UDC: 572. 02(22)

Title: Insula; internatiorial journal, of isl.,.

Cat. no: 211537 Date: 27 Feb 2014

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International Journal of Island Affairs

December 2006 ISSN 1021-0814 Yearl5No2

International Journal of Island Affairs

ISSN 1021 - 0814Year 15, No. lOctober 2006

Editorial Board

Editor:

Pier Giovanni d'AyalaGuest ediîor:Amandine ThomasEditorial assistant:Mohamed-Nizar Larabi

Face cover: From Dumont d'Urville sea travel,painted by Louis Lebreton (1846).

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Scientific Advisoiy Committee:

Prof. Lino Briguglio, MaltaProf. Salvino Busuttil, Malta

Prof. Edgar J. DaSilva, IndiaProf. Hiroshi Kakazu, JapanProf. Nicolas Margaris, GreeceProf. Patrick Nunn, FijiDr. Henrique Pinto da Costa, Sâo Tome e Prin-cipe

Published by INSULA, thé International Scien-tific Council For Island Development, with thésupport of UNESCO.

Articles published in this journal do not ne-cessarily reflect thé opinions of INSULA or ofUNESCO.

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EDITORIAL

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COLD ISLANDS' TOURISMby Amandine Thomas

DOSSIER: COLD ISLANDS- TOURISM

SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES IN COLD WATER ISLANDSby Jérôme L. Me Elroy and Bruce Potter

SERVING SUSTAINABLE ISLAND TOURISM: HOT OR COLD ?by Godfrey Baldacchino

HERITAGISATION 0F THE NORTHERN RIM: TRAVELLINGINTO THE PAST 0F SVALBARDby Arvid Viken

THE CHATHAM ISLANDS: TOURISM, DEVELOPMENT ISSUESAND POWER CLICHESby Andrew Cardow and Péter Wiltshier

NEWS FROMAND ABOUT ISLANDS:

POLICIES AND TOOL FOR SUSTAINABLE TOUMSM IN SMALLISLANDSby Eugénie Yunis

ISLANDERSAT WORK'

SENTOSA, AN ATYPICAL ISLAND DEVELOPMENTby Amandine Thomas

CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE:

FLOATING ISLANDS AROUND THE WORLDby Chet Van Duzer

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Pier Giovanni D'AyalaEditer

SU 7V S

By Amandine Thomas, guest editor

A,1 s thé tourism market takes on an ever in-

creasing rôle in thé économie scheme of islandsacross thé globe, thé necessity to exchange researchfindings, policies, and ideas conceming sustainabledevelopment of thé industry must continue to growalongside it. Thé Islands and Small States Institute ofthé Foundation of International Studies in Malta, incollaboration with thé Malta Tourism Authority andthé World Tourism Organization, organized, last May,an International Conférence on Sustainable Tourismwith Spécial Référence to Islands and Small States.Over thé course of thé conférence, one of thé mainissues addressed dealt with tourism viability in whatare commonly referred to as «cold water islands.»

As thé name implies, «cold water islands» aremore often than not located outside ofstereotypical is-land tourist destinations. A disproportionate relianceon thé fishing and agricultural industries, carried overfrom past générations has caused thèse communitiesto fall behind in their development of modem manu-facturing sectors. Thé concems of a single industryeconomy are becoming more and more apparent andfinancial diversity is becoming increasingly attracti-ve. Cold water islands are now being forced to lookit alternative routes to ensure économie developmentind tourism and financial services promise to featureîrominently in this regard. Often in sharp contrast to

Amandine THOMASis passionated by thé interactions insmall Systems. She is just graduatedof a master in Intercultural Commu-nication. Her research focuses on thé

link between identity, tourism andsustainable development in thé Me-diten-anean. Email:

amandinethomas@hotmail.com

thé warm, sunny, tropical islands which hâve domi-nated thé tourism market for years, cold water islandsprovide an opportunity to discover a différent style ofisland living.

Thé récent increases in thé Eco-tourism mar-

ket offers thèse islands a chance to bring their highpoints to thé forefi-ont. Empty landscapes, natural en-vironments, farm enterprises, and welcoming localsare amongst thé many bright spots in which thèse coldwater islands can offer to thé modem traveller.

This issue of thé International Journal of Is-

land Affairs proposes a dossier on tourism in coldwater islands composed of four articles. Jérôme MeEkoy and Bruce Potter open thé subject with a re-search project conceming thé achievement of Sustai-nable Tourism with a spécifie focus on cold water is-lands. Godfrey Baldacchino follows by presentmg théparticularities of thèse kinds of destinations and theirextrême tourism opportunities in comparison with thémore classical model. Then two différent case studies

are put forth: Svalbard by Arvid Viken as well as théChatham islands by Péter Wiltshier and Andrew Car-dow.

In addition, l would also like to thank Mr.Eugenio Yunis who reminds us of thé view held bythé WTO conceming Policies and Tools for Sustaina-blé Tourism in Small Islands.

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By Jérôme L. McElroy and Bruce Potter

T>Abstract

Photo by Marie Couzmet

. his paper focuses on achie-ving sustainable tourism, particu-larly in small cold water islandswhere coming décades will witnessan escalation of tourism demand.

It argues that thé origin of thé STconcept is based on dissatisfactionwith thé damaging spread ofmasstourism across thé pleasure peri-phery and thé évolution ofresearchfrom advocating low-impact eco-tourism and other small-scale sty-les to calls for more holistic trans-

disciplinary thinking. It reviewsprésent problems and proposesthé "Sustainability Diamond": si-multaneously satisfying thé needsof hosts, guests and entrepreneursalong with thé préservation of na-tural and cultural assets. Lessons

from warm-water tourism expe-ence are offered. Common attrac-

ions and constraints are identifiedmong thirteen cold water islandase studies from Baldacchino

(2006a) and waste managementind climate change issues are ad-ressed. Thé conclusion suggests

Lhese islands by and large are on asustainable path.

Given accelerating eco-ystem damage and thé décline iniodiversity on a global scale, théearch for sustainability pervadesontemporary development dis-

course and will likely dominate théeconomic-environmental debate

across thé 21st century. Howeverbroadly defined . . . sustainablegrowth will likely be considéréethé holy grail of thé présent gene-ration. (McElroy and Porter2006:31)

Introduction

Although there is no uni-versai agreement that "thé do-minant ù-ajectory of économiedevelopment since thé industrialrévolution has been patently un-sustainable" (Ekins and Max-Neef1992:412), thé search for sus-tainable development has gathe-red strength in récent years from"compelling évidence that climatechange is real and, furthermore,that it is primarily caused by hu-man émissions of greenhouse ga-ses, mainly as thé result ofbumingfossil fuels" (Gossling and Hall2006:6).

Since tourism has become

thé largest industry in thé worldeconomy-accounting for roughlyten percent of global GDP, em-ployment, experts and investment(WTTC 2005)-since it is projec-

Bruce Potter is Pre-

sident and CEO of Island Resources

Foundalion and is a founding directoroflhe Global Islands Network. 1RF

has been engagea in environinentalresearch primarily in thé Caribbeanfor o ver 30 years.

Jérôme L. McElroyis Professor of Economies in thé De-

partment of Business Administrationand Economies at Sainl Mary's Col-lege, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556USA (TEL: 574-284-4488; EMAIL:jmcelroy@saintmarys. edu). His re-search focuses on thé socio-economic

and environmental impacts oftourismin small islands, thé effect of crime

on tourism, thé link between politicalstatus and tourism development, andsustainable tourism.

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ted to double in absolute size by2020 (Vereczi 2006), and since itslong-standing viability dépends onenvironmental durability presentlyunder threat from global climatechange, it is not surprising that sus-tainable tourism (ST) has becomethé dominant paradigm (Hunter,1995) in both university circlesand in thé field as well as an issuethat continues to be hotly debated(Velikova 2001; Collins 2001). Itincreasingly surfaces as thé topicof académie colloquia, bas beenthé focus of World Tourism Or-ganization conférences in 1999,2002, 2003 and 2006, and routi-nely appears in experts' top ten listof important global tourism issues.Ifone canjudge from thé plethoraof citations in joumals and trademagazines and thé interest shownamong industry professionals andthé média, a "sustainability mind-set" is emerging across thé globaltourism spectmm.

fùeled by postwar affluence andextended paid vacations in thé in-dustrial North and thé availabilityof jet access to and transport infras-tructure in thé once remote tropicalislands. Second, sti-engthening thévisiter industry's long-term econo-mie footing-because of its linksto local agriculture, fisheries, trans-port, handicrafts etc. -is a major"instrument to improve économieresilience in Small Island States(SIDS)" (Frangialli 2006).

Background

For many reasons, this sus-tainability emphasis is especiallyvaluable for small islands engageain posfrwar économie diversifica-tion toward international services(tourism, offshore banking) and,to a lesser extent, labor-intensivemanufacturing. First, this trans-formation bas been orchestratedby a variety of factors. Becauseof thé pressures unleashed by glo-balization, export revenues fromtraditional colonial staples (sugar,copra etc. ) hâve declined becauseoHoss ofpreferential (high-price)markets and rising transport costs(WTO 2004).

In a similar vein, domestic

agriculture has suffered from m-tense import compétition as tradebarriers hâve dramatically decli-ned. Finally, thé universal appealof a "holiday in paradise" in thémiddle-class imagination has been

Third, in warm water is-lands thé ST focus can assist po-

pular destinations in diversifyinginto alternative tourism activityaway from thé crowded (someti-mes overrun) coastlines (Vereczi2006). Finally, in thé more remoteand ecologically vulnérable coldwater island destinations, virtuallyabsent from thé island Uterature,discussing sustainability is timelyfor two reasons. First, thé distri-bution of islands worldwide isskewed not toward thé tropics butthé temperate zone of thé northemhémisphère (Baldacchino 2006b).Second, according to Fennell andEbert (2004:269), coming deca-des will witness an accélération oflong-haul tourism on convergmgsuch destinations where tounsmexpérience and planning are rela-tively limited.

In thé second case, againstthis backdrop researchers in thé

Thé récent émergence 1960s touted thé visible économiethé ST concept dérives from two benefits of tourism diversificationcÏosely Unkedphenomena: (l) thé to ̂ ve, Post;otom;^nsularm,°:

"spread of international demization (Jafari, 2002^Asthetouris^cross thé tropical island négative enyironmental effects as-

y,"and (2) thé changing sociated with mass tourism growth;of tourism research chro- became apparent during thé 1970s,

Ïicim g~'these impacts. In thé first this pro-tourism platform was fol-

(:ase70 facïuty construction and lowed by a cntical literature, i.e. a

road works mountain slopes cautionary platform that emphasi-hâve caused deforestation, ero-zedtourism'^damagmgenviron-sïo'n, Fagoon pollution and reei mental^nd cultural impacts. Smcedamage ÏMcEÎroy and de Albu. thé 1980^anew ̂ so-caUed "adap-

V1998). Rapid expansion tancy platform" has surfaced to?nATMediterranean has spawned address the^concems of thé criticssewageand solid waste pollution, m two différent ways. Thé firstaït'erïd shorelmes and created in. emphasizes small, ̂ low-impact,tense'seasonal congestion (Bram. locally conù-olled alternâmes toweÏ 2004). Several Greek island mass tounsm (Weaver, 1998). Itiandscapes7 have been disfigure^ includes both^ thé expansion of

;7apidunplarmedcoastaldevelo. ecotourism and other spécial inte-riotis, 2004). Even th( rest forms (agro, adventure, cultu-

Pacifie-with its history of non rai, sports, héritage etc. ) as well assustainable logging, mining anc thé greenmg ofconventional tou^

"(Overton and Scheyvens nsm .through rcduced water andtias not been immune fron electricity consumption and waste

ecosystem'intrusions and loss o; ac tion (Spilanis and Vayanni,

bîodÏversïty (Apostolopoulos an(2004)-s, 2002). In short, Bianchi'i

summary (2004:499) applies: i , _,, The, second strand' theAion of palpable income an(so-called "knowledge-based plat-

^mpToymentïenefits hâve corne aform" <weaver 2006)' emphasizesçenvironmentadesignmg more^holistic approa-

danSg^'dependency and culturachestobetterunderstandtourism'sdislocation.

complexity. Some writers stressexpanding thé horizon of possibi-ities for Butler's (1980) lifecycle

model oftourism évolution (Brias-coulis, 2004). For example, Pa-patheodorou (2004) emphasizes aystem approach with core and pe-phery nodes in a destination and

nultiple equilibrium solutions.ums (2004) opts for more com-rehensive institutional partneringnd participatory planning, thé so-alled "Third Way" between thé

ditional top-down growth-at-11-costs development model ande more récent "trickle up" equity

Pproaches that focus on thé host

population and thé primary resour-ce users. In thé same vein, otherscall for intensive planning and all-inclusive consultation and nego-tiation with thé many tourism sta-keholders (Font and others, 2004).Still others press for longer-run,non-linear frameworks that bor-row fi-om science and use trans-

disciplinary thinking (Farrell andTwining-Ward, 2004; 2005). Forexample, McKercher (1999) favorsa chaos/complexity frameworkthat treats tourism as a living eco-logical community with keystone(primary) attractions. In a similarvein, Russell and Faulkner (2004)use chaos theory to understandthé impact oflumpy and sporadicentrepreneurial activity on resortdevelopment and destination lifecycles. In summary, thé interplaybetween thèse two strands-the

new more holistic thinking and thélower-density alternative tourismstyles-has produced thé escala-ting interest in ST.

Thé Problcm

Despite thèse advances intheory and practice, insular tourismsustainability remains an elusivegoal for at least five reasons. First,despite tourism's pervasiveness,most research continues to be car-

ried out within single disciplinesand to proffer narrow policy pres-criptions that fail to take into ac-count thé complex realities on théground. For example, developingall-inclusive resorts to enhance

tourist safety and/or strengthe-ning criminal codes to reduce ha-rassment may, in effect, margina-lize vendors, taxi drivers etc. andexacerbate visiter insecurity (deAlbuquerque and McElroy 2001).Second, planning in small islandsis particularly difficult because oftheir ecosystem fragility on twofronts: extrême interdependence

on thé inside; and opeimess to ex-temal intmsion from thé outside.

Thé former is particularly proble-matic because of thé délicate lin-

kages between terrestrial and ma-rine environments that complicateplanning options. Hillside resortconstmction on steep mountam

slopes, accélérâtes runoff and pol-lûtes lagoons while sand dredgingfor consù-uction aggregate destabi-lizes coastlines, erodes beaches andchokes coral growth. Third, islandtourism is a moving target. As But-1er (1980) has argued, successfuldestinations tend to pass throughsuccessive stages of increasing vi-sitor density, facility size, extemalcontrol and bio-cultural damageuntil they become crowded and/orprogressively damaged, and visi-tation déclines as they lose theirappeal. Récent examples includethé Balearics and Malta (Garauand Manera 2006). This move-ment is principally due to thé scalediscontinuity between thé large-scale mass market international

throughput tourist economy andthé small relatively closed insularecology-a scale discrepancy thatalmost guarantees island environ-mental and socio-cultural absorp-tive capacities will be violated(McElroy, 1975). Fourth, thisdisequilibrium is further reinforcedby thé priorities and short-term ho-rizons of island policymakers whoprefer immédiate results to longer-term sustainable outcomes. Theyfavor ever-rising visiter numbersas évidence of success instead of

increased net (local) expenditure,ownership, autonomy andjob qua-lity.

Fifth, from thé methodo-

logical side, although most for-mulations are rooted in thé 1987

Bruntland Report-developmentin thé présent that does not com-promise options for future genera-tions-there is "no widely accepteddéfinition of sustainable tourism"

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(Swarbrooke 1998:13). Compoun-ding thé lack of consensus on sus-tainability's meaning, "thé tourismliterature bas thus far providedno generally accepted theoreticalframework(s) through which onemay assess progress toward sus-tainability" (Johnston and Tyrreiï2005:124). Moreover, there is litt-le agreement on what is to be sus-tained: visitor numbers, industryprofits, environmental quality, hostemployment or some combinationof thèse. Without clear guidance,some argue not one but many sus-tainable outcomes are possible (Jo-hnston and Tyrrell 2005). Thus, un-til ST is defined more specifically,thé concept provides insufificientdirection for developing an effec-tive long-nm tourism policy. As aresult of this impasse, thé debatecontinues to develop in at least twodirections. Thé first strand centerson whether ST should be definedin "hard" terms" constant natu-

rai (and cultural) assets over timeadmitting no change to biodiver-sity (Coiïins 1999, 2001) and, to alesser extent, local culture-or m"softer" terms allowing for human-made replacements to compensatefor lost assets (McKercher 1993).

(l) a plea for seriously examiningthé fùll panoply of System mter-relationships (Gossling and Hall2006); (2) a far-reaching définitionofST: "improving andmaintainmgwell-being indefinitely while ha-ving fiilly fiinctioning ecosystemssupporting human life and activitywithout impairment" (B. Farrell);and (3) an 'on thé ground' opera-tional policy of thé so-called "sus-tainability transition, " confirmingthé view of Clark (1997:229) that". . . thé absence of a précise gooddéfinition is less important thangénéral movement in thé correctdirection."

Commonalities

Thé second strand offers asecond-best direction by focusingprimarily on thé environment butexpanding thé field what is to besustained. A récent example wasthé extensive electronic debate onTRINET (trinet-l@hawaii. edu)that surfaced in late 2005. Thisconversation pits calls for expan-ding tourism's traditionally "abys-mally parochial" research horizonsbeyond artificially imposed intel-lectual boundaries to embrace théentire socio-ecological tourismSystem (B. Farrell), against thosewho décriée thé absence ofa suita-blé ST model because of thé frag-mented nahu-e of thé industry (G.Gnoth). Thé discussion included:

Despite thèse problems,however, a sampling of définitionsemployed by professionals andacadémies suggest ST in practicedoes eontain a core of commonéléments. This core seeks balanceamong économie, ecological, andsocio-cultural processes. Indivi-dual formulations may express par-ticular emphases. For example, thétraditional emphasis of thé WorldTourism Organization (WTO,2004: 62) is maintaining essentialecological stability. In a similarvein, a récent textbook (Tribe,2005: 380) defines sustainability"as growth which is not threatenedby feedback, for example, frompollution, resource depletion or so-cial unrest. " Several writers stressthé benefits of favorable local im-pacts: ecosystem conservation andimprovement in host quality oflife(Weaver, 1998: 17). According toPoon (ETN 2006:1), "Sustainabletourism is as much about thé sus-tainable livelihoods of local peopleas it is about conserving nature.'Sofield (2003) adds developinglocal decision-making autonomyor empowerment while Hunter(1995:160) suggests contributing

"bevond thé confines of thé resortning, ^impact^ momtoring, andcommunity" to thé sustainable de- controlling "visitor numbers, acti-veloDment of thé non-tourist eco- vitiesand investments, ifintrusivenomÏc~sectors. Most définitions and damaging_ to msular scale"usualiyunderline two added impe. (McElroy, 2002: 165). However,ratives: proactive, comprehensive m spécifie contexts it must be cau-

amg'andmonitoringoverlongtioned that sustainable outcomestime" horizons (Fennell~andEbert, will differ depending on which2004: 468; Kahn, 2005), and of thé four facets is giye n greater

maintammg "a high level of tou- or lesser emphasis and mstitutio^-nst"satisfac°tion. . T" (WTO, 2004: nal support (Johnston and Tyrrell,62). To this Weaver (2006) would 2005).stress thé often neglected aspect olfi7anciaTviabUity°for thé tourisn Lessons from Warm Waterenterprise, an emphasis seconded Islands

a more récent comprehensiveiistmg'ofWTO goals for ST (Yu. ^ Cold water destinationsnis"2006). Thiskst also covers î can draw significant insight fromhost'ofsubsidiary aims includin^opical island tourism expérience.

