(2-4% of the AP Exam)

Consciousness is our awareness of

ourselves and our environment.

Your conscious includes:

1. Your awareness of external events.

2. Your awareness of internal sensations.

3. Your awareness of your self as the

unique being having these experiences.

4. Your awareness of your thoughts about

these experiences.

The contents of your

consciousness are

continually changing.

It moves, flows, fluctuates,

wanders…

Recognizing that

consciousness is in constant

flux, William James (1902)

named this flow the “stream

of consciousness”.

Circadian rhythms – 24-25 hour

“biological clock” found in humans

Circadian rhythms are particularly

influential in the regulation of sleep.

Daily cycles also produce variations in • Blood pressure

• Urine production

• Hormonal secretion

• Other various physical functions

When exposed to light, receptors in the retina send direct inputs to a small structure in the hypothalamus called the suprachiastmatic nucleus.

The SCN then send signals to the nearby pineal gland, whose secretion of the hormone melatonin plays a key role in the sleep/wake cycle.

Not only does sleep occur in a context of daily rhythms, but subtler rhythms are evident within the experience of sleep itself.

About every 90 minutes we pass through a cycle of five distinct stages of sleep. • Stage One

• Stage Two

• Stage Three

• Stage Four

• REM sleep

EEG – machine that records cortical activity in the brain in terms of line tracings called brain waves.

There are four distinct “patterns” of brain waves:

1. beta waves: normal, waking thought

2. alpha waves: deep relaxation, meditation

3. theta waves: light sleep 4. delta waves: deep sleep

Stage one and two are brief transitional stages of light sleep that lasts only 10-25 minutes each.

During Stage one and two, breathing and heart rate slow as muscle tension and body temperature decline.

The alpha waves of the relaxed state transition to the slower theta waves.

During Stage two, brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves, called sleep spindles, appear against a backdrop of mixed EEG activity.

Gradually brain waves become higher in amplitude and slower in frequency (delta waves) as the body moves into the deep sleep of stages three and four.

Deep sleep is typically reached in about a half an hour and remains there for another half an hour.

Then the cycle reverses itself and the sleep moves back upward into lighter stages of sleep.

When sleepers reach what should be stage one again, they usually go into the fifth stage, called REM sleep.

REM is an abbreviation for rapid-eye movement, which is a distinct characteristic of the stage itself.

During REM bodily movements are minimal and the sleeper is virtually paralyzed.

Although REM is a relatively deep stage of sleep, EEG activity is dominated by beta waves, those observed when people are awake and alert.

Thus REM sleep is sometimes referred to as paradoxical sleep: your body is internally aroused but externally calm.

Although some dreaming does occur in non-REM sleep (stages 1-4), dreaming is most frequent, vivid and memorable during REM sleep.

Age alters the sleep cycle. Newborns will sleep roughly 16 hours a day. REM sleep accounts for about 50% of infants

total sleep but only 20% in adults. As we age, time spent in deep sleep lessens

as the average amount of total sleep also declines.

It seems that the older we get, the less sleep we actually need.

Studies have shown that older adults tolerate sleep deprivation with less impairment that younger adults.

Why Do We Sleep?

Sleep protects – evolutionary explanation; dangers of the dark

Sleep restores and repairs (Restorative Theory) - resting neurons need time to repair themselves

Sleep helps us remember – reorganizes and rebuilds fading memories from the day

Sleep helps our bodies grow – during sleep the pituitary gland releases growth hormones

Insomnia – problems falling or staying asleep

Sometimes caused by intense anxiety and tension that prevents relaxation thus keeping people awake.

Frequently a side effect of emotional problems such as depression or of significant stress.

Most people who suffer from insomnia pursue no professional treatment.

Those who do are usually prescribed newer forms of sleeping pills called nonbenzodiazepines.

Nonbenzodiazepines are sedatives designed primarily to relieve anxiety and help people fall asleep more quickly.

Brand names like Ambien and Lunesta are popular and often successful in treating patients with insomnia.

Sleep apnea involves frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep.

Usually treated via lifestyle modifications (weight loss, reduced alcohol use), drug therapy or special masks that improve airflow to the lungs while asleep.

