Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Hockey is one of the many sports derived from pre-

historic man’s delight in stick and ball games which gave the

world such varied pursuits as the English Cricket, American

Baseball and Persian Polo. Its birth place was Asia and the

authorities credit Persia for having devised it about 2000 B.C. It

is said that The Greeks and the Romans played hockey first,

but nothing is known about the nature of the game that they

played. The earliest mention of the present day game dates back

only to 1527.

Modern hockey, created in England, resembles most

closely the games once popular in the British Isles and it is no

doubt that hockey’s immediate forerunners were the Scottish

shinty, the English and Welsh bandy and the Irish hurling. But

it is generally assumed that the true ancestor of hockey was

hurling. Hurling crossed the sea from Irin to England and

assimilated into the English way of life, eventually to become

hockey.

The first hockey club was formed in Blackheath in

1861. The sticks were made of oak and the end position was

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teamed and then pressed to give it a hooked shape. The ball

was a solid cube of rubber with rounded corners.

Hockey became one of the games so enthusiastically

taken up that the government became perturbed that it would

interfere with men’s national service as archers. Hockey was

therefore banned, the order issued by King Edward III in 1365,

which is the first definite record of the existence of the game in

Britain. It was then still called as bandy ball. Landowners who

nevertheless permitted playing of the game on their property,

imposed a fine of $20 and three years’ imprisonment. With the

passage of time, the game became more refined and civilized.

One among the earliest refinements introduced was prohibition

of raising the head of the stick above shoulder level. Any player

who struck his opponent either with the stick or his hand faced

immediate suspension. The game was standardised by the

Wimbledon Hockey Club in 1883. Its regulations, adopted in

1886 by the Hockey Association, made it a modernized sport

with highly scientific and skillful nature.

Hockey in India

Hockey was introduced by the British in the British

Indian Regiments who quickly picked up the game and then it

became popular in India. The first hockey club was formed in

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Calcutta I 1885-86 followed by Bombay and Punjab. The Bengal

Hockey was the first Hockey Association in India founded in

1908. The second was formed in 1920 in Karachi by the name

‘Sind Hockey Association’. With the popularity of the game,

associations were formed in different states – mumbai, Bihar,

Orissa, Delhi and all across the country (Lokesh, 1995).

The name ‘hockey’ must have possibly been derived

from an old French word ‘hoquet’ which means a shepherd’s

curved stick. A stick and ball game, hockey is played in over

seventy countries and in all the five continents. It is a major

sport in India and Pakistan. It can be played both indoors and

outdoors on either grass land or artificial surface. The object of

the game is to send the ball into the opponent’s net, thus

scoring a goal (Dubey, 1999).

Physical Fitness

Physical fitness implies the ability to function at one’s

best level of efficiency in all his daily living. Physical fitness, an

instrument for social good, is the capacity to successfully

respond physically, mentally and emotionally to the forces of life

without undue debilitations. Physical fitness in one of the facets

of a person’s all round harmonious development. Physical

fitness, the cultural phenomenon of great complexity and

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magnitude is a historically preconditioned level of health and

comprehensive development of a person’s physical activities,

corresponding to the requirements of labour activity, normal

functioning of the body’s vital systems and longevity. Physical

fitness adds grace to the young, wealth to the poor, ornament to

the rich and acts as a consoling factor to the old. The place of

physical fitness in any society reflects something of that

society’s characteristics (John, 1958).

With no physical stimulus, the sensory receptors

became starved, subsequently causing the body to aches and

pains. With proper fitness, one can relieve much of these

unnecessary pains and unpleasant complications. It is almost

impossible to pass an entire day without being exposed to

something that involves physical fitness. This notional

preoccupation with fitness has affected every segment of our

society.

The quality of one’s life depends upon the quality of

work he or she does. Physical fitness is thus, essential for all

but the degree of physical fitness is very individualized and will

vary according to the demands and requirements of a specific

task. The school athlete must constantly work to improve his or

her strength, endurance, flexibility, speed and cardio

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respiratory efficiency whereas the student who cycles to school

will require less effort to maintain his or her physical fitness.

The test cricketer needs a different level of physical fitness. A 40

year old mother requires a different physical fitness level than

her daughter. So, physical fitness varies according to the

circumstances of a person at different times in his or her life. In

short, physical fitness is a must for all.

The basic traits of physical fitness are its mass nature

and scientific approach. The traits of this mass nature and the

scientific approach to physical fitness combine to make a single

on the basis of the following principles: Universality, the link

with social practice, the comprehensive development of the

personality and the efficiency in improvement of public health.