.r-round local employment anc For example, _Royle (2001:206)career advancement, communit} cautions that;'Tourism everywhe-well-being (social equity), re re is a double-edged sword. ̂ ."source efficiency(recycling, greeicreating both costs and^benefits.technologies) andAeUke. " ~ According to Cater^(1993: 89),

One 'simpler operationa"Thercis no example of touristdéfinition dérives from an examiuse that is completely without im-nation of ST's formidable chalpact. " In fact, even ecotourism

that is, to simultaneousl}Styles are no panacea, especiallysatTsfy thé needsof thé four primawhentheyaccess délicate ameni-

"stakeholders: hosts, guests, eflties in poor régions lacking appro-iandbio-culturalassetsPriate régulations and monitoring

Th^e~needs, summarized as tb(McLaren, ̂ 2003). Low-density"outcomes from thé Uteraturstyles arc often susceptible to rapid

above, canbeabbreviatedinthe Solange that forecloses local parti-caUedfour-comered "sustamabiliciP atlon to^aggressive outsiders

"diamond" (McElroy, 2002:152(cate^l993). Similariy, Weaver^d"include:\l) durable natura(1998:25) argues that "successfiil"

and cultural assets; (2) improve^^can^nfiltrate "backstage re-hosth'fe'quaUty; (3)venduring vigions"seekmg authenticity, dismpt

sïtor enjoymentVand (4) long-ten;hePace andpattem ofcommunityenterpnïeprofitability/ Using ttu^ a^id "pave thé wayforjesssustern abiUtydiamond as a broacbenign forms of tourism. " Even

bmsh'evaluation tool, one can sam cases where ecotourism seemsaZstination'ismoving in a ^^^am^Gls sïmë and

nabïe direction whenone or moi°thers(2002:200) caution ". . .^ itof thé foUowing facets ofST surÇay not be^ustamable from a glo-osu at leaït'toTome'degree: (l) ihal Pointofview" when it involves

hndïrsb7comemajorbeneficiari/ong-haul ^vel since upto 90 per-of7ourism;"(2) visitors develop;entoftheenvironmental impact isïrong^e^m'ethos; (3) develop<onteibutedby air transport to andresueocUheHo-culturalmtegritytromthe destination. In fact, histhe'place; and (4) publie decisio^nt work(Gojhng and others^ïiakerTommittoÏong-termplai?005) on eco-efficiency (kg C02

generated per euro spent) suggestscenter-to-periphery visiter flowsare especially nonsustainable andthus favors reduced air travel and

close by origin markets.

On thé other hand, there arepositive lessons fi'om thé warm wa-ter literature. According to Mihalic(2000), improving environmentalquality and mitigating impacts canimprove destination competitive-ness. Introducing green technolo-gies to conserve energy and waterconsumption créâtes short-termcost savings while enhancing natu-rai assets-scenery, reef Systems,species diversity etc.-requiresa longer time horizon involvingup-front costs and downsta-eambenefits. However, warm waterexpérience also reveals achievingenvironmental stability is especial-ly difficult. There are few succes-sfùl examples of ST in practice inmass resort areas (Dodds, 2006).

Even where policies aresound, effectiveness is blunted bythé lack of consensus on who is

responsible for implementation;and even when there is consensus,

often thé political will to initiatechange, i.e. to dismpt "businessas usual," is lacking. Thé fewnoteworthy cases like Bermuda(McElroy 2001) indicate some ofthé core ingrédients necessary for

strong destination identity/image,(2) widespread community appre-dation of thé natural and cultural

patrimony, (3) and a policy com-mitment to thé long term.

A number of case studies

suggest also that ST may be moreeasily achieved in more diversifiedinsular économies like Bermuda,Mauritius and Seychelles wheretourism is not thé sole engine ofgrowth. Thé nonsustainable exam-pies of thé highly tourist-depen-dent Balearics and Malta highlightthé contrast. Viable alternative

économie activities tend to blunt

thé pressure to promote tourismbeyond ecological and social ab-sorptive capacities. Another re-lated and significant factor in thétourism history ofwarm water des-tinations across ail oceanic basinsis thé determinative rôle of acces-

sibility. Whenever internationalairports hâve been established, ithas been difficult for "successful"

destinations to control thé high-vo-lume fi-ee-market growth imperati-ves of heavily capitalized globalairline, hôtel chain and tour opera-tors within sustainable levels. This

is why Baldacchino (2006b:10)argues that limiting access, as St.Barthélémy, Guadeloupe does withits small mnway that accommoda-tes only commuter aircraft, provi-des "a niche of envious exclusi-

vity" and "créâtes possibilities for

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sustainable, low volume, but highvalue-added per capita tounsm.

Finally, given thé rapid de-velopment in small islands "at théexpense of thé natural world andlocal identity and traditional cultu-rcs" (Fennel andEbert, 2004: 461),and given thé projection that futuregrowth will envelop even more re-mote cold water ecosystems, sus-

tainability may require judicioususe of thé Precautionary Principle(PP). According to Myers (1993:74), this places "a premmm ona cautious and conservative ap-

proach to human interventions menvironmental sectors that are: (a)usually short on scientific unders-tanding, and (b) usually susceptibleto significant injury. . . " Such anapproach seems appropos for coldwater islands where carrymg capa-cities cannotbe easily assessed, re-covery to disturbance is slow, and"both thé probability and value ofirréversible damage are uncertam'(Fennell and Ebert, 2004: 466). Asa tool in thé planner's arsenal, théPP" ... puts thé onus on thé prc-sent population to address currentactions that might lead to potentialrisks and négative outcomes forfuture générations" (Fennell andEbert, 2004:468).

Cold Water islands

Thé literature on cold waterislands is very limited (Baldacchino2006b) but does identify many stra-tegic advantages and shortcommgsthat circumscribe tourism growth.In his examination of Orkney andShetland, Butler (1997) stressesmral ambience and héritage assets,wildlife and unique scenery, andadventure activity. In their analy-sis ofNorthAtlantic islands, Baumand others (2000) emphasize threedevelopment limitations:

insufficient tourism promotion bypolicymakers, high seasonalitybecause of weather, and restrictedhigh-cost access because of remo-teness. However, they also highli-ght thé advantages ofa small scalevisiter industry: enhanced localownership, reduced income leaka-ges, and thé availability of infras-tmcture and services ". . . whichisland populations could not othe-rwise sustain" (Baum and others2000: 217). Most recently, Butler(2006:254) identified a number ofadditional features that distinguishcold from warm water destinations.Thèse include: spécifie in contrastto generic destination identity, along as opposed to short history ofVisitation, thé "3 I" image of ice,indigenous people and isolation inplace of thé tropical "4 S" image ofsun, sand, sea and sex, and appealto a more mature and sophisticated(not général) travel market.

As a preliminary evalua-tion of ST in polar régions, thé 13island case studies assemblée inBaldacchino (2006a) were exami-ned. They differ markedly in size,culture and degree of tourism de-velopment. First, they range fromGreenland, thé largest island inthé world, and Iceland (population300, 000) to tiny Macquarie Islandin Australia (34 km2), Banks Is-

water destinations. Thèse includeisolation, unusual pristine ter-restrial and marine wildlife andscenery, unique géologie and at-mospheric features and ample op-portunity for adventure holidays(hunting, fishing, skiing, sleddingetc. ) and cultural expériences.They also illustrate thé constraintsimposée by climate-induced seaso-nality and difficult and expensiveaccess. Again excepting Icelandas well as Antarctica, they alsoexemplify small-island économiesundergoing tourism diversificationin thé face of declining traditionalsectors (mining, fishing, agricul-

land in thé Canadian Arctic (po. ture). Many face^the similar chal-ition 153), and thé Luleâ Ar. lenges of determinmg destination

AiDeïago"in/Sweden (populatioi identity, selectmg^the small-scale'S'econd, they exhibit a variet) ecotourism attractions compatible

of/traditions includmg thé Inui'with thé native natoal and cultu-culture~m Baffin Island, Canada rai "genius of thé place, " andesta-

. acrosstheNorthAtblishmgtheinfrastructure/facilitieslanticTsïands, and Maori mutton to access them. Unlikelcelandandbirdharvesting in Stewart Islandto a lesser extent Svabard-which

New'Zealand^ Third, they diffehas experienced a tourism boomunevenly in thé stages of tourisii since thé 1990s-these destinations

A. Thé major contras are in thé initial stages of devebp-is"between Iceland "with ovement. ^ BasedonmdicatorsmBal-700ÏOO annual tourists and 7,00(dacchmo (2006b, Table l), tourismhoteFrooms and thé rest of tbleavesbuta fàintfootprintinthese

The7earelessthan500yeaiPolar destinations. ^ For example^.'tourists to Macquarie Island, thi in contrast with a global sample of

i^uleâ"Archipelago, and Nuniv^a dozen smaiï warm water islandsîsÏand, "andonly'50 hôtel roofflacross the development spectmm,and~two hôtels'in thé Falklandas a group thé cold water islandsand Chatham Island, New Zealanaverage kss^than one hotel^ room

with no dedicatePer Km2_while thé topical islestowi'sm infrastructure in Antarcav^ge 20 rooms per square ki-ticZBetween thèse extrêmes arelometer. At their early position in

haffdozen'destinations(mcluduthe rcsort cycle, thé former hâveSobveteky, ~Russia and Svabar(amPletim^androomtoplanasus-Norway)with"30-70 thousand altainab^ mdustry.nual stayover or cruise visitors.comparison with other small islactourist économies across the. globiail thèse are low-impact destiûitions, with thé possible exceptioof Iceland (McElroy, 2003). ^_^ v^slc__ luauaëc"lcu

"Despite such difference^lmate change wiiï provide par-thèse isTands"share~a number rlcular challenger for cold-waterfeatures'thatdefine them as cold-sland Planners. In thé first case,

Spécial Issues

Waste management and

since at least thé 1994 Barbados

Programme of Action for Small Is-land Developing States, waste ma-nagement has been considered oneof thé most significant problems forsmall islands (UNCSD, 1998). Incold water islands, cold temperatu-res slow thé biochemical processesof décomposition that frequently"de-toxify" thé toxic éléments ofsolid waste. Thus thèse hazardous

substances persist much longerin cold climes and can becomeconcentrated over time and cause

health and safety problems. Re-cent research reported in Sciencemagazine indicates that birds andother species in arctic food chainsare also serving as aggregators oftoxics (Fountain, 2005).

Research also suggestsconcentrations of Persistent Or-

ganic Pollutants (POPs) (AMAP2002), and some heavy metals areincreasing in thé fatty tissues ofmost birds and mammals in highlatitude areas including résidenthuman (frequently Inuit) popula-tions. Although POPs pose littledanger to tourist and/or employéehealth, given thé often thé someti-mes sévère constraints on traditio-

nal solid waste burial stratégies insuch areas, new stratégies of dis-posai may hâve to be désignée thatinclude exporting waste streams(perhaps after biuning non-toxicéléments for facility heating needs)to temperate areas where theycan be treated in more traditional

fashion. Regarding liquid wastes,although cold water islands are li-kely to hâve access to some formof deepwater or offshore dischar-ge, thèse can be costly Systems tobuild and maintain. Given thèse

difficulties, water-conserving sys-tems are recommended for new

and expanded settlement areas aswell as thé use of composting toi-lets.

Because tourism is ame-

nity-intensive, it is one of thé most

sensitive industries to climate va-

nation. Although it is well-knownthat sea level rise will significantlyaffect tourist-dependent small is-lands, a small body of work focu-ses on climate change impacts inpolar régions. Although this re-search is yet in its infancy, severalbroad conclusions are warranted.

First, over thé next century war-ming will be thé most rapid in théArctic(ACIA2004). Second, war-ming will reduce seasonal sea iceor permanent sea pack ice aroundmany cold water islands. Third,as a result, polar destinations maybecome more accessible. For

example, thé number of days théNorthem Sea Route is estimated to

be navigable is projected to triple(ACIA 2004). Fourth, warming isexpected to extend thé Visitationseason. Although one might ar-gué such effects would be mainlybénéficiai for cold water tourism-

"destinations that are currently toocool would see a surge in theirpopularity" (Barritella and others2006:913)-thé issues are morecomplicated.

Fifth, for example, climatechange is also associated with in-creased storm surges endangeringcoastal communities as well as

increased précipitation. This willcause a number of impacts. First,warming will reduce snow cover,a process already significantly un-derway (Johnston 2006), negati-vely affecting visitor activities likeskiing, sledding, ice hôtels, nor-them lights watching and so on.Second, thé population and distri-bution of biodiversity will also beaffected. To illustrate, "Polar bearsare unlikely to survive as a speciesif there is an almost complète lossof summer sea-ice cover" (ACIA2004:58) which they require forhunting seals. This may hâve se-nous répercussions for places likeChurchill, Manitoba, thé so-called

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11

"polar bear viewing capital of théworld. " Also in Canada, loss offorage and insect harassment maydamage caribou and musk-oxenherds. Third, continuing coastalérosion will destabilize permafrostconditions, already observable inthé Arctic and Russia, and under-mine buildings, land transport andother infrastructure. A secondaryimpact will be to release large pul-ses of toxic waste as dumps andtrash middens are rather suddenlythawed after being frozen for de-cades or générations. And finally,"Although thé décline in sea icewill provide more open water fornavigation, there might be additio-nal hazards to navigation throughan increase in iceberg calving andthrough thé instability ofwhat packice remains" (Johnston 2006:48).

Given thé far-reaching ef-fects of climate change, planningfor ST in cold water islands will re-quire long-term time horizons andjudicious use of thé PrecautionaryPrinciple. Since global warmingwill impact traditional landscapeassets and tourist activities, polardestinations will hâve to carefùllyidentify their attractions to placethé industry on a long-term footing.Thé future will also require reha-bilitation of existing constmctionand infrastmcture built on perma-frost, and new forms of construc-tion based on seasonal freezingand thawing of ground conditions.Finally, to assist in long-rangeplanning and environmental mom-toring in thèse fragile ecosystems,cold water islands need accurate

mapping of basic geography, landcover and other natural resources.Such mapping can also provideaccurate orientation tools-proba-bly in combination with modemnavigations tools such as GPS re-ceivers-for tourists who may betrekking and camping on relativelyunmarked terrain (Savitsky andothers, 1999).

Conclusions

In thé near to médium tenu,if thé cold water islands examinedhère from Baldacchino (2006a) arereprésentative of polar destinationsin général, a broad bmsh overyiewthrough thé lens of thé sustainabi-lity diamond suggests they are byand large on a sustainable path.

A doser review of thé evi-dence reveals that, with some ex-

ceptions, there is sufficient envi-ronmental awareness, législationand training for protecting naturalassets and, in some cases, for in-terpreting cultural mores. Giventhé relatively high level of repeatVisitation in several islands, visitorsatisfaction seems satisfactory andenduring.

Thé strength of thé non-tourist sectors and thé double limi-tarions of difBcult access and highcost provide fiiture safeguardsagainst thé non-sustainable visiterexpansion characteristic ofpostwarmass tourism growth in warm-wa-ter islands. To this must be addedthé limited appeal of what often

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|0la

By Godfrey Baldacchino

Abstract

lot sun, sea, sand but ice,isolation, indigenous people: théritical exploration of extrême tou-ism in cold water locations has

arely started. Yet, thé practicesf thé industry and ensuing reflec-ons already provide insights to-ards a more sustainable form ofland tourism, dramatically diffe--nt from what is experienced one warm, tropical and exotic is-

md stéréotypé.This paper critically re-

ews some of thé salient contrasts

tween thé 'hot' and 'cold' ver-ons ofisland tourism, concludingt, from a sustainability perspec-

ve, cold water islands are reallyool' - but perhaps for reasonsat can be copied by warm waterstinations.

Expériences Apart

Even when experiencedby thé same person - as thé twofactual, auto-biographical narra-tives by thé author of this paperabove portray - thé expériences ofwarm water and cold water tou-

rism could not be fiirther apart. Inthé all-too-common warm water

environment, thé setting is almostoppressive; thé body lethargized;thé obligation to play tourist andgo through thé expected motionsis strong; thé tourism industry do-minant in society at large; space isat a premium; staged authenticityis rampant - évident in thé cheapnature ofmost souvenirs, 'made in

Dr Godfrey Bal-dacchino is Canada Research Chair

(Island Studies) at thé University ofPrince Edward Island, Canada, thé

Executive Editer of Island Studies

Journal and thé Editor of thé book

Extrême Tourism: Lessons from thé

World's Cold Water Islands (Elsevier,2006) - gbaldacchino@upei.ca

China' - and thé natives can onlybe obligingly happy. Hedonism

pleasure to thé highest good -translates as wild, wanton, excessheat, noise, food and drink. Muchactivity takes place in or near théwater.

In sharp contrast, in thécold water environment, thé wateris not appealing, and its temperatu-re may even be life-threatening; thébeach may not be accessible, andwhale bones rather than seashells

may haunt its shore; thé setting ishowever generally more liberating;thé body is energized; thé tourismindustry and product are overs-hadowed by nature (always) andculture (where it exists). Pleasureis derived fi-om being overwhel-med, respecting, and succombing

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15

to thé environment. Wide openvistas are everywhere. Souvenirsare indigenous and expensive. Andthé natives are ... well, it may bedifficult to assess their expressionbecause they are covered in fiir andwarm clothing, or perhaps, theydon't even exist.

