ISBN 0-521-27385-4.Husum, Ervin, Kommunikative språkøving. Idehefte med praktiske døme. Bergen lærerhøgskole, Engelskseksjonen 1982. Revised 1990.Johns, Berit, Rollespill i engelskundervisningen. En praktisk-metodisk innføring for engelsklærere i grunnskolen. Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1988.*Jones, Leo, Functions of English. A course for upper-intermediate and more advanced students. New edition. Student's Book. Cambridge University Press 1977, 1981. Fifth printing 1986. ISBN 0-521-28249-7. Teacher's Book ISBN 0-521-28248-9. Cassette ISBN 0-521-23836-6. Recorded Exercises. Student's Workbook. ISBN 0-521-28382-5. Set of 3 cassettes. ISBN 0-521-26353-0.Klippel, Friederike, Keep Talking. Communicative fluency activities for language teaching. Cambridge University Press 1984. Fifth printing 1987. ISBN 0-521-27871-6.Ladousse, Gillian Porter, Speaking Personally. Quizzes and questionnaires for fluency practice. Cambridge University press 1983. Fourth printing 1987. ISBN 0-521-28869-X.Ladousse, Gillian Porter, Role Play. Oxford University Press 1987.

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ISBN 0-19-437095-X.Maley, Alan/Duff, Alan, Drama Techniques in Language Learning. A resource book of communication activities for language teachers. New Edition. Cambridge University Press 1978. Fourth printing 1980. Second edition 1982. ISBN 0-521-28868-1.Maley, Alan/Duff, Alan/Grellet, Francoise, The Mind's Eye. Using pictures creatively in language learning. Student's Book. Cambridge University Press 1980. Reprinted 1983. ISBN 0-521-23332-1. Teacher's Book ISBN 0-521-23333-X.Millar, Ninian, Use Your English. Communicative Activities for Teachers of English. J.W. Cappelens Forlag 1987. ISBN 82-02-10290-1.Nolasco, Rob/Arthur, Lois, Conversation. Oxford University Press 1987. ISBN 0-19-437096-8.Nolasco, Rob, Speaking. Elemenary. Oxford University Press 1987. ISBN 0-19-453408-1.Nunan, David, Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge University Press 1989. Third printing 1990. ISBN 0-521-37915-6 (pb).Sheils, Joe, Communication in the modern languages classroom. Project No. 12 "Learning and teaching modern languages for communication". Council of Europe 1988. Reprinted 1993. ISBN 92-871-1552-4.Ur, Penny, Discussions that Work. Task-centred fluency practice. Cambridge University Press 1981. Eleventh printing 1990. ISBN 0-521-28169-5.van Ek, J.A., Objectives of foreign language learning. Vol. 1: Scope. . Council of Europe, Strasbourg 1986. Watcyn-Jones, Peter, Pair Work. Student A. Penguin Books 1981. ISBN 0-14-081320-9.Watcyn-Jones, Peter, Pair Work. Student B. Penguin Books 1981. ISBN 0-14-081-321-7.Watcyn-Jones, Peter, Act English.. A Book of Role -plays. Penguin Books 1978. ISBN 0-14-081-310-1. Wessels, Charlyn, Drama. Oxford University Press 1987. ISBN 0-19-437097-6.

Developing listening comprehension:Active Listening. Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1981.*Anderson, Anne/Lynch, Tony, Listening. Oxford University Press 1988. ISBN 0-19-437135-2.Dunn, Viviane/Gruber, Diann, Listening Intermediate. Oxford University Press 1987. ISBN 0-19-453418-9.Geddes, Marion/Sturtridge, Gill, Listening Links. Students' Book. Heinemann Educational Books 1979. Reprinted 1980/1985/1987. ISBN 0-435-28051-1.Gorset, Anne-Marie Lindahl, Listen! Active English in the Classroom. Student's Book. Aschehoug 1987. ISBN 82-03-12954-4.McDowell, John/Hart, Christopher, Listening Plus. Authentic recordings with tasks to develop listening skills and learner training. Student's Book. Edward Arnold 1987. Reprinted 1988. Student's Book: ISBN 0-7131-8448-5. Teacher's Book: ISBN 0-7131-8451-5.Nolasco, Rob, Listening Elementary. Oxford University Press 1987. ISBN 0-19-453416-2.Revell, Jane/Breary, Barry, Listening Advanced. Oxford University Press 1988. ISBN 0-19-453422-7.Richards, Jack C., Listen Carefully. Oxford University Press 1990/1991. ISBN 0-19-457280-3.