Universality means that the fitness system

encompasses the entire population regardless of age and social

group. The link with social practice helps to prepare the young

generation for active labour and to increase the creative activity

and the longevity of the population. The principle of

comprehensive and harmonious development of the personality

expresses the general trend and close interrelation of different

aspects of fitness system as a whole. Man’s comprehensive

development is essential for economic, social, technological and

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cultural progress. The principle of improving public health

permeates the entire system of fitness. Physical fitness is, thus,

closely interlinked to make upon entire organic unity.

Physical Fitness and Its Components

With regard to physical fitness there are several factors

that a number of overlapping activities and of course, individual

preferences are to be taken into account, so as to achieve the

same goal. Fitness activities include jogging, swimming, cycling,

walking, weight training, aerobic dance, water aerobics,

callanetics, free arm exercises and yoga.

The term physical fitness has been divided into two

distinct categories: skill-related and health-related fitness. Skill-

related fitness (performance fitness) includes those qualities

that provide the individual with the ability to participate in

sports activities. The components of skill-related fitness are

agility, balance, coordination, speed, power and reaction time.

Health-related fitness includes regular exercise in combination

of proper diet and abstention from smoking and using

potentially dangerous drugs and it will increase greatly one’s

quality of health. The components of health-related fitness are

cardio respiratory endurance, muscular endurance, muscular

strength, body composition and flexibility (Carl, 1987).

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Physical Exercise

Exercise occupies a lead role in keeping a person fit. It

will be quite difficult to adjust one’s life in terms of stress, diet,

sleep and so on without proper exercise. According to Plato,

Lack of activity destroys the good condition of every human

being, while movement and methodical physical exercise save it

and preserve it. Exercise means using and toning the body.

Exercise builds and maintains physical fitness (Barry, 1987).

Physical exercise is a capsule for better living. With

regular exercise, coronary arteries that supply blood to the

heart enlarge and new blood capillaries develop within the

organ larger, stronger and more efficient. Exercise increases

strength and efficiency of the muscles of rib cage and

diaphragm. This causes an increase in the lung volume,

enabling a person to take in more air and thus absorb more

oxygen. A person who exercises regularly breathes more slowly

at rest than one who does not work out. But, when required, he

or she can breathe deeply and oxygenate a given volume of

blood, spending less energy. Exercise increases the size of

existing blood vessels and makes them more elastic. It promotes

the formation of new blood vessels not only in the heart, but

also in the skeletal muscles, thus improving the oxygen supply

to all parts of the body. Exercise increases the total blood

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volume in the body, the density of red blood cells and the

haemoglobin content. This increases efficiency of the body’s

oxygen transport system as well as the waste disposal

mechanism, leading to improved muscular endurance and

efficiency. Exercise helps to burn calories not only when

exercising, but burns calories at a higher rate even after

finished exercising and converts them into muscle tissues.

“High levels of blood cholesterol are strongly associated with

heart attacks. Regular exercise will lower cholesterol levels.

Exercise brings down high blood pressure; reduces body fat and

increases muscle mass; helps reduce weight; keeps blood sugar

under control; relieves muscle and joint pains; reduce stress;

prolongs life; exercise improves feeling of well being (Arjun,

1991).

Achieving and maintaining physical fitness helps

prevent the premature occurrence of numerous illnesses and

diseases. It also helps in rehabilitation after illness or disease

has happened. It helps for mental alertness. It promotes

emotional stability. It enhances spiritual and moral

development. Exercise, thus contributes towards an increased

level of fitness and an holistic approach to good health.

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YOGA

The word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit root Yuj

meaning to bind, join, attach and yoke, to direct and

concentrate one’s attention on, to use and apply. It also means

union or communication. It is the true union of our will with the

will of God. ‘In thus means’, says Mahadev Desai in his

introduction to the Gita. According to Gandhi, “the yoking of all

the powers of body, mind and soul to God; it means the

disciplining of the intellect, the mind, the emotions, the will,

which that yoga pre-suppose; it means a poise of the soul which

enables one to look at life in all its aspects greatly (Iyangar,

1993).

The aim of yoga is to teach the means by which the

human soul may be completely united with the supreme spirit

parading the universe and thus serve absolution (Iyangar,

1993).