Every island is unique.Every cold water island is uniqueas well. Yet, a comparative 'islandstudies' perspective alerts us tosome underlying pattems lurkingwithin thé diversity of cold waterislands: apart from thé obviouspronouncement that thé water istoo cold to swim in. Cold water is-land locations tend to hâve harshas well as pristine and fragile na-tural environments, characterizedby wide open spaces; this makesthem support low populations atbest. They become contexts for anexceptional and expensive formof vigorous, outdoor, adventureor cultural tourism, and direct en-counters with nature (observingpenguins, bears or wild flowers;hunting wild game; visiting parks);history (whaling stations, abando-ned mines, battle sites, researchstations, explorer routes); and lo-cal culture (indigenous people,their lifestyle and artifacts): defi-nitely not places to laze about andrelax in hôtel precincts. Indeed,there may not even be a hôtel. Thélocals, where they exist, are notparticularly enthusiastic about vi-sitors; few of thé locals owe theirlivelihoods to tourism anyway, andthey are usually in agreement thatvisiter numbers must remain low- and especially so if thé localshappen to be a bunch of scientists.Spécifie local interests - a com-pany, a monastery, a corporation,apart fi-om thé scientific commum-ty - can hâve inordinate influenceson local public policy, since there isa tighter, more compact and moreidentifiable résident élite. Thisacts as a brake towards thé encou-

ragement of more tounsts, smcethere is no grassroots, démocratiepressure to do so (Baldacchino,2006b: 9-10). Thé anomaly in ourset remains Iceland, since 1944 théworld's coolest sovereign state: fora cold water island, it has by farthé largest population, thé highesttourism numbers and thé strongesttourism infrastructure in thé world- which, by thé way, includes onesmall, heated beach.

A Late Development

Cold water island desti-nations seem to hâve only beendiscovered of late. In Conlin &Baum (1995), a typical text on is-land tourism, only one out of thénine chapters dedicated to 'mana-gement practice' deals with a 'coldwater' location (Corner Brook, inNewfoundland). Out of 93 diffe-rent islands or island régions lis-ted in its index, only five at mostcould be considered as 'cold wa-ter' ones (Antarctica, Falklands,Newfoundland, New Zealand &Prince Edward Island). Briguglioet al. (1996a, 1996b) are landmarkvolumes on island tourism issues,but only one out of 29 chaptersdeals with a cold water location- Butler's on thé Shetlands (But-1er, 1996). Lockhart & Drakakis-

Smith (1997) do somewhat bettei This may appear étrange,îree"(openmg) chapters addresismce thé physical évidence ̂ sthemesïargely re levant to islandiskewed in the^other direction: thé

Ae' tropical 'pleasure pe distribution of islands (land sur-/'."However, once thé texrounded by water than is larger

^into case shidy mode, only ;than 0. 1 km2 in area) according to

^utofH chapters are not sourcet latitude shows that most of themfrom warm cîimes: Butler (againare located in thé temperate zoneon"0rkney & Shetland (Butleiof thé northem^ hémisphère, with1997); Royle on thé SouthAtlantiia high island density occyrrence

Islands, which includes thé Falkbetween latitude 500N and 800 N,

laiands'(Royle, 1997); and Aronsand a shaq) peak withm that bandson'on Swedish islands (Aronssoibetween 58°N and 66°N.1997).

At those latitudes, there islowest ratio of océan to land.

Thé density of islands of about 30per 10, 000 km2 is ten times higher<:here than anywhere else. Most of

.hese islands are located along thé

. oast ofmainlands, creating a pat-

.hy landscape made oftiny islandseparated by narrow channels.

Perhaps, one is excused fordssuming that thé typical island islocated in thé tropics, and is the-refore warm, since it is precisely

Gradus & Lithwick (199^anks to thé marketing juggemautand Krakover & Gradus (2002"f thé tourism industry that suchmspiteofpromising titles that hperceptions hâve become a com-ehlmht frontier régions, do not dpon. o^urrence today. ^Moreover,^ssc'ïsïands"at aU. Jan Lundgrff it is in thé interest of states and

does thé same: his briëovemment^to Promote tourism"-"on tourism destinaticO their island or archipelago, then

develïmennn extrême locatio^ should, alsokeeP in m^ that"doesnot"addressislands. Apap^, out °fAe 43 sovereign statesand&enamonograph on cold ̂ fthe world are exclusiye ly island

te7tourism"m thé North AtWr archipelagic states located in7n~1993 and 1998 rer°Pical OTtemPerate zones (Bal-

^S lVHU,geï°19^CMn^2""^iC IA, 2M5)^onlyn-Grant7l998); and this w)ne ofthe world's sovereign states

de7eïoped~into a book chapter (s^an exclusi^ly cold water loca-:cold"water"island tourism; a yelon :_fceland-. In fact' as an indi;later"(Baum'et al., 2000). Baldaect^confirmation of thé power ofchTnov(2006b)'isprobably thé fiÇ,sdictlon, m.Promotmg tourism'

^me7oTookcnticaUyatthepbceland_is the island that probablynomenonfrom a globa{standpoÇelvesthelargest number ofcold(:There"may"be subtle advanta^e^tou"^ per^armum^some\^»^^^ffl^2w^s, M:w^mise sbi<1wïZaÏÏdis^sbelow. f lsltors (Gôssling' 2006).

Yet, compare this totourists to other islands: l million

to Guam; l .2 million to Malta, 2.3million to Cyprus, 3.2 million toPuerto Rico; 7 million to Macao... and to thé highest pénétrationindices of tourists per indigenouspopulation and land area in théinsular Caribbean (Aruba, Cay-man, BVI, USVI, St Maarten)-McElroy, 2002; 2003).

Thé différence is clearlyone ofmatched low tourist numbers

(demand) and low tourism capacity(supply): Thé world's largest islandwith a sprawling land mass ofover2 million km2, Greenland, receivesjust 30,000 tourists armually. Thisis not difficult to explain: most vi-sitors corne to cold water islands

on small vessels or on small planesafter long haul flights that deter ailbut thé strong-willed and affluent.They may get off their vessels onzodiacs, braving thé waves, coldwinds, océan spray and ice floes,and spend just a few hours onshore, under thé watchfùl eye ofscientists, expert guides or locals,just in case they wander away,do something foolish, or threatento damage thé fragile ecosystem.There may be no hôtels, and visi-tors (for those staying more than aday) may hâve to stay with locals.

And, in thé absence ofdemands by indigenous peoplefor better tourism infrastructure

- roads, docks, aiqîorts, mnways,hôtels, restaurants, etc. - an absen-ce of demand often sealed by théabsence of any indigenous peopleor permanent résidents - accessand facilities are not likely to im-prove markedly. Strong vested lo-cal interests - commercial, scien-tific, political or religious - caneasily conspire to prevent any suchsuspicious trappings of modemityfi-om materializing, a policy stancemore easily maintained because thésignificance of tourism to thé do-mestic economy is usually small.

Thé tourism 'footprint' istherefore much less significant oncold water islands, even thoughthé potential damage which eventhat may cause to thé environmentis larger. However, thé value ad-ded per tourist is greater, and théopportunity for this tourist to getreally in touch with nature or in-digenous people (where they exist)is also much higher, providing adifférent sensé of satisfaction.

Thé clear contrast between

a sample of cold water islands stu-died in Baldacchino (2006e) andtourist penetrated warm water is-lands is évident (See Table l).Noue of thé warm water islands

sampled hâve more rooms per km2

?

g&.y

l

il

17

fl,,n ^y of thé cold wa.er.sWs 1^ (f;-w^dJM1^ ^r^;:.a^:sS?n^bers . n^ap^re:c1. iLnZ^d (the'lowea wouÏd be S,- Fmauy.. mJhaîj;nt^lS ;^,^,ro^uslotc°Z^ '^S^ a^ub;e-'P'unAU"o"f'c'o7t^rd l'bu';'2'7the"wamwat:r ^J^Jdm^e^tom ;^^tw»îdm^ueTdeTp^decdi^aoea°Spu^T>'ccZSs"^pkdïav"e"mo, e",han ̂ ^J:^^, ^^ l^^^^^^e'^^^^i7o0bed;rl wteas;amongstthe kmgtoqmteju ^p^on^ P^s/^ ̂ n;XS^:Z^^Sî55Si S^ix^s ^^??l^Se =E'E?ï5^^^^ ?SSS:S 5îSïS?:î-5zïïîï^iZd"tefaat^welcome^ !arîe, I^nd m^?;ml^, 1^ l^fyAte^, ^°o^vr^c^suto^^toc'^'"co"ldth^"10o7o00'visïtors-per annum P°Pulation, den^ ^vce^fn;Ïenarc^ea^ ZÏc^^^^^^^ ^^ ̂ ^^moroT&S>mo. )ïoDlyIcda, d S°M is!ands, °nly. Mac,clume ,md d^w^rneZLm]Toeft"ÏcTld6 waTe^e^^^^ïek'on. s mo7e"th>e tot numbe, Solovetsk^ ̂ e ̂ 1^-^ ^^d ̂8,p^ ̂ ;t ̂"e^ie»aed'a:I^mcte"gT.;p"artîï ï5JS ^a^a^ta;ï ?^^^oala:iA SîHnS!Sail warm islands sampieanave 1J wal111 wu^^u^u^;^;;7; ^;^^ ' sary distraction - and especiallyresident-~populations of 21,000 small; and actoally much smaller.o7more; only 2 of thé cold water Finally, many warm water destinaislands~have"such or larger popu- tions are sovereign states; ail cold

Table l - Cold and Warm Water Island Tourism - A Comparison

framework.

o ulation landarea km2 tourists er annum Rooms Room/km2 Vis/PoCOLD WATER ISLANDS

Nunivak AlaskaBanks CanadaBaffin Canada

Greenland

lceland

Svalbard NorwaLulea SwedenSolovetsk Russia

Falklands UKMacQuarie AustraliStewart NewZealandChatham NewZealandSouth Shetlands & Antarctica

180160

17,000

57,000297, 000

2, 600

801,0002,500

0

400700

0

4,21067, 340507,450

410,000 (ice-free

103, 000

62, 000

10, 000 a rox.

29012,000

431,7462,500

40, 000 a rox

25050

33, 000

30, 000836, 000 45K27, 200 cruise

tourists

1,000?30, 00050, 000

400?60,000500?

27,000

WARM WATER ISLANDSSt. MaartenÇa man IslandsTurks and Caicos

MaltaAnti uaMaldivesSe chelles

Pol nesiaSamoaÇa e Verde

Réunion

ComorosTourism Data for 2004*Author's estimateRooms = beds/2 or # of guesthouses X 10Vis/Pop figured as # tourists + 0. 14 X # Dayvisitors/populationNumbers in parenthesis dénote one-day visitors

Thé table has been kindly compiled by Dr Jérôme L. McElroy.

38, 00044, 000

21,000399 000

69,000349,00081, 000271,000177, 000418, 000

777,000671,000

41260430320440

300455

3,6602, 8504, 0302,5002, 170

475, 000 1, 348260, 000 1, 693

170, 000

1, 158,000( 2245,000 523

617,000 4121,000(7

212, 0 098, 000157,000430, 0018,000

20*10

290

4257,490

33125*60250

250200

4,0005, 1272, 5 019, Î53, 1 58,7 72,4 73. ' '6

)

3, 150

2, )4375

0.0050

0

0.0010.073

0.0050.0030. 2070. 002

0

0. 1430.008

96206

627.2295.40.910.330.781. 165.8

1.390. 31

2

0.532.84

1.4612.530200

1501.10

17.4711.38.13

4.611.8

1. 510.780.550.380.550.03

sary distraction - and especiallyso if it is on a boat, rather than aplane.

Tourism in warm water is-

lands also started from a very nar-row base; but thé industry in mostcases just grew and grew, mainlybecause many of thé locals percei-ved that there were benefits to be

enjoyedby plugging into thé indus-try - whether for secure all-roundemployment, seasonal part-timework or self-employment - whilegovemments encouraged thé deve-lopment of tourism infrastructure,often seeking to lure foreign in-vestment and identifiable brands.

Today, thé insular Caribbean, thétnost tourism branded and pene-:rated région in thé world, now basiiost of its shorefi-ont controlled

îr owned by hospitality interests)r expatriâtes. Thé pressure onmblic infrastmcture (roads, elec-ncity, sewage, water, parking) ismmense; thé associated environ-

nental issues (air, sea and noise)ollution) just as challenging. Théeakages fi-om thé domestic eco-lomy - via foreign air lines, fo-eign fa-avel agents, foreign hôtelhains, imported cars, food, fiir-ature and gas - considérable. Théirice ofproperty has reached dizzy.eights, ushering in a process ofgentrification' (Clark, 2005) thatlay crowd out thé locals from théousing market, starting - but nottopping - with thé poorcst.

To such problems of non-sustainability, can be added otherdisadvantages: thé ti-ansformationofresorts into sanitized and secure

enclaves; thé (often racist) stereo-typing oflocals as happy, pleasure-seeking, lazy and inferior cateringto thé leisure requirements of thévisitors; a locals resentment thatwould be fùelled by thé paradingof foreign affluence and indige-nous poverty (Dann, 2006: 27).Tensions are high and can empt inconflict (Cambers et al., 2002).

Except for thé undesira-blé onslaught of global warming,toimsm in cold water islands is

not likely to expérience thé samespurt of growth. Température, anddifficulty and cost of access, willkeep thé numbers down - and thatis where thé local authorities wish

to keep them. Fortunately, at theirearly position in thé resort life-cy-clé, they hâve ample time and roomto plan a sustainable industry

Thé cold watcr cases at

hand

Cold water islands, frornboth northem and southem hemis-

pheres, differ widely in size, popu-lation, tourism pénétration or tou-rism capacity (see Table l). Theyrange from Greenland, thé largestisland in thé world (population55,000, over 410, 000km2 of ice-free land), and Iceland (population300,000, 103,000 km2); to tinyMacquarie Island in Australia (po-pulation = zéro; 34 km2), BanksIsland in thé Canadian Arctic (po-pulation 153; 67, 340km2), andthé 742-island Luleâ Archipelagoin Sweden (population 80). Theyalso exhibit a variety of distincttraditions including, among others,thé Inuit culture in Baffin Island,

Canada, Viking history across théNorth Atlantic Islands, and thé

Maori muttonbird harvesting inStewart Island, New Zealand. Mostare recently emerging as intema-tional destinations. Some hâve no

airports. Few hâve émise liner ter-minais. Visitor numbers are as less

than 500 a year on Macquarie Is-land and Nunivak Island; there areonly 50 hôtel rooms in thé Falk-lands and frwo hôtels on Chatham

Island; and there is absolutely nodedicated tourism infrastmcture inAntarctica. Other destinations do

better: Baffin (Nunavut), Green-land, Stewart, Svalbard and Solo-vetsky attract some 30-60 thousandannual stay-over or émise visitorseach.

In spite of thèse differen-ces, thèse cases possess a range ofsimilarities. Their assets include

isolation (ironically), unusual ter-restrial and marine wildlife and

scenery, unique géologie and at-mospheric features and ample op-portunity for adventure holidays(such as hunting, fishing, dog-sled-ding) and cultural expériences - ailof which are inhérent to thé place.They appeal for active leisure, aswell as to rather mature tourist ty-pes. They illustrate thé constraintson tourism development imposedby climate-induced seasonalityand difficult and expensive access.They each hâve a distinct, diffe-rentiated product - not easily sub-sumed under a generic label, andtherefore not operating in directcompétition with other cold wa-ter locations (as many warm waterislands find out about themselves,to their cost). (This récognition pe-rhaps explained why they hâve notbeen seen as 'cold water islands',in a collective sensé.) They also rc-présent (with thé exception of Ice-land and Antarctica) small-islandéconomies undergoing tourismdiversification in thé face of de-

clining traditional sectors (mming,fishing, agriculture). Many face

^

^

g(l.^

li!

19

thé similar challenges of deter-mining destination identity, thésmall-scale ecotourism attractionscompatible with that native naturaland cultural "genius of thé place;and establishing thé infrastructureand facilities to access them. Unli-ke Iceland (which may, in commgdécades, need to begin seriouslymanaging visitor densities), thèsedestinations are in thé initial stagesof visiter marketing and promotionto establish international visibility(McElroy & Potter, 2006; Butler,2006).

Political GeographyInsights

One interesting set of si-milarities relates to thé politicalgeography of thé tourism industryin thèse cold water islands. Thisfactor might partly explain whythere are less pressures to expandtourism on thèse locations.

Extrême island régions tendto lie on thé political periphery, es-pecially when they hâve small po-pulations: un/under-represented inthé corridors ofpower; largely for-gotten by centi-alized policy makerssuffering from 'thé urban bias';dismissed as insignificant backwa-ters other than, perhaps, in strate-gic (military and resource) terms(Butler, 1993;Wilkinson, 1994). Aweak local political influence andinterest from thé centre does, intum suggest that local élites assu-me significant politico-economicpower. Thèse élites also tend to benarrower and more concentratedin island jurisdictions with smallpopulations. Thé concentration oflocal politico-economic power ismore likely to lie in thé hands ofa small identifiable group: a reli-gious congrégation (Solovetsky),a team of scientists (Macquarie);

an indigenously controlled corpo-ration (Nunivak; Baffin); an arms-length enterprise tmst (Chatham);or a municipality (Luleâ). Antarc-tica has its own, unique, multi-la-teral govemance régime, whichtranscends national territorial so-vereignty. Such skewed influencecréâtes a situation where there ishardly a plurality ofinterest groupsclamouring to benefit, and bene-fit fast, from thé tourism bandwa-gon. Thé oligopolies in power arechampions of tradition; they effùsecaution and harbour a suspicionof change. They are aware of théenvironmental and économie risksof mass tourism. There is limiteddiscussion on whether to take théindustry forward. Thé situationmay be différent where you hâveat least two centres of power withdivergent views about thé future oftourism: this is thé case of Sval-bard, where thé local entrepreneurswish to expand tourism, but théGovemor is less keen. However,Svalbard - along with Iceland, ofcourse - appears to be thé excep-tions in thé cold cases analyzed.