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Rixon, Shelagh, Listening Upper-Intermediate. Oxford University Press 1987. ISBN 0-19-453420-0.Rost, Listening in Action. Activities for developing listening in language teaching. Prentice Hall International Ltd 1991. ISBN 0-13-538778-7.Scott, Wendy, Are You Listening? Illustrated by Colin Smithson and Anne Morrow. Oxford University Press 1980. ISBN 0-19-433518-6.Underwood, Mary, Teaching Listening. Longman 1989. Third impression1993. ISBN 0-582-74619-1.Ur, Teaching Listening Comprehension. Cambridge University Press 1984. Eighth printing 1991. ISBN 0-521-28781-2 (pb).See also articles on developing listening comprehension and on how to exploit listening material:http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/resources/webquest.shtmlhttp://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/listen.shtmlhttp.//www.teachingenglish.org.uk/try/listentry/listen_activities.shtmlSee also http://www.learnenglish.org.uk which has some interactive activities which have audio on.

Developing reading comprehension - approaches to literature in the English classroom: Benitez, L./Castrillo, J. M./Cerezal, N./Suarez, C., Reading Tasks. Longman 1988. ISBN 0-582-00512-4.Chambers, Aidan, The Reading Environment. The Thimble Press 1991. ISBN 0-903355-36-1.Changing Stories (with teachers' notes and suggested books for further reading) The English & Media Centre 1984.Clarke, David F., Talk About Literature. Edward Arnold 1989. ISBN 0-340-50440-4.Collie, Joanne/Slater, Stephen, Literature in the Language Classroom. A resource book of ideas and activities. Cambridge University Press 1987. Eighth printing 1995. ISBN 0-521-31224-8.Collie, Joanne/Slater, Stephen, Short Stories for Creative Language Classrooms. Cambridge University Press 1993. Third printing 1995. ISBN 0-521-40653-6 (pb), ISBN 0-521-40652-8 (cassette).Day, Richard R./Bamford, Julian, Extensive Reading in the Second Language Classroom. Cambridge University Press 1998. ISBN 0-521-56829-3 (pb).Eikrem, Bjørg Olsen, L97 and Literature in TEFL: What the Story has to Offer. Background thoughts - Activities and teaching ideas. Høyskoleforlaget 1999. ISBN 82-7634-251-5.Graham, Judith, Cracking Good Books. Teaching Literature at Key Stage 2. NATE 1997. Fourth impression 1998. ISBN 0-901291-51-X. Greenwood, Jean, Class Readers. Oxford University Press 1988. ISBN 0-19-437103-4.Hedge, Tricia, Using Readers in Language Teaching. Essential Language Teaching Series. Macmillan Publishers Limited 1985. Reprinted 1987, 1990. ISBN 0-333-33388-8.Ibsen, Elisabeth/Wiland, Signe Mari, Encounters with Literature. The Didactics of English Literature in the Context of the Foreign Language Classroom in Norway. Høyskoleforlaget 2000. ISBN 82-7634-270-1.Ladousse, Gillian Porter, Reading. Intermediate. Oxford University Press 1987. ISBN 0-19-453401-4.McRae, John/Boardman, Roy, Reading between the Lines. Integrated language and literature