MEANING OF YOGA

The word yoga has its roots in the Sanskrit language

and means to merge, join or unite. Yoga is a form of exercise

based on the belief that the body and breath are intimately

connected with the mind. By controlling the breath and holding

the body in steady poses, or asanas, yoga creates harmony.

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Yoga is a means of balancing and harmonizing the body, mind

and emotions and is a tool that allows us to withdraw from the

chaos of the world and find quite space within. To achieve this,

yoga uses movement, breath, posture, relaxation and mediation

in order to establish a healthy, vibrant and balanced approach

to living.

Modern scholars have defined yoga as the classical

Indian science that concerns itself with the search for the soul

and the union between the individual, whose existence is finite,

and the Divine, which is infinite.

Yoga is one of the original concepts which today would

be labelled as holistic. That means that the body is related to

breath; both are related to brain; in turn it links with mind,

which is a part of consciousness.

The essence of yoga is to be in the driver’s seat of life.

Control is a key aspect of yoga : control of the body, breath and

mind. The secret of yoga practice lies in a simple but important

word: balance. In every area of our life yoga represents balanced

moderation.

STAGES OF YOGA

In The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, which is a two-

thousand year old collection of the oral teachings on yogic

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philosophy, there are one hundred and ninety five statements

which are a kind of philosophical guide book for dealing with

the challenges of being human. The Yoga Sutras provides an

eight-fold path called ashtanga, which literally means “eight

limbs”. These eight steps are basic guidelines on how to live a

meaningful and purposeful life. They are the prescriptions for

moral and ethical conduct. They direct attention toward one’s

health, and they help us to acknowledge the spiritual aspects of

our nature.

The first four steps or stages concentrate on refining

our personalities, gaining mastery over our body, and

developing an energetic awareness of ourselves, all of which

prepare us for the second half of the journey, which deals with

the senses, the mind and attaining a higher state of

consciousness.

Stage 1 :Yama

The first step deals with one’s moral or ethical

standards and sense of integrity, focusing on our behaviour and

how we conduct ourselves in our interpersonal life. These are,

literally, the controls or don’ts of life. They include areas where

we must learn to control tendencies which, if allowed

expression, would end up causing us disharmony and pain.

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They are the same moral virtues that you find in all the world’s

great religious traditions. The five yamas are : Non-Violence,

Non-Lying, Non-Stealing, Non-Sensuality and Non-greed.

Stage 2 : Niyama

Niyama, the second step, is an individual practice

having to do with self-discipline, self-development and spiritual

observances. These are the non-controls or the dos of the path.

The five niyamas are Purity, Contentment, Self-control, Self-

study and Devotion.

Stage 3 : Asana

Asana, the postures practiced in yoga, is the third step.

In the yogic view, the body is a temple of the spirit, the care of

which is an important stage of our spiritual growth. Through

the practice of asana, we develop the habit of discipline and the

ability to concentrate, both of which are necessary for

meditation. If the body is in proper working order and

comfortable in one position for a long time, it can ultimately

become a vehicle for spiritual powers, instead of preventing

progress by bothering its owner with physical distress.

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Stage 4 : Pranayama

Generally translated as breath control, this fourth step

consists of techniques designated to gain mastery over the

respiratory process while recognizing the connection between

the breath, the mind and the emotions. The literal translation of

pranayama is “life force”. Yogis believe that it not only

rejuvenates the body but actually extends life itself. You can

practice pranayama as an isolated technique (simply sitting and

performing a number of breathing exercises) or integrate it into

your daily hatha yoga routine.

Stage 5 : Pratyahara

Pratyahara, the fifth step, means withdrawal or

sensory transcendence. It is during this stage that we make the

conscious effort to draw our awareness away from the external

world and outside stimuli. We direct our attention internally.

The practice of pratyahara provides us with an opportunity to

step back and take a look at ourselves. This can happen during

breathing exercises, during meditation, during the practice of

yoga postures, or during any activity requiring concentration.

Detachment is a great technique for pain control and an

excellent way to deal with uncomfortable symptoms or chronic

conditions.

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Stage 6 : Dharana

The practice of pratyahara creates the setting for

dharana or concentration. Having relieved ourselves of outside

distractions, we can now deal with the distractions of the mind

itself. In the practice of concentration, which precedes

meditation, we learn how to slow down the thinking process by

concentrating on a single mental object. The goal is to become

aware of nothing but the object on which you are concentrating,

whether it’s a candle flame, a flower, a mantra you repeat to

yourself, a specific energetic center in the body, or an image of a

deity. The purpose is to train the mind to eliminate all the extra,

unnecessary junk floating around, to learn to gently push away

superfluous thought. Extended periods of concentration

naturally lead to meditation.