SolovetskyArchipelago (Russia)Solovetsky Monastery

T

Cold water islands inadvertently

Discussion play a similar game - not so muchas thé outcome ofa deliberate stra-

A few warm-water istegy, but because of thé 'double-land tourism destinations, like thpunch' ofcost and distance, main-

s, hâve developed theitained and safeguarded by warytourism'strategies in a top-dowlocal political élites. In spite of théfashion, and during a period (démocratie déficit that mayprevailmostly one-party m~le. This islaain such locations, perhaps it is ne-state7(along with a few other iscessary to be cmel in order to belands - like'St Barths in thé Caritkind?beau) hâve transformedwhatmigt Sound, stratégie, long-termat fi'rst glanée appear to be awes(local management (albeit perhapsme phy^ical obstacles (remotenesauthoritarian) can conspire wtiiand^archipelagicity in thé ca^limate and relative inaoessibi-oFthe'SeycheUes; 'a small airpolity to limit tourism to small scale,mnway'in thé case of St Barthlow-impact but high and locallyintoassetswhichhelptomterairetamed value added, dispersedconWaccess, increasing thé diand more genuinely sustainabletïnctiveness-and priée"-oftldevelopment (e.g. Butler ^1997:tourism expérience. Iinfi-astructu78). This is well captured m théandlogistics conspire tomaintainfollowing statement, uttered byfew warm water islands in a nicpone_other than Archimandrite Jo-ofenviousexclusivity. This créatif, Solovetsky Monastery rcpre-possibilities for sustainable, tentative. It leaves no room for anywlume, but high value added p?iiscussion:

tourism, with less strain (_ , " .mfrastructure and resource ned'Overgrowth oftourism flows_andThe~Droduct is also differentiatPrcservati"n of divine spirit^of théfroml 'the"more compétitive malsland , are incompatible; Nobody

warmwatertourismmarket, whe2ven thinks "f converting Solo-mdividuaïislandattributestend;etekyjnto^trendyresort^bïelossedover, andwhere priée he White Sea shore is Ml ofres-theîiïmportant detemiiner ofdaurants and ̂ . the sky above thémanïand'supply. ^onTZ's,, towers. is.crossedby

)ara-gliders" (International sympo-'ium, Solovetsky: Future Insights,'003; quoted in Nevmerzhitskaya,:006: 162).

T

î

Acknowledgements

My thanks to Lino Brigu-io for inviting me to thé sustaina-e island tourism conférence heldMalta in May 2006, to JérômecEh-oy for générons researchpport (including thé compilation

of Table l), and to Graham M. S.Dann for critical comments on anearlier draft.

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Baldacchino, G. (éd.) (2006b)'Editorial Introduction' in Extrême Tou-

rism: Lessons from thé World's Cold Wa-

ter Islands, Oxford & Amsterdam, Else-vier, pp. 3-14.

Baldacchino, G. (éd. ) (2006e)Extrême Tourism: Lessons from thé

World's Cold Water Islands, Oxford &Amsterdam, Elsevier.

Baum, T. G. & Contributors(2000) 'Tourism and Cdd Water Islandsin thé North Atlantic' in G. Baldacchino& D. Milne (eds.) Lessons from thé Po-litical Economy of Small Islands: ThéResourcefulness of Jurisdiction. Basings-toke, Macmillan, pp. 214-229.

Baum, T.G. & Hagen, L. (1993)'Responses to Seasonality: Thé Experien-ces of Peripheral Destinations', Intema-tional Journal of Tourism Research, Vol.l, pp. 299-312.

Briguglio, L., Archer, B., Jafari,J. & Wall, G. (eds.) (1996a) SustainableTourism in Islands & Small States: Issuesand Policies, London, Pinter.

Briguglio, L. Butler, R. W., Har-rison, D. & Leal Filho, W. (eds.) (1996b)Sustainable Tourism in Islands & SmallStates: Case Studies, London, Pinter.

Butler, R.W. (1993) 'TourismDevelopment in Small Islands: Past In-fluences and Future Directions' in D. G.

Lockhart, D. Drakakis-Smith & J.A.Schembri (eds. ) Thé Development Pro-cess in Small Island States, London,Routledge, pp. 71-91.

Butler, R.W. (1996) 'Problemsand Possibilities of Sustainable Tourism:

Thé Case of thé Shetland Islands' in L.

Briguglio, R. W. Butler, D. Harrison &W. Leal Filho (eds. ) Sustainable Tourismin Islands & Small States: Case Studies,London, Pinter, pp. 11-31.

Butler, R.W. (1997) 'Tourism inthé Northem Isles: Orkney and Shetland'in D.G. Lockhart & D. Drakakis-Smith(eds. ) Island Tourism: Trends and Pros-pects. London, Pinter, pp. 59-80.

Butler, R. W. (2006) 'Epilogue:Contrasting Warm Water and Cold WaterIsland Tourist Destinations', in G. Bal-dacchino (éd. ) Extrême Tourism: Lessonsfrom thé Worid's Cold Water Islands,Oxford & Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp. 247-258.

Cambers, G., Muehlig-Hofmann,A. & Troost, D. (2002) Coastal Land Te-nure: A Small-Islands' Perspective, WiseCoastal Practices for Sustainable HumanDevelopment, UNESCO, www.unesco.org/csi/wise/tenure.htm

CIA (2005) CIA Worid Fact-Book, Washington DC, Central Intelli-gence Agency, www.cia.gov/cia/publica-tions/factbook/.

Clark, E. (2005) 'Thé Order andSimplicity of Gentrification: A PoliticalChallenge' in R. Atkinson & G. Bridge(eds. ) Gentrification in a Global Context:Thé New Urban Colonialism, London,Routledge, pp. 256-264.

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Gôssling, S. (2006) 'Iceland' inG. Baldacchino (éd. ) Extrême Tourism:Lessons from thé World's Cold Water Is-

lands, Oxford & Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp.115-129.

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21

Hagen-Grant (1998) 'Seasona-lity in Tourism in thé Small Islands ofthé NorthAtlantic', monograph, Charlot-tetown, Canada, Institute of Island Stu-dies, www.upei. ca/islandstudies/rep_lhg_l. htm

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McElroy, J.L. (2002) 'Thé Im-pact of Tourism in Small Islands: A Glo-bal Comparison' mF. di Castri & V. Balaji (eds.) Tourism,Biodiversity and Infomiation. Leiden,Backhuys, pp. 151-167.

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Introduction

his article deals with cultu-

Rosalie, M. (2002) 'TourismSocial Development in thé Seychelle;Development Bulletin, No. 60, Novenber, pp. 95-98.

Royle, S.A. (1997) 'Tourism lthé South Atlantic islands' in D.G. Loikhart & D. Drakakis-Smith (eds.) IslaBTourism: Trends and Prospects, LondoiPinter, pp. 323-344.

Shah, N.J. (2002) 'Bikinis aiBiodiversity: Tourism and Conservatuon Cousin Island, Seychelles' in F. di Çatri & V. Balaji (eds.) Tourism, Biodivesity and Infonnation, Leiden, Backhu}pp. 185-96.

St Barths News (2004) 'Moral aspects of tourism on andvisitais in 2003 than in 2002', www^^^ Svalbard, intemationallybarths. com/editorials/cecil-lucot/04_0^^ ^^^ ^ Spitsbergen, thé

Wilkinson, P.F. (1994) 'Touristiame of thé largest island of thisandSmaUIslandStates:ProblemsofSnorthem archipelago. Longyear-source Analysis, Management and De\byen, thé main town, and thé onlylopment' in A.V Seaton (éd. ) Tourisisignificant Norwegian settlement,Thé State^of thé Art, Chichester, John ̂ "^^^ ^g kilomètres north

/'pp of Tromse on thé Norwegiannainland. For almost 150 years,eople hâve been travelling to>valbard for recreational and ad-

enture purposes. During mostf thé 20th century, Svalbard wasrimarily a destination for cruise'ps, but since thé early 1990'sland-based tourism industry has

merged. Thus development iselcomed and partly stimulated byle Norwegian authorities that alsoave established an encompassingnvironmental govemance régimef thé island, primarily due to théInerable nature, but also cove-

ing thé héritage of thé area.

Most tourist expériencesoffered on Svalbard are related to

nahire; thé scenery is magnificent,and there are spécial things to see:bird-mountains, seals and whales,glaciers and icebergs. Thé majortounst activities m wmtertime are

daytrips by snowmobile dog-sled-ge or by ski, though longer, multi-day tours are also offered. In sum-mer many of thé visitors take partin an over-seas émise, thé othersare flying in, going on 3-10 dayscoastal émises or on hiking tours,or stay in Longyearbyen buyingday-excursion or other day-acti-vities. Many tourists hope to geta glimpse of thé polar bear, butmost of them fail. Thé polar bearfollows thé edge of thé ice shieldand is normally far from thé touristtracks. Much of thé nature expe-riences in summer are ship-basedrelating to sceneries passing by,going close to a glacier or goingfor a hike on shore.

t, -^

By Arvid Viken

r

Arvid Viken is associate

professor in Tourism at FinnmarkUniversity Collège, Alta, Noi-way.He has done research on indigenoustourism, Arctic tourism, nature based

tourism and edited and written a se-

ries of articles and books within thé

sociology oftourism, héritage tourismand tourism and environment. He bas

followed thé development oftourismon Svalbard both as a planner and asa researher. and has written several

articles about this developinent.Email: arvid. viken@hifm. no

There are traces of humanactivities ail aver thé islands cove-

ring more than 400 years ofhistory.In a management plan (Sysselman-nen for Svalbard, 2000) there is alist of prioritised héritage sites indifférent areas of Svalbard.

Ail of those located in thé

north-west corner of Spitsbergenare among thé most popular heri-tage sites. Almost 50 per cent of ailprioritised heritagesites - coveringail parts of Svalbard - hâve beenused for tourism purposes récentyears.

This article will présentSvalmbard and its tourism indus-

try, followed by a description ofthé transformations of thé main

township, Longyearbyen, fi-om aminmg commumty to a tourist re-sort.

g&.

e-

l

Picture of a tourist group in a zodiac iniront ofa small ship and a glacier

23

This has been a processwherein former miner facilitiesand thé miner life hâve been trans-formed to one of thé platformsfor tourism. A review of thé mostimportant héritage sites and theirgoveming are présentée, followedby a discussion of thé existmg go-vemance System. Thé conclusionreflects on thé rôle of héritage mhuman's transformation ofwilder-ness to a playground for tounsts.Thé évidence for thé article is sta-tistics, both from thé Govemor'sOffice and from thé local touristoffice, and documents and re-search reports conceming tounsmon Svalbard, and interviews withactors in thé tourism industry.

Svalbard

Svalbard is located in théArctic Sea. It is one of thé nor-themmost inhabitée places onearth, stretching from thé 74th tothé 81st degree of latitude. Théarchipelago covers a land area of61,229 square kilomètres, with acoastline that is over 3, 500 kilome-très long. Thé climate is cold but,thanks to thé Gulf Stream, not ascold as many other locations in thénorth. Thé average air températureis +60 Celsius in summer, -14o Cin winter. Thé sea température ho-vers befrween l and +4o C. In théwinter, thé sea is normally frozen.

Svalbard was "discovered"

by thé Dutchman Willem Barentsin 1956 (for more historical détailsee Arlov, 1996). Thé industrialhistory of Svalbard has five rela-tively easy distinguishable eraspartly representing separate activi-ties. In thé first period, from 1603thé islands and thé surroundingocéan were heavily exploited forindustrial purposes, first walmshunting by thé English, and fromlôllwhale hunting, primarily forextracting oil from thé animal.Thé whale hunt was in tum under-taken by thé English and Dutch,but also Spain, France, Germanyand Denmark (including Norway)took part. On several occasionsthere were controversies betweenthé whaling nations, and thé firstgoveming régime was settled in1614, splitting thé whaling areaoutside Spitsbergen between théDutch in north and thé English insouth (Sysselmannen for Svalbard,2000).

Due to a too extensive

hunt, thé whale disappeared fi-omthé Çords of Svalbard towards théend of thé 17th century. Thé secondperiod goes from around 1700 to1850, a period dominated by Rus-sian trapping ofseal, polar bear andpolar fox for thé saké of fur, and ofwalms and white whale. Thé thirdperiod is from thé begiiming of thé19th century when Norwégians

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more or less took over thé trappi^ation. However, the^society is notactivitïes. 'Thiswasalsotheperitfotally "normalised";^ thé archi-for'the'exploration of thé nortpelago is an économie free-zoneThé first'scientific expédition w^vithout customs, VAT and withRussian (1764-66), but later sevf-elatively low rates of^ incomeraT"countries took part; Norwa:ax, though ̂sigmficantly heightenSweden,"France, Gemmay, Aiiin 2005. Thé infrastmcture ̂ andt"ria'and'England. Thé most inteponstmction works are technologi-sïve'explorer period was aroui. ;ally very adyanced and expensi-

the'tuni of thé previous centuive, as is also thé case with housing.At that time also'the fourth perifVtost people don't own propertystarted, thé époque with search ̂ ut rent their apartments or houseand excavation'of minerais. Tfrom their employers.^onFy "commercial success ho^ ^ Whereas mimng^was Aeveï wa's"coal mining, undertakpnly industry a couple of décadesseveral" places on Spitsbergen, iigo, minmg is only one ofseveralcent'decades by Norwegians apdustries^ today, though, still^im-Russians. Thé fifth period is tportant. Teaching and research isonethat startedtowards thé end:oday probably thé biggest ̂ indus-thé 1980 and is mostly related:^ there is several hundred inter-thé position and development ̂ tional student studying polar^

yen, thé main Nor^-elated sciences and manynatural2mn°settlement. It had been a mi?cienrists visitthe campus during aîownsince early 1900's, but it^ear. Thé third large sector^is tou-thend-ecidedthatmimngshould[ism, providing between 200 anddownscaledandothermdustrial^O0 workplaces. Fourth, there istivities'shouldbe developed. wlsoa^noteworthy mdustry relatedis'a'sïgnificant amount of hérita0 different types of communica-fromllft hese periods, least faions^ from ship related^activitiestheRussianperiod, according0, télécommunication. There arethé authorities (Sysselmannen Poth business and research relatedS^aibard72 000)':

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"The"Doîitical tum aro^'yen arca- And these basic indus-1990 was related to a need &Pes are supported and by a signi-broader"mdustrial platform ttf^t se^cem,dust^ ""coaÏmmingthat for thé time be^^^Beforethelate 1980's, Lon-wa"s heav^ 'subsïdised and polîyearb^nwas_ a tyP ical comPany

caÏÏyTontroversial(MmisttyofPwn^whCTeA^^^^^^^dustoaÏAffairs7l990). ^^r^d mosLPUÏ;C. SCTVices;.In^erequïite for more' div0988^resPonslbility^^^indusïnaFactmties was to createJ;osw^as/^OYer^J^:^nnaiT permanent communit)ar^^ci^L^^^î^wm^^LA. Stli'e. ^ency:^e'sociara ctivitie^The t'"ïo^ooo:Aercha?alsobT m^fe>tio7"requiredd, veioVn,!^d,^em^JdÏferent^types'ofprivate ^m^y^cT±(LmëyearrpubZTeTeïïndopportu. i^LAals^re,).Jh^^

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were stimulated. Along witti ,^^^7^^"^1"^IX^"^ranges in thé composition of thé

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Svalbard Advisory Council (Sval-bardrâdet) was dominated by mi-ners, in today's LongyearbyenCommunity Council (Longear-byen Lokalstyre) it is universityand service sector people that setthé scène - for years thé mayorwas a university professer.

Despite this scattered localdemocracy mostly covering de-cisions conceming public serviceand welfare, thé power centre onthé islands is thé Govemor ofSval-

bard. He represents thé NorwegianState for ail intents and purposes.

During récent décades thé Gover-nor's office has been granted newfunctions and has expanded its ac-tivities considerably. Thus, thereis a double meaning to thé termGovemor of Svalbard today: it isthé title of highest ranking repre-sentative of thé Norwegian autho-rities on thé islands, as well as apublic institution with 25-30 staffmembers.

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25

into thé sea where they 'calf(that is, break up and produce ice-bergs). Besides, going ashore is amajor anticipated activity, for thésaké ofhiking, bird watching, loo-king at other natural features andoften to observe héritage fi-omclose range. Thé number of re-corded disembarking passengersoutside Longyearbyen bas in factincreased from 37, 508 in 1996 to69, 691 in 2003. Thé data showsthat thé number of ports of call hasincreased from 63 in 1996 to 162in 2003; meanwhile thé percentageof passenger disembarkations thatoccur in thé three major tounstports outside Longyearbyen (thatis Barentsburg, Ny-Âlesund andMagdalenefjorden) has decreasedfrom 87 per cent in 1996 to 52 percent in 2003. Thus, there bas beena significant dispersai of thé tou-rists récent years (cf. Viken 2006).

Duality of exposition andpréservation

Since thé 1970's there hasbeen an enormous increase of he-ritage sites offered to thé publicaround thé world. A straightforwardexplanation is a growing interestand demand for documentation ofthé past both in thé public - maybeas a result ofhigher educational le-vels - and among académies andauthorities. Many seem to meanthat there is a need to clarify thépast to better know what to do inprésent time (Kirschenblatt-Gim-blett, 1998: 7), others daim thathéritage has a value in itself, as it isstated in thé Svalbard ManagementPlan for Héritage (Sysselmamienfor Svalbard, 2000). However, the-re is often a différence befrween thé

past, its history and héritage. Pastis what has happened, history isthé attempts to présent and explain

selected aspects of thé past, whe-reas héritage is a contemporary m-terpretations of thé past, often ser-ving both political and commercialaims (Graham et al., 2000; Smith,2003). But héritage does not hâve tobe commercial, as thé term also re-fers to artefacts, historical sites andnarratives that are not put on sale.As Urry emphasise (1990: 110),much héritage development has apopular base, be it individuals orlocal conservationist groups. Thisis also thé origin of Svalbard Mu-seum, to day a hypermodem inter-pretation centre. However, thé restof thé héritage sites of Svalbard,are commercial only in an indirectway, providing thé tourist industrywith visiting sites.