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activities. Cambridge University Press 1984 Eighth printing 1992. ISBN0-521-27789-2.Meek, Margaret, How Texts Teach What Readers Learn. Thimble Press 1988. Reprinted twice 1988. Reprinted 1989. Reprinted twice 1990. Reprinted 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995. ISBN 0-903355-23-X.Morgan, John/Rinvolucri, Mario, Once Upon a Time. Using stories in the language classroom. Cambridge University Press 1983. Eleventh printing 1994. ISBN 0-521-27262-9.Rossner, Richard, The Whole Story. Short Stories for pleasure and language improvement. Longman 1988. ISBN 0-582- 79109-X.Scott, Rosemary, Reading. Elementary. Oxford University Press 1987. ISBN 0-19-453400-6. Simensen, Aud Marit, Using Graded Readers. Information about the many series of graded readers – and how to use them. Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1990.* Thomas, Huw, Reading and Responding to Fiction. Classroom strategies for developing literacy. Scholatic Ltd. 1988. ISBN 0-590-53762-8.Thygesen, Helen, Fairy Tale Comprehension. Book 1, Longman 1994. Reprinted 1995. ISBN 0-582-80273-3. Book 2, Longman 1994. Reprinted 1995. ISBN 0-582-80274-1. Book 3, Longman 1994. Reprinted 1995. ISBN 0-582-80275-X. Tomlinson, Brian/Ellis, Rod, Reading. Upper-intermediate. Oxford University Press 1987. ISBN 0-19-453402-2.

NOTE:As for an interesting discussion of extensive reading in the foreign language classroom, see http://www.hisf.no Høgskulen i Sogn og Fjordane under Nettverk for kompetanseutvikling i engelsk. The website also contains a list of appropriate children's books for the ELT classroom.

Developing writing skills:Byrne, Donn, Teaching Writing Skills. New Edition. Longman 1988. ISBN 0-582-74651-5.Drew, Ion, On Process Oriented Writing in English in Norwegian Secondary Schools. Skriftserien 3/93. Sogndal Lærarhøgskule, Postboks 211, 5801 Sogndal.Flaten, Gro/Korsvold, Anne-Karin, Skriving som prosess. Innføring og praktiske ideer i prosessorientert skriving. Universitetsforlaget 1989. ISBN 82-00-03546-8.Heaton, J. B., Composition Through Pictures. Longman 1966. New impressions 1967 (thrice), 1968, 1969, 1971 (twice), 1972, 1973 (twice), 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981. ISBN 0-582-52125-4.Jolly, David, Writing Tasks. An authentic-task approach to individual writing needs. Cambridge University Press 1984. Student's Book. Sixth printing 1989. ISBN 0-521-22924-3. Teacher's Book ISBN 0-521-28972-6.Odeen, Kristi/Traavik, Hilde, Prosessorientert skrivepedagogikk som tilpasset opplæring. Ideer og metodiske opplegg. Idehefte i norsk. Universitetsforlaget 1991. ISBN 82-00-21269-6.White, Ron/Arndt, Valerie, Process Writing. Longman 1991/1992. ISBN 0-582-02444-7.Withrow, Jean, Effective Writing. Writing skills for intermediate students of America English. Cambridge University Press 1987. Student's Book ISBN 0-521-31608-1. Teacher's Manual and Answer Key ISBN 0-521-31609-X.

Teaching grammar and vocabulary:

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Bowers, R. G./Bamber, B./Straker Cook, R./Thomas, A. L., Talking About Grammar. Longman 1987. ISBN 0-582-55899-9.Celce-Murcia, Marianne/Hilles, Sharon, Techniques and Resources in Teaching Grammar. Oxford University Press 1988. ISBN 0-19-434191-7.Edmonds, William, Fun with English. Good Grammar. Kingfisher Publications Plc 1999. ISBN 0-7534-0368-4.Forsyth, Will/Lavender, Sue, Grammar Activities. 1 Intermediate. Macmillan Heinemann 1994. ISBN 0-435-25094-9.Gerngross, Gunter/Puchta, Herbert, Creative Grammar Practice. Pearson Education Limited 1992. Sixth impression 1999. ISBN 0-582-08957-3.Harmer, Jeremy, Teaching and Learning English Grammar. Longman 1987. ISBN 0-582 74623-X.Jones, Leo, Use of English. Grammar practice activities for intermediate and upper- intermediate students. Student's Book. Cambridge University Press 1985. Sixth printing 1989. ISBN 0-521-26976-8. Teacher's Book ISBN 0-521-26977-6. McCallum, George P., 101 Word Games. Oxford University Press 1980. ISBN 0-19-502742-6.McCarthy, Michael, Vocabulary. Oxford University Press 1990. ISBN 0-19-437136-0.Nihlen, Cecilia, Time for More English. NKS-Forlaget 1989. ISBN 82-508-1060-0.Redman, Stuart/Ellis, Robert, A Way with Words. Vocabulary development activities for learners of English. Cambridge University Press 1989. Student's Book ISBN 0-521-35917- 1. Teacher's Book ISBN 0-521-35918-X. Cassette ISBN 0-521-35026-3.Rinvolucri, Mario, Grammar Games. Cognitive, affective and drama activities for EFL students. Cambridge University Press 1984. Seventh printing 1988. ISBN 0-521-27773-6.Rinvolucri, Mario/Davis, Paul, More Grammar Games. Cognitive, affective and movement avtivities for EFL students. Cambridge University Press 1995. ISBN 0-521-46630-X.Thomas, Susan, Picture Prompts. Body and Health. Miniflashcards. Language Games. Delta Publishing 1999. ISBN 1-900783-18-5. Clothes. ISBN 1-900783-19-3. Thornbury, Scott, How to Teach Grammar. Pearson Education Limited 1999. ISBN 0-582-33932-4.Thornbury, Scott, How to Teach Vocabulary. Person Education Limited 2002. ISBN 0-582-42966-8.Ur, Penny, Grammar Practice Activities. A practical guide for teachers. Cambridge University Press 1988. Fourth printing 1990. ISBN 0-521-33847-6 (pb).