Sufferers of narcolepsy drop suddenly and involuntarily into sleep.

Usually prescribed some form of stimulant or amphetamine to speed up the body and combat the likelihood of sudden collapse into sleep.

Night terrors: abrupt awakenings from

NREM sleep (stage four) accompanied

by intense autonomic arousal and

feelings of panic

Somnambulism: sleep walking

In 1899, Sigmund Freud publishes “The Interpretation of Dreams”.

Freud called the actual storyline of a dream the “manifest content”.

The underlying meaning of those dreams Freud referred to as its “latent content”.

Freud’s wish-fulfillment– according to

Freud dreams were “safety valves” that

discharges otherwise unacceptable

feelings • Dreams release unconscious drives and reduce

anxiety

• “Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar.”

Information-processing – dreams help us

sort out the day’s events and consolidate

our memories

Physiological function – regular brain

stimulation from REM sleep may help

develop and preserve neural pathways • “Use it or lose it” theory

Activation-synthesis – REM sleep triggers

neural activities that evokes random

visual memories which our sleeping

brain weaves into stories • Our brain’s attempt to make sense of “neural

static”

Cognitive theory – dream content reflects

cognitive development • Dreams are essential in brain maturation

• Dreams draw on our concepts and knowledge

Hypnosis – state of heightened suggestibility to which people are subject in varying degrees

Highly susceptible people have an exceptional ability to focus their attention totally on one task. • We are all to some degree susceptible to

hypnosis.

Degree is measure by the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale

Credit for the popularity of hypnosis goes to Franz Anton Mesmer, a physician, who mistakenly thought he discovered “animal magnetism.”

Some of his patients experienced a trancelike state and felt better upon waking up.

Mesmer was simply using the power of suggestion to “treat” his patients.

Some research suggest hypnosis IS in fact

an altered state of consciousness. • Posthypnotic suggestions carried out when no one

was watching.

• Brain scans show activity in particular parts of

brain responsible for stimuli recognition when

stimuli is suggested but not presented.

• Hypnosis has helped alleviate chronic pain in

some subjects.

Ernest Hilgard – famous researcher in the field of hypnotics

Proposed the divided consciousness theory – idea that hypnosis causes a separate, simultaneous “split” in awareness

Hilgard called this “split” in awareness dissociation.

One stream is in communication with the hypnotist and the external world while the other stream is a difficult-to-detect “hidden observer”.

Some research suggests hypnosis is NOT

an altered state of consciousness.

Social influence theory – states that

powerful social influences can produce a

state of hypnosis • Requests of the authoritative figure (hypnotist)

may cause people to perform suggested acts.

Psychoactive drug – chemical substance that alters perceptions, mood or behavior.

These substances can induce an altered state of consciousness.

Include everything from caffeine to crack cocaine and LSD.

Physiological dependence – physical

need for a drug

Psychological dependence –

psychological need for a drug

Addiction – compulsive drug craving

and use • To be classified as addiction drug use must

affect day-to-day living.

Withdrawal- discomfort and distress that follows when a dependent person discontinues the use of drug.

Tolerance – reduced responsiveness to a drug, promoting user to increase dosage to achieve desired effect.

Depressants: sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation • Alcohol, barbiturates and benzodiazepines

Stimulants: drugs that tend to increase levels of arousal and activity • Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine

Opiates (narcotics): suppresses pain while producing periods of euphoria • Morphine and heroin; derived from the opium plant

Hallucinogens: cause distortions in sensory and perceptual experience • LSD (acid), PCP (Angel dust), MDMA (ecstasy, molly)

Marijuana

Either alone or in pairs, you are to complete a brochure discussing the 5 classes of drugs.

Please also elaborate on specific types of drugs that comprise each class and other relevant information you acquire from your text.

Make the brochure informative and interesting.

Avoid including insignificant details and put brochure IN YOUR OWN WORDS!

What Happens to Us When We Die?

What happens after we die?

Monist – mind and body inseparable; death is final or belief in bodily resurrection (reincarnation)

Dualist – mind and body are two distinct entities that interact; death is mind’s liberation from body (Socrates, Plato, Descartes)