There certainly are otherexplanations of thé heritagisationof thé world. One is a global trendof nostalgia (Urry, 1990; 1996;2000), often a romanticising and acélébration of thé past (Hewison,1987). Many also see héritage as away to make history more acces-sable, lively and relevant to mo-dem humans (cf. Shouten, 1995;Smith, 2003). And to tourism, he-ritage contributes to thé attractionSystem. Therefore, tourism is botha stakeholder and an argument inhéritage development, and thereis more or less a symbiotic rela-tionship between héritage, tourismand thé govemance of thé relation.On Svalbard tourism is a signifi-cant industry, and so is research,and monitoring and managementof héritage. Many of thé héritagesites, and héritage in général onSvalbard, hâve gone through théfirst stages of a process that Mac-Cannel (1976) entitles sacraliza-tion; naming, often after somebo-dy who once stayed in thé site (asLongyearbyen, Nordenskiôldtop-pen), or after something related toan event in thé past (Svenskehuset,Ny-London), followed by framing

or élévation, a stage where thé ha-actions, which m tum meansritage is protectedand marked. tnore jobs. Thus, there is a both asome sites thé héritage is also eniymbolic and an instrumentai si-hrined - given a héritage wrappiignificance of héritage managementthat in itself is an attraction, ?f thé islands.muséums often are, also thé one There is a whole séries ofLongyearbyen. When thé tourisirgument against heritagisation.show'up such sites hâve becoiAs many héritage sites are pre-tourist attractions, sented. They are not necessary an

nquiry into thé past, LowenthalAs mentioned, one reasil998) maintains.

for exposing héritage is politic; Héritage is^not a historicalWith 'thé strong environmentiocument, it over-focuses thé visi-orientation intemationally wple, thé glorious and thé wealthy,particulariy a strong focus on pr^nd thé past is presented visuallytine environments, Norway pr textually, in a wrapping that ischosen a high profile on its ppoth modem, global, scientific,servation efforts conceming Svfashionable and commercial, ailbard. «Thé (Norwegian) Govepreating a distance to and a misre-ment wishes Svalbard to be one-'rcsentation of thé events and arte-thé world's best managed wildfacts in question, it is mamtainedness areas. » and «in thé event:Hewison, 1987; Lowentahl, 1998;a conflict between environmen^bridge and Ashworth, 1996).targets and other interests, em However, this critiqueronmental considérations are loes not hit particulariy on Sval-prevail within thé limits dictapard, as mostof thé héritage is outby treaty obligations and soveivherc thehistoncal renmants once

considérations", accordingverc produced, ̂ and^it is^ clearlyMmistryofEnvironment(1999);XPressed that "[a]l^ héritage is

;qually important" (Kulturminne-

Thus, to perform reseai(?an for Svalbard 2000-2010: 29).ring, excavations and pFhere^is^one exception, thé mu-

se^ationïs to demonstrate respceum in Longyearbyen, opened msible'govemanceofapieceofla1006' havmg aU signs of modemthat~h°as'only~been Norwegiantnd commercial héritage,^ reflec-80 vears. At thé same time heritalng contemporary taste andtends,afsoïaway to demonstrate tionsti^ganexampleofthetypefo7centuries''Svalbardhasbeen)f_attractions most °f thé héritagehabitedandits resources hâve Wterature refers to-exploited. Thé Norwegian authcties are probably sceptical to !perception of Svalbard as only'curism adaptations in Lon-untouched wildemess, and tryadd an image of Svalbard as sindustrial site, and as an outposl ^__ ^ ,Dation:!'mde-acceptance^^ ,smce, tounsm, wa^_intro-Aisl reua;rt y' wlll mak7itreasie^ed^sanln du^^^^^ township

defcndï^e'Ïxplo^ons:In^^^~^t;^^mf'c^^^m0^^^^o^^^^^Z{Z^^WLmt:.^S^^^t^^^Zm^w. to. mo'd^'in '^on^^^, ^^^^^^^suthe7ounsmmduTtrywitbot only in street ionography, but

also in pattems of social relations,culture and power. A couple ofde-cades ago it was thé miners and thémining company that set thé localagenda, and embossed public par-lances and discourses, but not anymore.

Neither is it thé miners

that dominate town life today. Andthé townscape has been changea;Stormessa (thé cantina) is gone,Stussen (wherc thé coal is takenout) is a pub, Lompen, where théminors changea clothes and had ashower after work, is a shoppingcentre, and Busen, a term used fora miner, is thé name ofa café - andonly a few know thé origin of thèseterms.

Until late 1980s thé coal

was transportée from thé mineto thé harbour in an air based

conveyor System (like a chair lift),today substituted by lorries. Théconveyor head-quarter and someremaining pôles are spotlighted,being monuments over a past épo-que.

Thé artefacts and symbolsof thé past hâve got new meaningas cultural sites, héritage, touristattractions and as vital éléments

in thé pleasure industry. Both thésymbolic and material héritagemay well be seen as a nostalgieglorification of thé past (cf. Lowen-thaï 1998). Both thé old miner andhis life hâve a certain aura locally.However, thé contemporary use ofminer symbols and artefacts stron-gly contrast thé reality of thé mi-ners some décades ago. Creepingin thé mines was maybe heroic, butcertainly not a pleasure.

Conceming thé materialityof Longyearbyen there are manysigns of thé same trends; modemvillas and apartments substitutethé miners' accommodation bar-

racks and several small shoppingcentres, a hospital, a huge univer-sity centre, an information centreand several hôtels and restaurants

dominate thé town picture. Thémain (and only) street has ail wellknown signs of tourism; strollingtourists with colourful cloths, plas-tic bags, shops with flags and néonlights, pubs and bars. Thé shopsare selling t-shirts, jumpers, cups,trolls and ail type of touristic gad-gets marked with symbols of Sval-bard, and they look like souvenirshops in most tourist destinations.Thé semiotics of tourism is stron-

gly at présence.Before, Longyearbyen used

to be a place where people kneweach other, and took care of eachother. Today, thé town has beentransform thé town to a place ofstrangers (Borch 1997: 62), bothdue to thé diversified industries,thé increase in population and thétounsts.

However, a study towardsthé end of thé 1990's showed thatmost of those who hâve lived in

Longyearbyen for décades, ap-preciate thé changes (Viken andBakken 1997); Longyerbyen hasbecome cleaner and thé services

are much better; daily flight to andfrom, ordinary shops and services,more welfare. And most peopleréalise that as a "normal" commu-

nity thé priées and taxes must behigher than they used to be. Onlya few wishes thé old times back.

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miner époque tourist resort

a^jij*». ---- »-'». -' .'

in winter li-

social/culturalbase

community of miners, hard manual work andweek-end with parties and drinking

familles and social organizations, leisureactivities, outdoor récréation

mine activities, mine equipments, muséumminers in thé street Tear and Wear from thé

changea mine "Funken", accomodation center forsymbols administrative staff Stuffen- thé place where

thé coal in excavated"Lompen"- a sanitaryfacility

mine remuants as héritage sites andminer on statue, flags, souvenirs,

excursions offers "Funken" a modernehôtel

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localdiscourse mine, miners and thé governor's activities académie parlance, environmental

sstions, Leisure activities

^K^-^'s d'ff1̂1^ ^. Figure 6: Hen earbyen:

Fable l : Changes in Longyearbyen récent years.

he Svalbard héritage sitesand its govemance

There are some major he-ge sites on Svalbard, repre-

nting thé différent significantriods fi-om thé history of thé is-ds. Athird of thé sites are regis-ed (Sysselmaimen for Svalbard,00). First, there arc 14 sites rcgis-d containing remuants from théaling activities in thé 17th cen-y. Most known is Smeerenburg,place wherc thé Dutchmen pro-ed oil during thé first décades

of that century. Another knownplace is Gravneset in thé Magda-lene Fjord, but this site is primarilyvisited because of its proximity toa glacier and its natural beauty.

Second there are many siteswith remuants from thé Russians

trapping period, 31 of them beingregistered, but none ofthem beingamong thé most visited héritagesites. Thirdly, there are several si-tes known for being of importance

in relation to explorations of thénorth, or for having had a rôle inmore or less hazardous expéditionto thé North Pôle.

Most known, is Virgohavn,thé place that Salomon Andrée(1896 and 1897) and Walter Wel-Iman (1906, 1907 and 1909) hadas starting point in their efforts toreach thé North Pôle with accor-

dingly air balloon and air ship.None ofthem succeeded, but left

31

much equipment and installationsbehind, representing an exitmghéritage. In Ny-Âlesund there isa tall pôle, built (1925-1926) as a"parking place" for air ships andused by Amundsen, Elsworth andNobile on their way to thé NorthPôle, and later (1928) by Nobile.There are also remuants after ahangar for airships, and a statueof Amundesen. Fourthly, thereare remuants fi-om thé Norwegiantrapping activities from thé 19thand 20th century. Normally thereis a cabin and some equipmentleft. However, most of thèse placesare closed down. One, Fredheim,one hour with a snowmobile awayfrom Longyearbyen, is open forVisitation and represents an oftenvisited attraction for tour operatorsin Longyearbyen. From thé sameperiod there are also lots of siteswhere there hâve been searchedfor minerais; coal, gold, iron, zmc,lead, copper, gips, asbestos andmarble. Among thé major héritagesites from thé search activities is

Ny-London, a site not far from Ny-Âlesund. InNy-London a mine wasset up to extract marble. A coupleofshipments went to London fromwhere thé entrepreneur Mr. Mans-field originated and where he hadregistered his firm, but thé qualityof thé marble was so bad that it hadbeen transformed to (marble) sandduring thé voyage. In Ny-Âlesundthere were a significant coal mi-ning industry for some décades,however, thé mine was abando-ned after an accident that killed 21miners. Thé mine was owned bythé Norwegian state, and thé go-vemment was held responsible forthé event, and resigned (in 1962).Most of thé town is kept as it was.There are also héritage related tocoal mining industry in Longyear-byen, particularly a Visitation mine(Mine 3), but also other mines (the-re are seven mines altogether, onestill producing coal) are used by

tour operators for escorted tours,and as mentioned thé former coaltransport headquarter is among théattractions in town. There are alsointeresting héritage from other sec-tors; from tourism - particularlythé North Pôle Hôtel in Ny-Âle-sund, shipwrecks, crashed airpla-nés and remuants from World WarII. However, except what is foundin Ny-Âlesund, noue of thèse rem-nants hâve given rise to significanttourist attractions.

up to down:

Figure 8: Smeerenburg remnants ofvvhale oil stove

Not ail periods and activi-s hâve given rise to significantritage sites. For example little isft of thé many Russian trappertiens. Thé reason why, is saidbe that thé Russians seems to

Figure 9: Gravneset i MagdaleneQord yg known how to SUTyive underatounstinfrontofcombsprotectedby ^ ^^ conditions, much better

an thé others that often died fromFigure 10: Virgohavn: Remnants fron.survy. One of thé major héritage

thé expéditions of Andrée and Wellmani^i ments where thé other nationserated, are combs. Thé effect,

onceming today's héritage and'urism, is that thé Russian trap-îr period, and thé Russian history

Svalbard are under-exposed.5 also is thé history of women'se on Svalbard - there were of-

n women taking part in thé ex-ditions and several trappers

.ought their wives and familiesng. Thé documentation of this

scarce, partly due to thé fact thatse narratives do not fit into thé

culine images of thé explorerstrappers (Hauan, 1988). Howe-r, thé stories of explorers as An-

rée and Weller fit well in despitefact that they failed, and fi-om

historical point of view theyrtainly are over-exposed in théritage landscape of Svalbard.lis reflects two of thé burdens of

ritage; thé focus of thé materialmuants from thé past, and a hangemphasise thé spectacular and

amatic, historically important ort (Lowenthal, 1998). In thé af-math particularly Andrée wasashed with his balloon and laterarved or froze to death, has beenlero; in thé création of héritage,ering and death seems to add toattractiveness.

anagement of thé Sval-

bard héritage sites

There are différent waysgoveming héritage sites likese on Svalbard. Thé goal is thata héritage of Svabard as far

as possible should be preservedwhere they are placed in thé lands-cape not destroying thé relationsbetween thé remuants form earlier

(human) activities and their natu-rai and original environment" (St.meld nr 40 (1985-86)). Thus, thémain policy is an in situ conserva-tion of thé héritage. Thé sub-goalsare spécifiée in a detailed manage-ment rule (Kultiuminneforskriften,1974); to préserve héritage is partofholistic environmental policy, itshould be preserved as a resourcefor research, and héritage shouldbe préservée as a base for expe-riences, knowledge and activitiesof existing and future générations(Kulturminneforskriften, 1974).

Thé overmling principlefor héritage management on Sval-bard is "[... ] that ail traces ofhu-man activity dating from 1945 orearlier are protected éléments ofthé cultural héritage" (http://www.sysselmannen.svalbard.no/eng/).There are several preserving stra-tegies applied. For some sites thépolicy is "controlled natural de-gradation" (Kulturminnplan forSvabard 2000-2010). This meansthat this type of sites should not betouched, not even repaired. Natu-rai dégradation shall not be distur-bed. For other sites thé strategy is a"delaying degrading préservation"including minor repair. In realitythis is to keep thé héritage as it istoday. Thé third strategy is to res-tore thé héritage - to bring it backor to keep it in accordance with adefined condition. There are lots of

héritage treated according to boththé delaying degrading and resto-ring principles. Some buildings areprotected conceming thé exterior,with a renewed interior. This is thé

case with several houses in Ny-Âlesund and Longyerbyen.

Thé préservation of théhéritage sites on Svalbard is notcontestée, but can be a brake on

modem industrial development.Thé story goes, that when thé mi-ning company heard a mmour ofaplanned protection of a newly leftmine and its facilities (Swerdrups-byen) ail was set on fire, in fear ofthé conséquences of a protection.However, normally thé preserva-tion of natural environment is a

much grater challenge for indus-trial development. For exampledid not a project aiming at sear-ching for gold in thé mountainsnear Ny-Âlesund get thé permis-sion needed a few years ago. Butthere are lots of dilemmas in thé

management of thé héritage sites;should for instance there be sign-posts, tracks and fences or otherpreserving remédies on thé sites?From a conservation point of viewthis might be recommendable, butit gives thé sites a touristic flavourthat is not wanted.

There certainly also areother questions raised; why shouldso many cabins be maintained,when they are closed down by théGovemor, and only thé Gover-nor's staff use them, whereas thétourism industry is neither allowedto use them or to put up cabins ontheir own. Sometimes, thé conser-vation office has had other types ofdilemmas; for instance what abouta damaged nazi symbol, swastika,should thé Govemor repair it; andshould PCB it thé slag heap aroundmines in Ny-Âlesund - today partof a protected area - be removed?Thé nature conservation office said

yes, but culture conservation officerejected - both Govemor of Sval-bard offices.

To préserve héritage it isnecessary to regulate thé conductof people approaching thé heri-tage. There are of course a wholevariety of means, also applied onSvalbard. Thé most important stra-tegy is to inform. Thé informationgiven is available on Internet, asbooklets and as brouchures.

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Among thé brochures availableare one about thé expériences onSvalbard, one about how to travelon Svalbard, one about thé vulne-rability of thé Svalbard nature, oneabout thé risks of travelling in théarea. Booklets are thé prioritisedway of informing about thé mostvisited héritage sites as Virgohavn,Smeerenburg, Gravodden, Hior-thavn (close to Longyearbyen)and Fredheim. Whereas ail thèseare published by thé Govemor ofSvalbard, thé most mterestmg go-veming effort in this genre, is madeby thé tourism industry, sponsoredby thé Govemor; a ten points codeof conduct called "Thé CommonSensé Rules for Svalbard" (seefigure 11). Thèse mies are welldistributed, on Internet sites andas placards hère and there both inLongyearbyen and other places onthé islands.

On thé sites there are ratherdiscreet signposts (see table 2), ifany. Thé policy is obviously notto disturb thé environment withglossy information. For Ny-Âle-sund there are spécial mies andpractices. Thé place is often visi-ted by cmise-ships. Before arrivaithé ship informs thé tourists aboutthé environment and its manage-ment. To be allowed to go ashore,thé passengers hâve to sign a pa-per declaring that they hâve beentrough this procédure. On shore,there are restrictions on where to

go. Much of thé information isabout laws and management, so itmay be seen as part of a traditionalhierarchical govemance System(see next page).

And there are more exam-

pies of this type of govemance.Thé most popular héritage sitesare often visited by so called "field

Table 2: Héritage sites and their régulation

Exam lesWhale stations

Smeerenburg

Gravodden

Explorers' sitesVirgohavn

«ULES FOR

Frappers' siteFredheim

mer commumties

Mine 3, outsideLongyearbyen

Ny-London

Ny-Âlesund

inspectors", with similar mandate on thé north west coast is stroto "park rangers", known from na- policed. Thé régulation of thé etional parks. In fact most of them visited héritage sites is summefare police officers. Thus, thé area in thé table next page.

Characteristics

Remuants fi-om thé first whalingindustry; whale oil stoves

- Lots of graves from thé firstwhaler period - close to a glacier

- Were thé Swedish explorerAndrée and later thé Amercan

Weller started their balloon tripstowards thé North Pôle (onsecond try Andrée did notsurvive)

- Thé hut ofone of thé most

known trappers fi-om thé 20thCentury - one hour fromLongyearbyen with snowmobile.A major site for daytrips fromLon eab en.

Amineleftinl997, aslotarranged for Visitation

A marble mme; at its time anindustrial fiasco, thé remnants areintact

Thé place was a mining townuntil 1962 when there was a hugemine accident that led to a changeofgovemment inNorway. Manyremuant left;- Mining installations, slag heaps- A short railway and a train- A miner family house as it wasleftml962Today a research stations withmore 100-200 staying in thésummertime

Préservation actions

- A booklet

- A signpost telling thé story ofthé place, asking for caution- Regularly surveillance by policein thé top season

- A booklet

- A signpost telling thé story ofthé place, asking for caution- Thé graves are sun-ounded witha wire fence

- Daily surveillance by police inthé too season

- A booklet

- Forbidden to go ashore withoutpermission from thé govemor ofSvalbard

- Tourists should not go ashore ingroups bigger than 12 (accordingto thé mies)- Not more than three groups atthé time (common agreement)- Regularly surveillance by policein thé to season

- A booklet

- Regularly surveillance andmaintenance

- Kept in shape by thé companyoffering as a tourist attraction

- Regular surveillance

- Daily surveillance- Restricted areas- Roads and tracks- Guided tours

n0,0-

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35

Tourism and héritage onSvalbard: Government and

governance

As mentioned before théNorwegian Govemment has sethigh goals for thé environmen-tal policies conceming Svalbard.To implement thèse ambitions avariety of goveming actions areneeded. Therefore, thé govemmgof thé natural and cultural héritageon Svalbard, is a good example ofthé width and complexity of mo-dem govemance, and an exampleofhow govemance efforts involvea whole séries of stakeholders.

There is a tendency today,to analyse political-admimstrativeactions with thé tenn govemance."[T]he essence ofgovemance is itsfocus on goveming mechanisms,which do not rest on recourse to théauthority and sanctions of govem-ments", says Stoker (1998; 17). Asthé modem society and thé modemstate has developed "... no actorhas sufficient overview to makethé application ofparticular instm-ments effective; no single actorhassufficient action potential to domi-nate unilaterally in a particular go-veming model", argues Kooiman(1993: 4). Thus, govemance refersto régulation, management or stee-ring where a multitude of actorsare normally involved, both in thédécision making and implementa-tionprocesses (Pierre, 2000; PierreandGuy Peters, 2000; Kooiman,2003; Kjaer, 2004). Thé culture forgoveming has changed in this di-rection both due to privatisationprocesses, new awareness aboutsocietal responsibility, and dueto new opinions about thé rôle ofthé state. Thus, a nomialisation ofSvalbard society also implied newways ofgoveming thé islands. Oneexpression ofthis is thé création ofSvalbard Lokalstyre, thé locallyelected steering committee. With

thé "normalisation" strategy thécommunity also demanded a par-king democracy.