Assessing communicative competence in English:Edge, Julian, Mistakes and Correction. Longman 1989/1992. ISBN 0-582-74626-4.Bonnet, Gerard (ed.), The assessment of pupils' skills in English in eight European countries 2002. European network of policy makers for the evaluation of education systems. March 2004. Website: http://cisad.adc.education.fr/reva/Hasselgren, Angela, Bergen 'Can do' project. Council of Europe Publishing 2003. ISBN 92-871-5263-2.Heaton, J. B., Classroom Testing. Longman 1990. Fourth impression 1991. ISBN 0-582-74625-6.Heaton, J. B.., Writing English Language Tests. New Edition.Longman 1988. Fourth impression 1991. ISBN 0-582-00237-0.Kartlegging av kommunikativ kompetanse i engelsk: Book of Ideas, Vocabulary test, Speaking test, Listening test, Reading test, Writing test, Self-assessment questionnaire, and

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User Compendium for Teachers. Nasjonalt læremiddelsenter 1996. EVA test of spoken English - demonstration film. Bergen University English Department/KUF Oslo, April 1995.Nasjonale prøver i engelsk. Utarbeidet av prosjektet "Nasjonale prøver i engelsk", Universitetet i Bergen vår 2004. For Vurderingskriterier, se http://bite.intermedia.uib.no/tests/w_assessment_criteria.page http://www.ecml.at/cando/files/start.htmTaube, Karin, Mappevurdering. Undervisningsstrategi og vurderingsredskap. Tano Aschehoug 1998. ISBN: 82-518-3793-6.The assessment of pupils' skills in English in eight European countries 2002. Edited by Gerard Bonnet. European network of policy makers for the evaluation of education systems 2004. Website: http://cisad.adc.education.fr/reva/Underhill, Nic, Testing Spoken English. A handbook of oral testing techniques. Cambridge University Press 1987/1990. ISBN 0-521-31276-0.

Videos for or about ELT:Muzzy in Gondoland (+ elevhefter 1 – 6, 1 lærerveiledning, 1 lydkassett). TeWE A/S – BBC Engelsk kurs, Oslo.Nursery Play Rhymes. Hey Diddle Diddle & Other Favourites. Packaging Design 1995. VCI, 72/74 Dean Street, London W1, England. ISBN 5-014138-610494.Primary English Language Teaching (with comments by Susan Halliwell). Longman. ISBN 0582-219329.Video in the English Class. Techniques for Successful Teaching. BBC English 1990. ISBN 1-85497-205-7. Accompanying book by Barry Tomalin. ISBN 1-85497-209-X. See also Barry Tomlin, Video, TV & Radio in the English Class. Macmillan Publishers Ltd 1986. Reprinted 1989. ISBN 0-333-35024-3. Working with Texts: 1- Finding Meaning in Texts. 2- Reading and Writing - Interactive Processes. Kunnskapskanalen 1998. Intermedia, Universitetet i Oslo, Postboks 1059 Blindern, 0316 Oslo. Tel. 22852840. E-post: kunnskapskanalen@intermedia.uio.no. IT-resources for ELT:Jones, Christopher/Fortescue, Using Computers in the Language Classroom. Longman 1987. ISBN 0-582-74617-5.Oliver, Brian, IT-ressurser for engelskundervisningen. Brian Oliver and Tano A.S. 1996. ISBN 82-518-3392-2.NOTE also CD-Roms for Windows with an interactive approach to the learning of English, e.g. interactive word games like the ones from Dorling Kindersley Multimedia and Longman (P.B. Bear's Birthday Party, Zak's Wordgames, etc)