Stage 7 : Dhyana

Meditation or contemplation, the seventh step of

ashtanga, is the uninterrupted flow of concentration. Although

concentration (dharana) and meditation (dhyana) may appear to

be one and the same, a fine line of distinction exists between

these two stages. Where dharana practices one-pointed

attention, dhyana is ultimately a state of being keenly aware

without focus. At this stage, the mind has been quieted, and in

the stillness it produces few or no thoughts at all. Meditation

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occurs when you’ve actually become linked to the object of your

concentration so that nothing else exists. It is a keen

heightened awareness, not nothingness. Your mind is

completely focused and quiet but awake and aware of truth.

Many methods exist to bring you to this state, but oneness with

the object of your meditation, and subsequently, oneness with

the entire universe, is the objective. It is quite a difficult task to

reach this state of stillness but it is not impossible. This state is

a goal to keep striving for and, even if it is never attained, there

is benefit from each stage of progress.

Stage 8 : Samadhi

Patanjali describes this eighth and final step of

ashtanga as a state of ecstasy. All the paths of yoga lead to this

stage. This stage is one which most of us are unlikely to attain

in this lifetime. At this stage, the meditator merges with his or

her point of focus and transcends the self altogether. When in

this state, you understand not only that you and the object of

your meditation are one, but that you and the universe are one.

There’s no difference between you and everything else. The

meditator comes to realize a profound connection to the Divine,

an interconnectedness with all living things. What Patanjali has

described as the completion of the yogic path is what, deep

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down, all human beings aspire to; joy, fulfillment, freedom and

peace.

According to Swami Sivananda. The benefits of

pranayama (yogic breathing practices) include: “The body

becomes strong and healthy. Too much fat is reduced. There is

luster in the face. Eyes sparkle like diamonds. The practitioner

becomes very handsome. Voice becomes sweet and melodious”.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF YOGIC EXERCISES

Numerous issues are confronting in the world today.

The media have brought many of these issues to the forefront,

increasing their visibility. The issues are political instability,

violence, stories of corruption, health hazards, and so on. In

recent years, medical research has shown that a great deal of ill

health is directly related to lack of physical activity. Moreover,

with the advent of the industrial revolution, machines began to

do the work once done by hand. As people became less active,

they began to lose strength and the instinct for natural

movement. Machines have obviously made life easier, but they

also created serious problems. Without daily physical exertion,

human bodies become storehouses of unreleased tensions.

People now realize that the only way to prevent the diseases is

to remain active not for a month, or a year, but for a life time.

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No doubt, yoga is the important link between the sedentary life

and the active life. It keeps the muscles supple, prepares for

movement and helps to make the daily transition from inactivity

to vigorous activity without undue stress and strain. Thus, yoga

restores ‘wholeness”.

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of the study was to find out the influences

of selected yogic exercises and physical Exercises on selected

motor ability components and physiological variables of higher

secondary school level male Hockey players.

Delimitations

1. For the purpose of the study only ninety male

hockey players at higher secondary school level were selected at

random from Tirunelveli district, TamilNadu. The age of

subjects ranged from 16 to 19 years only.

2. The subjects were assigned at random to one of the

three groups (n=30), in which group I had undergone selected

physical exercises programme, group II had undergone a

selected yogic exercise programme, and group III had acted as

control group and they had not undergone any specific training

programme.

3. The training period was delimited to twelve weeks.

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4. The criterion variables tested were cardio respiratory

endurance, Flexibility, Agility, (motor ability components),

Resting pulse rate, Anaerobic power and Respiratory rate

(Physiological variables).

5. Cardio respiratory endurance was assessed by

Cooper’s 12 minutes run test, Flexibility was assessed by sit

and reach. Agility was assessed by shuttle run, Resting pulse

rate was assessed by Biomonitor, Anaerobic power was

assessed by Margaria Kalamen Test and Respiratory rate was

assessed by Expirograph test.

6. The data on the selected variables were collected

immediately before and after the training period.

Limitations

1. The study was conducted on the students without

taking their height and weight measurements for consideration.

(The anthropometric variations of the subjects were not taken

into consideration).

2. External factors like diet, lifestyle, habits, body

structure, socio – economic Status, motivation and other

environmental conditions were not taken into consideration.