There are three major mo-dels for govemance, accordingto Kooiman (2003) : hierarchicalgovemance or régulation, self-go-vemance or self-rcgulation andco-govemance or co-manage-ment. There is also another termoften used to characterise modemgoveming; meta-govemance; ef-forts made by authorities to govemthose who govem (Jessop 2002),or as Kjser (2004: 49) puts it, meta-govemance is "managing thé ru-les and pattems of coordination,organising fhe complex structuresof hiérarchies, networks and mar-kets".

Thé Héritage Concerva-tion Rule of thé Svalbard regula-ting thé remnants from thé past, isfrom 1973 (Kulturminneforskrif-ten, 1973), but is today a subsys-tem of thé Svalbard EnvironmentalProtection Act (http://odin. dep.no/md/norsk/tema/ svalbard/022021-990262/index-dokOOO-b-n-a.html). This law introduces somewell known principles for environ-mental management (cf. Goodalland Stabler, 1997). One principleis a duty of care; "Any person whois staying in or opérâtes an under-taking in Svalbard shall show dueconsidération and exercise thécaution required to avoid unne-cessary damage or disturbance tothé natural environment or culturalheritage"(§5). Thé "precautionaryprinciple" (§7) states that if anauthority lacks information of théenvironmental impacts of a plan oran action, they can force thé actorsin question to provide them withthis knowledge. Thé law also statesthat "[a]ny activity that is started inSvalbard shall be assessed on thébasis of thé overall pressure on thénatural environment and cultural

héritage thatwouldresult"(§8), givalbard Tourism Board and adop-thé 'polluter pays principle' (§ed voluntarily by ail snowmobileand that thé "activities in Svalbîour operators m Longyearbyen.shall make use of thé technolo^ second and more locally limitedthat puts thé least possible pressïxample is as mentioned thé prac-on thé environment" (§10). Otlice ofnot going ashore with moreparagraphs deal with other specjhan three groups at thé time inissues, ît shouldbe notices that/irgohavn, thé most restricted he-law treat nature and cultural hcitage. A third example is several

equally. ourism networks, as thé local tou-ism association. Perhaps thé most

Thé law may appear tonteresting is that started in 2003an example of hierarchical gov'etween cmise ship compamesnance, but is not entirely so. Fibat operate in thé Arcti^areas (théit may be categorised as an exa^ssociation of ArctiG^Expeditionpie of meta-'govemance wh;mise Operators, AAEC), withathé government set thé frame'iew to develop a common practi-govemance. Second, thé law ye conceming environmental ques-produced in collaboration bet^ons, and eventually a common setdifférent stakeholders in a preff guidelines for émise opérationsring commission. Both thé cu thé area. In fact this collabora-sector and tourism had their re^on may result in a new régime forsentatives, and an encompassNrctic sea-bome tourism, like théhearing followed thé resulting'ne that for^yea^has existed forport before thé Norwegian Par^tarctica (IAATO).ment, Stortinget, decided uponlaw. And, in^the detailing of . Co-govemance has thé ob-law new hearings and negotiati?ctive ofconstituting a sharedres-^have'taken place. And third, in"nsibility for thé management ofimplementation of thé mies, tt particular^task orarea. This canarernegotiations aboutthe interie achievedthrough communica-tationsoThereforetheSvalbard;verationality: g°vemmg actionsvironmental Protection Act is fbtamed through Jomt. décisionsandforemost a frame for envur_Arough a publi^-pnvat^ par-mental p7acticeand a wammslerehiP (Jordan et^al. 2003). Anthe"tounsmor other industriesxamPle^i^ thé information pro-not act"responsibïy;the GoveiramAat_the^iseship passen-of'Svalbard'wiïlmtervene. îrs, go,through beforc arrivaHnL°ng7gaml hasl gi7eTriseto a;y-ÂJe^bu^^el^lati; andco-go-le^OTtour"Perato^Second,n:nce"cutae~, eg>rding -tou<'e^are^to""^ P^ (S^l-n^l^n^'^ôrl^sms^^»^m^

in partnership between thé

Self-regulation can be Cnsm. m.duÏ and Ae_authori-ned^"ategïregimewhere8^n;ri;«^J-;»°i"g^°;mïes Ïaï s7e&eïth?behaviour:am, ^s^lba^gu^ "ffered

tourist office, elabo-ar^d°pld:mm^d/^, '>d'.'°d'fi°an;ed\^^^m^etb ïjh^ol^~rm ^^11^''^^

: =rlS5:=I^istsnowmobile use

registered. A fifth example is théset of guidelines for tourist beha-viour (see Figure l).

Most of thèse examplesare of collaboration between thé

authorities and thé tourism indus-

try conceming thé goveming oftourist activities. In this field there

obviously is a complex govemanceSystem. However, conceming heri-tage, thé development ofprinciplesand their implementation, thereseems to be a much more traditio-

nal and hierarchical régime. Thénational authorities or thé Gover-

nor décide. Even if thé overmlingprinciples are generally acceptedthere is on accordance concemingissues about how héritage shouldbe used, but such issues are notmatter of negotiations. It seemsas if thé Govemor and thé culture

préservation staff hide behind ru-les and professionalism, and preferto confer with their allies in majormuséums and thé national Direc-

torate for Cultural Héritage. Theyseem to mean and that they knowwhat thé best is, and it is not nego-tiable. This is at least as some tour

operators feel it. Therefore, toiu-operators think that thé policy istoo strict, and to little open to dis-cussion.

Conclusion

This article has presentedthé use and govemance of héritagewithin tourism on Svalbard. This

is primarily a tourism that is na-turc based. However, through théhéritage narratives thé tourist leamhow humans hâve survived in thisnature and how close catastrophesand death can be. Thus, héritage onthé islands is a display ofinterwo-ven ness of nature and culture. Thé

héritage also tells about rather ad-vanced communities, thé explora-tion of thé north and that thé deve-

lopment of modem polar societies

heavily relies on modem knowled-ge and technology. Thanks to amodem tourism industry this is adocumentary open to almost eve-rybody thèse days.

Thé process of heritagisa-tion seldom changes thé objects,only its interprétation. Thus heri-tagisation is a social constmctionprocess, where thé meaning of thématerial is décides upon in interac-tion between people. And tourismis one of thé processes throughwhich thé constmcted value as he-

ritage is transformed to somethingvaluable in thé market. And as a

commodity which thé market de-mand thé hveritagisation processesare stimulated and financed. Thus,Svalbard is a prominent exampleof how thé processes of heritagi-sation, touristification and com-moditisation are intervened. He-

ritage and tourism are symbols ofthé human conquest of thé world;there is almost no corner or spotleft not being explorée and exploi-ted by humans. Once visited, thereare tracks and remuants that in thé

aftermath are upgraded to héritage,and as a héritage site an object forthé tourist flow. Somehow, andparticularly on Svalbard whereeverything left behind before 1946is héritage, this is process throughwhich tear and wear - other pla-ces it would hâve been regardéeas litter - get status as somethingvaluable. This is a process stronglycounteracting thé image and thécondition as wildemess. Heritagi-sation is a process through whichremnants fi-om former days beco-mes object of thé contemporarysociety. Thé process follows théfollowing phases: In thé first stage,something happened at thé spot, ora trapper or explorerer inhabitedthé site for a period oftime.

Thé second stage and muchlater, is when what is left is exca-vated and what happened docu-mented and thé history written.

^

gQ-

l

37

This phase créâtes thé base Hewison, R. (1987). Thé héritage mdustry- Britain in a climate of décline. London:

for commercial exploitation. In thé j^^^third stage thé sites becomes a mat- ' îessop, B. (2002). Govemanceter of restrictions of use, preser- and meta-govemance: On reflexivity, re-vation and management - in fact quisite variety, and requisite ironsy. Thétransformed to héritage. Both as département ofSociology, LancasterUm-part of stage two and three, there isa risk for significant publicity rela-ted to thé héritage site. In thé fourthstage thé site will expérience théinterest from thé tourism industry,

both tour operators and tourists,and thé tourist hordes are likelyto rôle in. According to MacCan-nell's (1976) terminonology, this isa process of naming and framingof historical sites. Thé uttermostnorthem rim of thé world, as thisarticle bas shown, is no exceptionfrom this encompassing System ofheritigisation and thé associatedtouristification.

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Butler, R. (1980). Thé Conceptof tourist area cycle of évolution: impli-cations for management ofresources, Ca-nadian Geographer 24, 5-12.

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Goodall, B. and Stabler, M. J.(1997). Principles influencing thé de-tennination of environmental standardsfor sustainable tourism. In M. J. Stabler(Ed.), Tourism sustainability. Principlesand practice (pp. 279-304). Wallingford:CAB International.

Graham, B., Ashworth, G.J. andTunbridge, J.E. (2000). A geography ofhéritage: Power, culture and economy.London: Arnold.

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Jordan, A., Rûdiger Wurzel, K.W. and Zita, A. R. (2003). 'New' ins-truments of environmental govemance.Pattems and pathways of change. In A.Jordan, K. W. Rùdiger Wurzel and A. R.Zito (Eds), 'New' instmments ofenviron-mental govemance. National Expériencesand prospects (pp. 1-26). London: FrankCass.

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(1998). Destination culture: Tourism, mu-seums and héritage. Berkeley: UniversityofCalifomiaPress.

Kjor, A. M. (2004). Govemance.Camebridge: Polity Press.

Kooiman, J. (1993). Modem go-vemance: New govemment-society mte-raclions. London: Sage.

Kooiman, J. (2003). Govemmg

as govemance. London: Sage Publica-tions.

Longyearbyen Lokalstyre(2003). Samfunns- og naeringsutviklingpâ Svalbard 1989-2002. [Societal and in-dustiral development on Svalbard 1989-2002]. Longyearbyen: Longyearbyen Lo-kalstyre.

Lowentahl, D. (1998). Thé he-ritage cmsade and thé spoils of history.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.MacCannell, D. (1976). Thé tourist. Anew theory for thé leisure class. NewYork: Schocken.

Ministry ofEnvironment (1999).Report No 9 to thé Storting (1999-2000),Svalbard. Oslo: Thé Ministry ofEnviron-ment.

nal ofEnvironmental Law 13, 158-185Shouten, F.F.J. (1995). Héritage as hisrical reality. In Herbert, D. (éd.) Héritatourism and society. Pp. 21-31. Londi

Mansell Publishing.Smith, M. K. (2003). Issues

cultural tourism. London: Routledge.Stoker, G. (1998). Govemance as thé;International Social Science Journal l17-28.

Svalbard Noringsutvikl

(1994). Reiselivsplan for Svalbard [T.rism plan for Svalbard]. Longyearb)Svalbard Naeringsutvikling.

Svalbard Noringsutvild(1997). Tourism plan for Svalbard - cllenges and stratégies. LongyearlSvalbard Naeringsutvikling.

Svalbard Reiseliv (2004).selivsutviklingen i Longyearbyenevaluering. [Thé tourism develoin Longyearbyen. An assessment].gyearbyen: Svalbard Reiseliv.

Sysselmannen for Sv(2000). Kulturminneplan for Sv2000-2010. Longyearbyen: Syssenen for Svalbard.

Tunbridge, J.E. and AshG.J. (1996). Dissonant héritage: Thnagement of thé past as as resourconflict. London: John Wiley & Son

Urry, J. (1990). ThetouristLondon: Sage.

Urry, J. (1996). How socremember thé past. In S. MacDoG. Fyfe (Eds) Theorizing muséumsford: Blackwell.

Urry, J. (2000). Socibeyond society. Mobilities for twentcentury. London: Routledge.

Viken,A. andBakken, T. (19Reiselivsutvikling pâ Svalbard. Long}byen: Svalbard NEeringsutvikling.

Viken, A. and B. Heii'(2001). Miljobevisst reiseliv pâ Svalb[Is tourism on Svalbard enviromiien'

il

by Andrew Cardow and Péter Wiltshier

Andrew is part ot'he faciilly al Massey University in\uckland New Zealand where he

eaclies enlrepreneurship and stra-. e.iïy. Part of his inlerests lie in thé

irea ot' économie development andnore specifically utilising lourism asi vehicle for économie developmenl.le currently vvriles a bi monthly co-iimn for Local Government Magazi-ic. New Zealand and has publishedind cunsLilled in tourism, entrepre-iciirship anc) local governmenl.'. mail: A.Cardovvû^massey.ac.nz

Chiïtfwm '15l a né

Port Hutt

Waitangi

Kaingaroa

Ov/enga

'Pin sî<ifînd

^. f'.if ' Péter is a praginatist.

His research focus has always been ondeveloping solutions for thé tourism in-dustry's problems. Between 1997 and2003 he was involved with EnteipriseWaitakere. thé business developmentdivision of local govemment in Waita-kere City, conducting research in areasot'concem in tourism. Since 2004 he has

been working with thé Peak District Sus-tainable Tourism Forum as researcher and

adviser. Peter's most récent publicationscover Enabling Factors for Small Busi-ness in Derbyshire, UK. (CHME, 2005)and a book chapter on Cold Water IslandTounsm, Extrême Tourism' publishedby Elsevier (éditer G.Baldachino, April2006).Email: P. Wiltshier@derby.ac.uk

Abstract

no particular order are thé Ho- development of thé Islands. By uti-f . ̂ his. article aims to address no particular order are thé Ho-conlem«edi?LReport le difficulties that arise when at- kuwiti Moriori Tmst, Mahuta Ma- lising case a case based approach

SryNoof5^sttîeal SAoS markstorS'A. (2006). Svalbari!mP^g to find a community so- ori Tmst; thé Chathamlsland Dis- it~wmïe'illustrated"that"polïti~calG. Baldachino (éd. ) Extrême Toutltion to économie development trict Council, thé Chatham Island disagreement aver who bas autho-Lessons frorn thé World's Cold wateroblems m a geographically isola- Enterprise Tmst, (thé Enterprise rity over économie developmentland. Pp. 129-144. New York: Elst;d région. Thé primary tool used Trust), thé owners of thé Chatham and infrastructure led to a stale-Science. ̂ ^^ ̂ ^^ p^^ for ̂this examination is a construc- Lodge and finally thé past owners mate situation. Thé article conclu-(WWF) (2004). Omise tourism on îdcasestudy conducted in 2001 of thé Waitangi Hôtel. Previously des by demonstrating how in onebard - A risky business? Oslo: WWild 2003, involving actors on thé thèse groups hâve held business case, an actor has attempted to en-temational Arctic Programme, hatham Islands. Thé Chathams and social agendas that hâve at ti- courage public and private sectors

ive been chosen due their géo- mes created a barrier for commu- to find ways forward by coopera-Intemet: 'aPhic separation from mainland nity based économie development. ting and encouraging stakeholdershttp://www. sysselmannen. svalbaf(ew zealand and the émergence Tourism has rcpeatedly been ob- to network and by doing so, seekeng/ http://odm. dep. no/md/norsk/t'nve separate and diverse power served and recommended as a re- survival m this remote locationsvalbard/622021-990262/index-doliiocks. Those power blocks, in venue stream for future économie (Wiltshier & Cardow, 2001).b-n-a. html

(1990). Report No 50 to thé Storting(1990-1991), Industrial development onSvalbard. Oslo: Thé Ministry oflndustrialAffairs.

Pierre, J. (2000). Debating go-vemance. Oxford : Oxford University

Press.Pierre, J. and Guy Peters, B.

(2000). Govemance, politics and thé sta-te. London: Macmillan Press.

Riffenburgh, B. (1993). Thémyth of thé explorer: thé press, sensatio-nalism, and geographical discovery. Lon-don: Belhaven Press.

Sanford, E. G. and Kimber, C.(2001). Redirecting self-regulation. Jour-

?

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39

Introduction

In thé past, thé EnterpnseTmst, not thé local govemmentbas been thé major NGO involvedin économie development. ThéEnterprise Tmst was establishedby Statute in 1991 to own andoperate thé majority of thé Islan-ds infrastmcture for thé benefit ofthé community. Recently thé Mo-riori tmst has emerged as a majorplayer in that field due to a multimillion dollar settlement of landdaims through thé New ZealandWaitangi Tribunal. In addition, thétraditional tourism markets whichhas been dominated by both théowners of thé Chatham Lodge andthé owners of thé Waitangi Hôtelhâve corne under pressure fromnew operators offering a différenttourism product. Further, thé Ma-on trust and thé local govemmenthâve also become more vociferous

in how they believe thé commumtyshould approach économie deve-lopment. This political activity isset against an économie situationin which retums fi-om fishing, anéconomie staple since thé mid 20thCentury, and retums from agricul-turc, an historié activity, are both indécline. Community enabled eco-nomic development, based partlyon tourism is seen as one way in

which thé Chatham Islanders cansecure a sustainable long term fii-ture.

In presenting thé Chathamsas a tourism destination, a num-

ber of particular aspects will beaddressed. Some are endémie toremote cold water islands: such as

thé impact of oligopolistic practiceon thé destination; thé difiiculty ofimproving access to thé destination;thé authenticity of local products astools for tourism interprétation andmarketing; and coiiflicts betweenoperators and thé few established

owners of thé marketing channels.Other issues are more spécifie to théChathams and include thé actualactivity content and managementstratégies of thé various tounsmopérations; and a need to focus onmarketing of known tourism ser-vices and products (MacDonald& Jolliffe, 2003; Cal, 2002; Reed,1997; loannides & Petersen, 2003;Mitcheiï&Reid, 2001).

Thé following study isbased on thé commumty sustai-nable tourism model best illustra-

ted by thé work of such authorsas Brent-Ritchie (1999), Inskeep(1991), and Woodley (1993).Thé work also broadly draws onScheyvens (1999) and her study ofempowerment at political, econo-mie, psychological and social le-vels. Added to thèse resources is an

overwhelming sensé ofpurpose inthé conservation, régénération andregulatory environment, which isparticular and perhaps peculiar tothé Chatham Islands. Thèse latterfactors are indeed thé core princi-

pies for thé destination's future go-vemance and management.

One of thé issues that

concem thé development of tou-rism in isolated communities rela-tes to thé présence of an oligopolyin terms of tourism infrastmcture.

Thé Chathams are no exception.