Examples of local community-based English-teaching material:Bull, Brita Lie/Frost Dianne, At Home in Bærum. From Vietnam to Norway. Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1988.*Johns, Berit, English Right Here! (Nesna) Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning 1985.*Sørheim, Bjørn, Among apple trees and football fever with Exercises. (Sogndal) Skrifter frå Sogndal Lærarhøgskule, Nr. 8, 1986. ISSN 0800-0662. ISBN 82-90691-00-9.

British publishers who have a good selection of ELT books and who would send you an ELT catalogue: (International Calling Code for England is 0044).

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Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, United Kingdom. Centre for Language in Primary Education Webber Row, London, SE1 8QW, England. Tel: 071 401 3382/3.Longman Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow Essex CM20 2 JE, England. Tel: 0279 – 426721.HarperCollins 77/85 Fulham Palace Road, London W6 8JB, England. Tel: 081-741 7070.Heinemann Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8EJ, England. Tel: 0865-311366.Macmillan 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF, England. Tel: 071-836 6633.NATE - National Association for the Teaching of English, 50 Broadfield Road, Sheffield S8 OXJ, England. Tel: (0114) 2555419. Oxford University Press Walton Street, Oxford OX2 6DP, England. Tel: 0223-312393.Penguin Bath Road, Harmondsworth, West Drayton, Middx UB7 ODA, England. Tel: 081-759 1984/5722

General catalogues of ELT books: Dillons ELT Catalogue, Dillons the bookstore, 82 Gower Street, London WC1E 6EQ, England.Keltic ELT Guide, Keltic, 25 Chepstow Corner, Chepstow Place, London W2 4TT, England.NATE's Publication Catalogues. (Address as above).

Magazines for English teachers:English Teaching Professional. The Leading Practical Magazine For English Language Teachers Worldwide. ISSn 1362-5276. Website: www.etprofessional.comJET, Mary Glasgow Publications (order through Narvesen).Sprogforum - tidskrift for sprog og kulrurpædagogik. (Website: sprogforum@dpd.dpu.dk).Språk og språkundervisning. (Landslaget Moderne Språk på nett: www.moderne.no).

English in the classroom:Farmer, Paul, English for 7-10-year-olds. English Sentences for Use in the Classroom. (Cassette). Telemarksforsking-Notodden 1993.

Other useful addresses for language teachers:Narvesen – litteraturtjenesten, Postboks 6125 Etterstad, 0602 Oslo 6: Graded readers from English publishers.The Bournemouth English Book Centre Limited, 9 Albion Close, Parkstone, Poole, BHI2 3LL, England. Tel: Bournemouth (0202) 715555: Material for ELT.

*These topic-related booklets, some of them with listening material, were published by Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning in the 1980s and early 1990s. Similar booklets were produced in other foreign languages as well, and all of them proved very useful in foreign language teaching in Norway. Unfortunately, Informasjonssenteret for språkundervisning no longer exists, but the booklets (some with cassettes), which were distributed to many schools around Norway at the time, can probably still be found in many collections of FLT material at the schools and in FL departments at the colleges. Some of the titles have been put on this list (see *)

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to make FL teachers aware of their existence. It is hoped that the present institutions responsible for furthering FL teaching and learning in Norway see the value of this material and take steps to reprint new, updated editions and make them available to the schools. Such material would no doubt prove to be valuable supplements to the FL textbooks.

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