3. Changes in atmospheric pressure, temperature,

relative humidity and such period of administering the test

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could not be controlled or assessed, and their possible influence

on the selected motor ability components and physiological

variables and the test performance were also regarded as

limitations.

4. Though the subjects were motivated verbally, no

attempt was made to differentiate the motivation level during

the period of testing.

Hypotheses

It was hypothesized that there would be significant

improvement on the selected motor ability components and

physiological variables due to the effects of selected yoga and

physical exercises.

1. It was also hypothesized that there would be

significant improvement on the selected motor ability

components and physiological variables due to the effects of

yoga and physical exercises.

2. It was also hypothesized that there would be

significant difference among the experimental and control

groups on the selected motor ability components and

physiological variables.

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Significance of the Study

Machines began to do the work once done by hand

with the advent of the industrial revolution. The advancement of

Telecommunication system changed the lifestyle also. As people

became less active, they began to lose the instinct for natural

movement. But the 1990’s have brought the people especially

the children a critical awareness of the necessity for a healthy

life.

The study would expose and encourage children in

yoga and develop in them the habit of exploration; popularize

yoga among the masses particularly the children and create in

them an awareness of the importance of yoga; make them

realize the relevance of yoga to society and the responsibilities

of the Physical Educators of tomorrow by encouraging in them

an attitude of yogic practices.

The study would assess the status of motor ability

components and physiological variables of higher secondary

school level male hockey players.

The study would help to assess the effects of yogic

exercises and Physical Exercises among different higher

secondary school male hockey players.

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The study would be benefited to the yoga trainers,

physical education teachers and coaches in the field of Physical

Education and sports to give coaching for hockey players.

Definition of the Operational Terms

Hockey

A game played with a ball and sticks with covered ends

in a field or an ice, between two teams, each of which tries to

drive ball through opponents goal (Henry, 1970).

Yoga

Patanjali defines yoga as the suspension of all the

functions of the mind (Swami, 1983).

Yoga is a timeless pragmatic science evolved over

thousands of years dealing with the physical, mental and

spiritual well-being of man as a whole (Iyangar, 1993).

Asana

The word “Asana” is formed from the Sanskrit root ‘As’

meaning ‘to sit’. It is used to denote a posture as well as a seat

to sit upon (Gharote, 1985).

Exercise

The word Exercise refers to conscious and purposeful

physical activity, usually of sufficient intensity to increase to

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some degree of respiratory and circulatory function. It refers

only to the actual movement process at the time it occurs

(Perry, 1972).

Motor Ability

Motor ability has been defined as “the present acquired

innate ability to perform motor skills of general of fundamental

nature exclusive of highly specialized sports or gymnastic

techniques (Harold, 1977).

Humiston defined motor ability as “the ability to get

around in situations demanding the use of big muscles and the

ability to shift the body from one place to another (Humiston,

1937).

Cardio Respiratory Endurance

The ability of the lungs and heart to take in and

transport adequate amount of 0 to the working muscles,

allowing activities that involve large muscle masses, to be

performed over long periods of time. Cardio respiratory

endurance has an additional implication as to recover from

severe exercise (Donald, 1976).

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Flexibility

“Flexibility is the ability of an individual to move the

body and its parts through as wide a range of motion as

possible without undue strain to the articulations and muscle

attachments (Johnson, 1982).

Agility

“Agility may be defined as the physical ability which

enables an individual to rapidly change body positions and

direction in a precise manner (Johnson, 1982).

Respiratory Rate

Respiration includes two movements as inspiration

and expiration. Inspiration is an active movement, while

expiration is a passive one. Inspiration involves a coordinated

contraction of a large number of muscles and expiration is due

to the relaxation of the same muscles. Only in forced expiration

the abdominal muscle may contract. The movements of

respiration take place when the respiratory centre discharges

motor impulses which pass down the corresponding nerves and

stimulate the muscles of inspiration (mainly of the inter costal

and diaphragm). Respiration goes on with inspiration and

expiration process, and is about 14 to 18 per minute in a

normal adult (Chatterjee, 1966).

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Resting Pulse Rate

The time from the end of the heart contraction to the

end of the next contraction is a complete heartbeat or pulse of

cardiac cycle. The complete cardiac cycle takes less than one

second (about 0.8 seconds) in normal adult at rest and is

shortened by exercise (Eva, 1989).

Anaerobic Power

“The initial process during any activity do not require

oxygen for their functioning and so it is appropriate to speak of

them as anaerobic and the power is called anaerobic power

(David, 1975).