Creating a tourism industry onthé Chathams involves makingconcessions to local interpreta-tions of tourism. Thé primary ac-cess into thé Chathams remains via

Air Chathams, a privately ownedand operated airline which runsthé only direct scheduled air ser-vice from mainland New Zealand.This service is supplemented byinfrequent private charter aircraftand irregular calls by scheduleddeep sea freighters. Added to thistransportation mix is thé occasio-nal adventure cmise ship, often en

route to thé sub Antarctic or Thé Chatham Islands:tarctic Islands. Ail this adds up A very brief historyan imperfect market situationterms oftourism access. Thé res Thé Chatham Islands groupis that Air Chathams opérâtes as one of thé most remote conti-de facto gatekeeper for thé tourituously inhabitée island groups mindustry and, aiong with thé fScw Zealand. Thé group lies ap-commodationopportumtiesonTOximately 800 kilomètres Eastislands, has given rise to thé bel>f New Zealand. This remotenessthat thé local tourism industry isias meant that thé Islands hâve re-mited and even constrained byaained dépendent on shipping forscheduling of Air Chathams iiiost of their capital goods, mclu-thé available bed nights providing fossil fuels used to powertheby thé two main accommodatSenerators that supply most of théproviders. lomestic electricity used on thé

slands. It is this very remotenessIn addition to thé twomhat has led to thé émergence of

suppliers, Island tourist accomc)ower blocks and which bas givendation is'also provided by a snise to thé nature of infrastructuralnumberof'bedandbreakfast'o»usiness and thé changes in localrators, one backpacker' and govemance that hâve taken placemotel operators. Thé majority'n thé Islands.visitors \re however directed Thé Chatham Islands com-wards thé two hôtels; thé Transe ten islands ofwhich only thélers Rest/ Waitangi Hôtel andwo largest are inhabited - théChatham Islands Lodge. Thé prger, Rekohu Wharekauri, com-vellers Rest is a converted villanonly referred to as Chatham, andfering a high standard ofovemi^ngiauria, known as Pitt Island.accommodation. Itislocatedat^e_majority_of thé settlement is

. o7abluffoverlookmgthei)n Rekohu Wharekauri. The^ ad-ofWaitangi and sits directly abPmistrative centre of thé Chathamthé hotel. tThe Travellers Restslandsls Waitangi, thé mam vil-beenhost to Prime Ministers, ̂ eof Rekohu Wharekauri^ Théirs'used,-alongwith thé hôtel, by:hatham grouP is^ endowed withsitmggovermBentandbusmesslaturalbeauty- Thé main ̂islandficiafso"The hôtel, under thé sal as long white^sandy beaches, a

ownership"as"the Rest, provi-nique flora and is sun-ounded byaccommotdation;"meal7 and clear_deeP blue ^seas. In addition^mteîïeTownîonly tavem. ûe.Islands. arc home to some ofLodge7by''comparison;is loc^ zealand's m^t endangeredin thé'centre of Chatham Islauna- ̂ ^ ^^_^ .andï aseff'contamed unit pr ,_ , _onthe Chatham's, ^ isola-^meals; accommodation ̂ lp;oduced_a soc;aldevel°-the'orgamzationoftourist acti^Aat;s ̂ edand dynamoZTodgTcaters^iniytopac^^^^getou^atheïthanpeople'visi^^^^s^^^^^«s^t^tmmm wdsleI^oïgTandÏesVHoteTdeard V^^^^^th6mb7unîîavera gent7<Jn^^^^^^^^^.ï, uT^enby^7ope^M^,m^M^on;^19^^ïe^^ZeaTanrm ainYan^^ 2,5;f)J"^y'^^f^^^^w&I^wm0^dation onlth7chathams:"- llc cycles ofboom andbust. Thé

first boom - a result of sealing inthé early 19th century - was fol-lowed in tum by économie cropfarming, sheep farming, whaling,and ended with wet-fish, crayfish,and paua exploitation in thé lastquarter of thé 20th century1.

Figure l. Thé Chatham Islands Forget-me-not - endangered and much-prizedindigenous flora.

Thé situation in thé

Chathams has not always beenso gloomy, as thé history of asuccessful fishery on thé Islandsshows. Thé fisheries started in1910 with thé establishment of a

freezer at Owenga, and by 1937thé Islands had three commercial

fi-eezers (King and Morrison,1990). Crop-based agriculturewas already well established bythé time thé sealers had arrived

and sheep farming followed in thémid 1840s. However, in thé veryrécent past thé gains made by thèsesuccesses hâve been overshadowed

by a desperate search for économiediversification undertaken by théIslanders. Thé most dramatic was

l In A Land Apart (1990), Michael King and RobinMorrison chronicle a social and économie history ofthé Islands from pre-European times to thé reviewoftheChathamIslandeconomyundertakenin 1989.Their book follows Gerald Arbuckle's Thé Chatham

Islands in Perspective (1970) as thé only récent at-tempt to chronicle thé social and économie historyof thé Islands. There are however a range ofpubli-cations on thé flora and fauna, and various historical

first-person accounts of early life on thé Islands.

what Arbuckle (1970) termed thé"race to thé sea to search for thé

new gold" - described by King andMorrison as a "crayfish bonanza"which began in 1965 and ended in1970. For example in 1964 therewere zéro crayfish tonnes landedby commercial fishing boats inthé Chatham's. In 1965, one boatlanded 2 tonnes of crayfish, andby thé end of thé financial year, 31March 1968, 120 boats had landed5958 tonnes. Crayfish eamingsfrom thé Chatham's had reached

$8. 154 million and accounted for

just over 50% of thé total NewZealand crayfish catch (King andMorrison, 1990, p. 109; Arbuckle,1970, p. 21-22).

As crayfish becameincreasingly popular in thé 1960s,many farmers who had previouslysplit their time between fishingand farming became full-timefishermen. Once thé crayfish boomended, Chatham Islanders foundthemselves close to major wet-fishfishing grounds and, with modemvessels, were able to put to sea forlonger periods and catch more fish.As agriculture was on thé wane,fishing appeared to thé Islanders asa way of redressing thé économieslide. This trend towards fishinggained greater momentum duringthé late 1980s and by thé early1990s, was putting at risk théfinancial viability of thé Islands'only meat-works. However, therewere clear opportunities in fishprocessing at thé three major fish-processing plants on thé Islands atWaitangi, Owenga, and Port Hutt.This race to thé sea was partiallyhalted by thé introduction offishingquotas in 1986. Thé diversificationaway from agriculture to fishinghad, and continues to hâve, aboom-bust effect on thé local community.Fishing did not tum out to be thééconomie gold-mine that manyhoped for. Thé désire to make easymoney from thé plentiful supplies

?

gia.

lff

of fish that inhabit thé waters

around thé Chathams, only contri-buted to their économie woes, ra-ther than helping to solve them.

In remote locations such as théChatham Islands such activities

also take place without an adéquateincome to meet thé full cost of

services.

An important issue in aremote and poorly developedtourism location such as thé

Chatham Islands is thé compétenceand ability of both thé publicand private sectors to managethé impacts of Visitation. Unlikesome other industries, tourism is ahighly complex activity resultingfrom interaction between airlines,accommodation providers, touropérations, surface transportation,souvenirs, food and beverageoutlets and tour guides. Thiscomplexity is compounded bythé critical différence that tourism

brings thé consumer to thé productand not thé reverse. Effectivelyail complications, déprédations,management errors and impactsoccur at thé point of deliverywhich is always thé destination.In addition, a destination needs tosupply products and services thathelp create thé tourist expériencegenerating jobs and businessopportunities while so doing. Thédestination also needs to find waysof mitigating thé négatives thatmay include pollution, crime and,frequently in remote locations,inadéquate service provision.

In more cases than ever

before, destinations are challengingthé rights of tourists to consumeservices and products withoutpaying a fair and équitable féefor those services and products.Many destinations are seeking asolution that offers developmentwhilst maintaining quality of life,species diversity and préservationof héritage and culture. On théwhole, this process is beingeffected by a 'bottom up' approachto thé tourism industry, meaningthat new tourism opérations on théChathams are being establishedwithout any real coordmatingactivity or référence to thé existingplayers in thé market. Still, acoordinated approach between thédifférent stakeholders appears tobe in thé offing.

In thé early 1990s,Chatham Islanders were faced

with a dilemma. Thé Islandershad over-fished their waters andunder-resourced thé land. As a

result, as many Islanders told us,thé income fi-om fishing was notenough to sustain their familles.With a decrease in fishing incomeand neglect of thé land, scrub had

begun to take over vast areas vemment had decided that, al-previously deforested and gras ough they favoured a commer-land. Formany, thismeantthataial model for thé Islands, theyincome derived from agricultiyould hâve preferred a LATE,was also poor. On top of thfLocal authority Trading Enterpri-problems that appeared to threaie) rather than thé tmst envisagedtheChathamIslanders'verywayy National which was even fur-life, thesocio-politicalreformsiher removed fi-om local authoritywere underway in New Zealand;ontrol. On 23 May 1990, thé Mi-thé early 1990s were about to maister of Internai affairs for Labour,their présence felt on thé Islan^IargaretAustin, hadaddressedtheAs thé Minister of Internai Affdouse in reply to a question regar-reported to a sélect committeeling thé Chatham Islands:Parliament on 16 October 1991;

«Thé Govemment has re-

«I am also pleased to coniicently aimounced comprchensivecomments made that décisions about thé Chatham Is-

Govemment bas set up a nands economy. They arc based onstmcturethatwill change thé wb:he principle that Chatham Islan-future of thé Chatham Islandslers should hâve greater involve-refer to thé new Chatham Isla^ent and responsibility in deter-Tmst'» (Hansard, 1991). Tiining their overall development.

\ commercial entity known as thé

That same day thé Minislocal authority trading enterpriseadded: will be established to carry out

;ommercial functions, includmg«Thé Chatham Islands Cowhe provision of shipping and airCouncil will hâve a miPervices» ownership and manage-improved opportunity in thé futment of Govemment departmentto discharge its duties directly aassets - such as thé meatworksresultof a new package ofdecisic- and some existing commercialthat will affect markedly thé futlctivities of thé Chatham Islandsoftheislands. IamrefemngtoPounty Council. It has also beenestablishment on l December odecided that lhe shipping servicenew commercial tmst that will tawi11 continue to be subsidised untilaver thé commercial activities31 December z 990. Thé air servicethé Islands, such as thé meatworsubsidy wiu end on 30 June 1990,thé airport, and thé wharves md the meafrworks will be trans-things that in thé past hâve provferred to the l°cal authority tradingdifficult to manage. Under PnterPrise on z June 199l1 ».

auspices ofthis new tmst l beliethat thé Chatham Islands ï The events that led bothmoveinto a timeof économie sctnlMsters to thèse conclusionssufficiency and independencfwere embodied in a séries of go-(Hansard, 1991 ). vernment-sponsored reports on thé

infi-astmcture and local goveman-Thé Minister, Grae^e ofthe Islands. This process was

Lee, was part of thé new Natioistarted in 1985 with a letter fromgovemment Thé prevïous laboi eter Tapsell, thé Minister oflnter-

^al Affairs, to ail householders onl Hansard, Report of thé Sélect Committee, Cltham Islands County Council (Rates and Count)e L;ÛathamS which OUtlined théDues Validation) Bill 16 Oct 1991.

2 Hansard, Report of thé Sélect Committee, cllPeters;^-^. ue^tionso.IlNotice; Mai" speaker Drtham Islands County Council (Rates and Count!^^ù Pson> Responding speaker Hon MargaretDues Validation) Bm.Y. 30pm, T60cU99L ''ust1"' Question n' 23 May 1990.

décisions made in an options pa-per dated 8 May 1985. Among thépoints raised. Péter Tapsell infor-med Islanders that a review team

would be established to "consider

whether thé existing central andlocal govemment administrationarrangements and services are ap-propriate, and indicate ways sucharrangements could be deliveredmore effectively and efficiently"(Options Paper, 1985, p. 2). Théletter carried a clear indication that

Tapsell at least did not believe thatthé services then being providedwere efficient or effective. Thé op-tions paper further outlines thé go-vemment's intention to follow thé

ideology of économie rationalismin regards to central or local go-vemment involvement in business

opérations. Paragraph 14 reads:"If developments [i. e., businessopérations] cannot stand thé testof économie soundness then hard

questions hâve to be asked aboutthé wisdom ofgovemment suppor-ting such developments" (OptionsPaper, 1985, p. 4).

Thé review team, a consor-tium headed by a public policyresearch firm Taylor Baines andAssociâtes, tabled thé first ofmanyreports that they had been asked toundertake, in 19862.

In thé opening pages of théreview it was made clear that in

tenus of économie development itwould be thé neo-liberal polices ofthé Labour govemment that wereto be considérée by Taylor Bainesas thé appropriate model for fù-turc économie development on théChatham Islands:

2 Department of Internai Affairs (1986), ChathamIslands Review Team Report to thé Minister of In-temal Afifairs, Wellington, Department of InternaiAffairs. This was followed by two fiirther reports,Review of thé Chatham Islands Economy Final Re-port in September 1989 and Report on thé Follow-up visit to thé Chatham Islands by thé Review Team,12-16 October (1989).

"As far as thé Islands' eco-

nomy is concemed thé decision-

making is fundamentally thé res-ponsibility of private individuals.This will result in changes to théChatham Island's economy. Thiswill mean a Chatham Island ver-

sion of thé stmctural adjustmentsseen in thé mainland economy sin-ce 1984" (Taylor Baines, 1986, p.3).

While thé writing for fu-turc development was very clearlyon thé wall, it is also clear that notail thé Islanders favoured a Cha-tham's version of thé structuralchanges enacted on thé mainland.Thé report itself makes this clearwhen discussing thé reluctance ofthé Islanders to engage in owner-operated business for fear ofbeingseen by their fellow Islanders asexploitative (p. 21). This senti-ment was expressed again by théreview team in thé follow-up to théfinal report in October 1989, wherethey state that "our reading of thécouncil's overall response is thatit had not at this stage totally ac-cepted thé process of change" (p.3). They also acknowledged that itmay be difficult to impose reformsas a result cfa fùndamental lack of

faith in them on thé Islands, andthat there was a real risk that théreforms would be compromised.

Nevertheless, thé conclu-sions that thé review team repor-ted to thé Department of Internaiaffairs were predictable and wereto hâve far-reaching conséquencesfor thé administration of infi-as-tmchire and local govemment onthé Islands.

Thé review team advoca-

ted that thé proposée reforms werein thé best interests of thé Islandersand would allow them to achieveself-reliance and maximise their

choices (Final Report S eptember,1989, p. i-iii). In Une with thé busi-ness and govemment thinking of

r

gia.

l^

43

thé day - that managers shouldhâve clear and non-conflictingobjectives, and that commercialand non-commercial activities be

separated - thé review team re-commended thé establishment ofa

stmcture that would itself embodythé commitment to reform. Theyargued that thé privatisation ofcommercial activities would create

a more effective and efficient ap-proach to management of thé Is-lands' infrastructural opérationsand subsequently lead to greateréconomie development. Star-ting from thé notion that commer-cial activities require commercialstructures (as opposed to govem-ment structures), thé review teamput forward a plan for reorganisa-tion involving thé establishment ofa Chatham Island Community De-velopment Corporation which theybelieved would later become a Lo-

cal Authority Trading Enterpriseor LATE. At that time there were

several local and central govem-ment owned and operated businessunits including a meatworks, elec-tricity génération and reticulation,forest interests, airports and whar-ves. It was intended that thé Com-

munity Development Corporationwould take over thé administrationand ownership of thé meatworks,fishing quota, elecfa-icity, forestry,wharves and airports (Final Re-port. Sept 1989, p. ix), It is tellingthat roading, thé only govemmentopération to remain in councilhands, was considered to be théonly opération not capable of re-tuming profits.

Both thé centre left Labour

and thé centre right National go-vemments of thé day acted on thérecommendations made by thé va-nous reports on thé restmcturingof thé Chatham Islands' adminis-tration. Labour envisagea a localgovemment owned LATE, whe-reas National envisagea a private

Trust. It ultimately fell to Nationalto establish thé Chatham IslandEnteqîrise Trust. Thé review teamstrongly believed that private en-terprise and market priées wouldlead thé Chatham Islanders out of

économie uncertainty, and to thisend suggested a framework forestablishing a tmst. However, inorder to ensure that thé Islands'

infrastmcture was managed effec-tively and efficiently, thé reviewteam also suggested that "minis-terial involvement in thé appoint-ment of commercial members of

thé Chatham Island CommunityDevelopment Corporation boardshould ensure commercial compe-tence" (Final Report, September1989, p. 45). This is an interestingstatement given thé space thé re-view team had devoted to ensuringthat govemment was not involvedin commercial activity - on thébasis that govemment did not un-derstand commercial imperatives.

Thé Current Situation

This ongoing exposure toboth local-govemment and eco-nomic reforms beginning in late1984 has embroiled thé Chatham

Islands in an économie, social andpolitical crisis that brought localgovemment on thé Islands close tocollapse.

After 1991, following thégovemment-sponsored Taylor Bai-nés report, things changea on théChatham Islands. At thé start there

was thé émergence of a new powerbroker, thé Chatham Islands Enter-prise Tmst. This in tum led to arapid adoption of thé New Zealandinterprétation of thé New PublicManagement philosophies currentat thé time. On thé Chathams, théséparation of thé policy and opera-tion arms of local govemment wasembraced by thé policymakers, if

not thé citizens, with enthusias In order to establish théHowever, initial appearances frust on a sound financial footing,be deceptive. Not ail thé citizçhe govemment gifted thé Trust anoftheChathamIslandswereinnitial $4 million, with a similarvour of thé reforms that took plamount to follow after two years'on their territory. Nevertheless îperation. This gift is recorded ml December 1991, thé operatiche Récitais of thé 1991 Tmstdeedof central and local govemnifeproduced below:that were perceived to be capalof providing an économie prc A. Thé Govemment ofwere earmarked for transfer to^ew Zealand bas resolved to esta-trading trust. In a deed of trust i&lish a tmst for Charitable purpo-ted l December 1991 thé Minisses to be called thé Chatham Islandof Internai Affairs, acting as (Enterprise Tmst and to pay to thésettlor, and four tmstees, set upffrust thé sum of four million dol-Chatham Island Enterprise Tnlars and to transfer to Companies(thé Tmst) as a charitable truowned by thé Tmst certain CrownThé main intention of incorpoiassets and undertakings relating totion was to enable thé Trust to^he méat works, electa-icity supplyoff to a good start unencumbeiand airport in thé Chatham Islan-by debt. Thé Tmst was to own tds.opérations spécifiée for thé bene B- The Govemmentand économie development oftPay make a forther payment ofChatham Islands people. Four Million Dollars to thé Tmst

as an addition to thé corpus of théAtthetimeofitsfoundiitrust fund on l December 1992

in 1991, thé aims of thé Trust wcsubject to thé Tmst demonstratingthé advancement of commercito the satisfaction ofthe Settlor thatactivity leading to économie dlt ls managing its resources com-velopment that would benefit ipetently and that its businesses arethé Islanders. However, by 19(OPeratmg on a sound basis (Deedthé notions ofbest practice, coioftrust 1991'P- 4).mercial opportunity and ainterprétation of public entrepineurship began to take over. Th In addition, thé Tmst wasover time, thé opérations managfdirccted bY Ae govemment to setwho was thé day-to-day managuP limited liability companies toof thé Tmst, came to see her j(run these opérations. Within thénot as looking after thé intereststmst deed' the govemment's inten-thé Islanders, but rather as a coitlon to rcmove commercial activi-mercial manager who identififtlesfromthelocalcouncilismadewith thé private sector and, as exPucit, particularly m thé clauseresult, was conceraed to advauwhere Ae Trust is enjoined "tothé commercial rather than procure the sale» transfer, lease orinterests of thé Trust. licence to a company owned by thé

Tmst of assets facilities and rightsThis attitude rcmained atPresent enjoyed by thé Chatham

late 2003 when a new manger ̂ !,slands County Council relating toappointée. Even then at least of the wharf and facilities at Waitangimember of thé five power blocl and Flower Pott in thé Chathamreported that thé Enterprise ïlaûds (1991, cl. 1. 22). Thé trustwas nothing more than an ass u^e(lwas later (1995) amended tomanager. ow the frustees to sell shares in

thèse previously publicly ownedorganisations.

In signing this agreement,thé govemment and thé tmsteeseffectively separated thé policyarm and thé operating arm oflocalgovemment on thé Chatham Islan-ds. This séparation and apparentembracing of thé ideals of thé NewPublic Management has neverbeen enacted so completely in anyother New Zealand local authority.Thé earlier économie reports onthé Chathams, thé wording of thétmst deed and subséquent varia-tions to thé Tmst ail indicate that

successive govemments were firmin their désire to impose reform onthé Islanders. However, it will berecalled that thé report on thé re-view team's follow-up visit to théIslands indicated unwillingness bysome Islanders to accept thé re-forms as présentée. Thé remain-der of this article is based on in-

terviews with thé mayor, thé chiefexecutive officer of thé council thé

opérations manager of thé Tmst,thé CEO of thé Moriori Tmst, andthé owners of significant tourismopérations on thé Islands.

Thé following analysisemphasises thé strongly held beliefof those outside local govemmentthat managers of local-govem-ment-owned business opérations,and by extension local govemmentemployées, are not, thé appropria-te vehicles, or people to championéconomie development, and fur-ther, such employées and organisa-tional structures cannot be, entre-

preneurial. It is this tendency thathas created conflict between thé

participants on thé Island who be-lieve that they hâve a rôle to playin économie development. Suchtendencies hâve also contributed

to a certain level of "patch protec-tion" that has made it difficult for a

co ordained community based res-ponse to économie development totake place.

Thé Mayor

We asked thé Mayor howthé Chatham Islands District

Council manages council-ownedbusiness opérations and, mostimportantly, how it opérâtes busi-ness concems that relate to thé Is-

lands' infrastructure. In response,thé mayor went to some lengthsto demonstrate his support forthé infrastructural changes thathad happened in thé Chatham Is-lands since thé reformation of lo-

cal govemment. In his words, thé"council does not run a business,thé council was restmctured to be

a regulatory body and as mayor lam conscious that thé wishes of

thé community be upheld". Thisstatement signalled that, howeverdivided thé review team conside-

red thé council to be in 1989, 10years after thé introduction of théreforms thé mayor is in strong sup-port. His sentiments bring himinto direct conflict not only withthé C.E.O. of thé Chathams IslandCouncil but, by supporting thé di-rection taken by thé Tmst, pit himagainst would-be private sectorentrepreneurs on thé Chatham Is-lands, as we will see.

When questioned furtherabout thé Trust, thé mayor againwas quite forceful in explainingthat thé Tmst benefits thé Islands

in ways that thé council could ne-ver do. Thé Mayor saw thé Tmstas a symbol of community invol-vement and community controlaver infrastructural assets. For

example, he told us that ratherthan establish a LATE - which he

saw as a govemment-owned busi-ness vehicle - it was considered

more appropriate for thé Chathamsto hâve a charitable tmst whichwould control thé infrastmctural

assets for thé community. (Hisfaith in thé Trust could be seen asthé result of an historical accident

as, ifit were not for National win-

g&.

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45

ning thé 1990 élection, it is likelythat thé Chathams would hâve hada LATE rather than a trust. ) Thémayor's support for thé existingtrust reflected a strong belief thatreal business opérations can onlyexist outside thé control of thé pu-blic sector. Again, in his words:"thé people [individuals outsidethé public sector] need to create as-sets and add value - it is throughbusiness management that créâtesthé opportunity."

Thèmes that emerged du-ring this conversation served toreinforce a paradigm that wasemerging from our interviews withother local govemment actors re-garding business assets and localgovemment. That paradigm ex-pressed by thé mayor of thé Cha-thams was that local govemmentmanagers could not, and shouldnot, mn business opérations. Hisassertion that "thé Council will

not and should not own power ge-neration" only adds weight to thisassumption. Thé real contributionthat thé mayor was able to offer thécommunity was thé active supporthe expressed for individuals see-king to gain private ownership ofpreviously public assets.

In co-operating with théNew Zealand govemment's pushto uncouple thé regulatory and de-livery functions of local councils,thé Chatham Islands Council, intandem with thé Ministry of Inter-nal Affairs', has effectively remo-ved assets estimated by thé Tmst'sopérations manager to be nowworth $25 million from public, toessentially private hands.

There is however a postscript thatneeds to be added. For while ex-pressing pleasure that "thé com-munity" now owned and mana-

l Thé meatworks, electricity, and forestry were for-merly controlled by thé Ministry of Internai Affairs.

ged thé infrastmctural assets, thémayor also expressed concem thatthé council was unable to provideadéquate social services to thécommunity because it lacked fundsand, more importantly, lacked théability to générale funds. Howe-ver, despite thèse shortcomings, thémayor convinced us that he fùllysupportée thé notion ofcommunityentrepreneurship, as long as suchentrepreneurial activities were notundertaken by thé council. Théthème that public servants are notbusiness people and lack manage-rial skills was repeated by both thémayor and thé opérations managerof Thé Trust. Yet thé C.E.O. of thécouncil at that time was a dissen-

ting voice. Within five minutes ofopening our discussion with him,thé C.E.O. wondered aloud: "Just

let thé council hâve one major as-set..."

Thé Enterprise Trust

In terms ofpaid employées,thé Enterprise Tmst was indeed amirror image of thé council. Likethé council, thé Tmst employs afull-time manager, a full-time cle-rk, and a part-time office person. researchers.

TheTmstislocatedappro This image was continuedmately ten minutes' drive frorn roughout oiu- discussions. Af-main settlement of Waitangi, <er being escorted into thé boar-is near thé electricity generatlroom, we began oiu- session withfor thé Island. Unlike thé counhe minimum offormalities. Therewhichwashousedinanoldandwere times during thé discussionmewhat dark building, thé Tru.vhen we felt that thé manager washousedmamodem, well-appoimedging, somewhat suspicious ofsuite of offices. Thé manager our intentions. Almost certainlycupies an office offthe main fooer defensiveness was a réactionand had thé use of a purpose-biigainst some probing questions re-boardroom. In contrast, thé logarding thé choice of commercialauthority at he time we meet wctivities undertaken by thé Tmst.them had no meeting room acouncil meetings wereheld in t Thé opérations manageroffice of thé C. E. O. As ifto maopened thé discussion with a veryit clear that thé Tmst was mnninbriefremark about thé origins of théreal business, thé manager had »Trust and offered her interprétationown car park (thé Chatham Islanofits purpose. She related that théare not known for traffic congfTrust had been "set up in 1991 af-tion), and it was made knownteragovemmentreviewoftheser-us that her secretary organised ivice provision to thé Islands. Thatday for her. review strongly recommended thé

establishment of thé Trust. " She

Thé manager gave thé ̂ learly had a différent understan-ofbeing very busy, to thé point ttding of service provision from théwe werc made to wait five minutcouncil C. E. O. For thé opérationsin thé public area, despite arriviimanager' service provision seemedon time for thé appointment, whito be resfa-icted to thé commercialshe finished some paperwork. S'activities that the Trust had inheri-wanted to show that, although slted- This beliefwas reinforced forwas on thé Chathams, she stme during Ae interview when shewouldbehaveasarealcommerc'refel Ted to the Trust maintaming

manager who was making time the Islands "in basic services, " andher hectic schedule for acadeiithat "maintaining an infrastmcture

Chatham islands Aerial view

for thé community" was thé primefunction of thé Tmst. She reinfor-ed this posture by saying that "Wee an infrastmctural company."

Fhe use of thé term "company" wastmctive. It was as ifshe was en-

unng that we understood that weère dealing with a company, notpublic organisation. It is also no-

able that she appeared to distanceoth herself and thé originators ofhe Tmst from any kind ofpoliticalnvolvement by assuring me that

govemment had recommendedestablishment of thé Tmst.

We concluded that thé

exists, because thé govem-

ment wished it to exist. Once it

came into being, it was only na-tural that it be run along rationalmanagerial lines for, according tothé opérations manager, it was acompany and would be operatedlike any company should. Thé po-litical context of thé govemment'srecommendations seemed not to

hâve been considered by thé ma-nager.

Thé justification for théestablishment of thé Tmst was

summed up by thé manager in herstatement that "in thé first year théTrust went from a serions loss-ma-

king company to a make-moneycompany; when it [thé various bu-siness opérations that now make upthé Tmst] was mn by thé Govem-ment it was a loss-making opera-tion. " Hère again, thé opérationsmanager appeared to differentiatebetween thé Tmst and thé council

by thé use of thé terms "company"and "opération", regarding théTrust as a company and thereforea business, while an "opération"is something that belongs to thécouncil. However, it must be re-membered that thé Tmst was not

only entrusted with thé Islands'infrastructure but was also given$8 million to enable it to operate.It is worth considering what mighthâve happened had thé govemmentgiven thé $8 million dollars to théChatham Islands District Council.

It is clear that thé managersaw thé Tmst not only as a busi-ness, but also as a money-makingproposition, although she gave noindication that she was planning toutilise thé fùnds gained through thécommercial activity of thé Tmst forsocial purposes. We détectée anélément of managerial legitimacyin thé manager's words and statedbeliefs. She appeared to identifywith thé constmct of private-sec-

tor management and to seek legiti-macy by being associated with théinstitution of professional mana-gers through espousing profit-dri-ven motives.

We were interested in how

thé opérations manager dealt withthé issue of being employée by acommunity organisation - as ad-ministrator of a company that wasgiven public assets in order to pro-vide for thé community1 - while

at thé same time, giving thé im-pression she was employée by aprivate organisation. No doubtthat, however public those assetsmay once hâve been, for her atleast those assets were now held

firmly in private hands. She toldus, very firmly, that "we are not alocal govemment organisation; wemust be quite clear about that. It's[thé Tmst] not a local govemmentorganisation. It is a commercialventure, set up as a charitable tmst;we hâve no affiliation with any lo-cal govemment or organisation atail. " Again, we noted thé use ofdifférent terms for private andpublic sector activities. She was,however, mistaken in claiming thatshe had no affiliation with any lo-cal govemment organisation. Théaccounts of thé Chatham Island

Enterprise Tmst are required tobe audited by Audit New Zealandand presented to thé Department ofInternai Afifairs each year. Thé ma-nager of thé Tmst clearly did notsee that her organisation could bemistaken - if not for a local go-vemment opération - then possi-bly for an organisation that reportsto central govemment.

l Thé first object of thé Tmst, which is detailed insection 3. 1 (a) of thé original Trust deed 1991, is Topromote thé économie development and wellbeingof thé Chatham Islands in thé interests of thé présentand future inhabitants of thé Chatham Islands. There

are 7 further objects listed in section 3. l, ail ofwhichend with thé statement "in thé interests of thé présentand future inhabitants of thé Chatham Islands"

?

g&.

e-53

l

This séparation of publicand private domains became im-portant when thé opérations ma-nager tumed to discussing how théTmst actually benefited thé peopleof thé Chatham Islands. As we hâve

akeady seen, thé Trust was set upto make a retum to thé community.l was interested in discovering thénature of that retum, as was mycolleague whose main reason forvisiting thé Chathams was to en-courage tourism business and col-legiality among tourism operators.As far as thé Tmst was concemed,both of thèse aspects were outsidetheir sphère of interest, even thou-gh they could clearly benefit théIslands. Thé Tmst did not want toknow about local interest in esta-blishing any kind of tourism bu-siness. This reluctance to becomeinvolved in tourism is hard to un-

derstand, given that thé Tmst ope-rates thé only sealed airport on théChathams. However, despite localsupport for tourism growth, thémayor of thé Chathams, a strongsupporter of Thé Trust, did notwant to see "forty or fifty peoplejust walking around thé Island."Perhaps this was because invest-ment in tourism would take moneyaway from areas in which thé Trusthad become heavily committed,particularly thé forestry and hy-droelectric developments in whichit was involved.

It was during our discus-sions on community feedback andcommunity involvement that mycolleague and l detected most dis-comfort. In retrospect it was nothard to see why. At thé time of ourvisit, thé Tmst was investing mo-ney in an offshore forestry deve-lopment, buying fishing quota andconù-ibuting funds to thé establis-hment of both a meatworks and ahydro dam project. When askedif thé Tmst would be prepared toprovide seed money for would-be

entrepreneurs in tounsm, thé ope-rations manager told us that "weare not mto venturc capital" andthat "thé Tmst needed to ensure itsfunds were available to ail sectorsof thé Chatham Islands."

Thèse two statements meritfùrther considération. If thé Tmst

was not "into venturc capital", whywas it fiinding dams, meatworksand fishing quota? Two of thé pri-me objectives of thé Trust are "topromote thé provision of servicesin thé interests of thé présent andfuture inhabitants of thé Chatham

Island, " (Object 3. 1 (b), Deed ofTmst, 1991) and "to encourage andoversee thé provision of transportservices and facilities to and fromthé Chatham Islands in thé inte-

rests of thé Community" (Object3. 1 (d), Deed of Tmst, 1991). Ifthé Tmst is there to support ail sec-tors of thé Chathams community,why will it not support tourism? Ata public meeting called to discusstounsm opportunities, it was sug-gested by a number of participantsthat thé Trust did not see tourism asits business and therefore saw little

benefit in becoming involved'. Thécomments of thé council C. E. O. onthé social benefits achieved fromtuming an $8 million business intoa $25 million business seemedvery pertinent at this point.

Thé social improvementson thé Island were hard to find -

but, as far as thé opérations mana-ger was concemed, social benefitswere not what thé Tmst was about.

It was a commercial opération thatwould be mn "efificiently, effecti-vely and within budget." It was asifshe had interpreted thé phrase "inthé interests of thé community" ina very narrow way - in a purelyrational, économie manner. It ap-

eared that thé Trust supportée bu-l Wiltshier, P. and Cardow, A. (2001) Public Mee-ting of Chatham Islands Visiter Industries Stake-holders Group Feedback Report (Auckland, UnitecInstitute ofTectmology), p. 2.

siness only ifit benefited thé TiWhen asked where thé opeprofits had gone and how theybeen spent, thé manager assuréethat they had been invested forlong-term benefit of thé ChaIslands. However, she did notany examples of such long-tfmvestments.

-^r^

Chatham v-iew

Thé terms "commère

"efficient" and "effective" eup frequently in discussionsthé managers spoken to as pthis study. They appeared to rethèse terms as thé antithesis of

language used to characteriselocal and central govemmentmsations.

In terms of thé politi-cal context, thé reforms on théChatham Islands affecting théownership of infrastructure hâve

Conclusion moved further than any other re-gion in New Zealand in divor-cing regulatory and operationaldelivery. However, as suggested

Thé Chatham Island Entiabove' such distancing may leadprise Tmst, it could be argued, to social disadvantage as rationa-an example of neo-liberal ecoBlist commercial activity is seen bymie rationalism taken to extreimanagers as their paramount pur-lengths. In tenus of confomii smt-This was most apparent in théwith thé institutional norms ofnvoices Aat my colleague and I, asnagement, thé opérations managrcsearchers» heard from those whoof thé Tmst amply demonstratiwanted to establish tourism ventu-her identification withthose nom rcs on the Islands. Thèse prospec-She is equippedwith aboardroortlve operators suggested that theya car park and a secretary, and sicould both provide jobs for them-keeps people waiting while it selves and contribute to thé growthportant matters are attended to. of the community. Finally, théterms of organisational survivi C-E-°- of thé council complainedshe will invest in commercial athat' while he wanted to providetivity in order to ensurc econofl lmProved social services, due toviability. Both she and thé may a lack of revenue-generating busi-appear to believe that council ffl ness controlled by council he wasnagers cannot mn a business. V unable to find the funds to do so.hâve seen that thé mayor suggesttthat council should not be invc A small postscript needs toved in business and, accordingl added to this discussion. Sincethé opérations manager, only op we luidertook thé interviews a newrations that are "commercial" al council CEO has been appointedrun "efficiently and effectivel)aad a new Opérations Manager forcan be considered entrepreneuri^the Trust has been appointed.

Thé CEO of thé council is

now attempting to draw thé com-munity together utilising thé ve-hicle of tourism for économie de-

velopment. However thé CouncilCEO is still faced with politicaland économie difficulties. Thé

Enterprise tmst is still seen as thé"natural" place for économie de-velopment and there is a decliningrating base. However thé CEO hasmanaged to broker doser politicalties among thé power centres onthé Islands. Perhaps there is a seachange taking place.

Références

Arbuckle, G. (1970) Thé ChathamIslands in Perspective. Wellington, HicksSmith and Sons Limited

Brent-Ritchie J.R. (1999) PolicyFormulation at thé Tourism/Environment In-terface: Insights and Recommendations fromthé Banff-Bow Valley Study. Journal ofTravelResearch, 38(2)100-110

Cai, L. (2002) Coopérative brandingfor rural destinations. Annals of tourism re-

search 29 (3) 720-742.Department of Internai Affairs

(1986), Chatham Islands Review Team Reportto thé Minister of Internai Afifairs, Wellington,Department of Internai Affairs.

Department of Internai Affairs(1989), Review of thé Chatham Islands Eco-nomy Final Report in September 1989.

Department of Internai Affairs

(1989) Report on thé Follow-up visit to théChatham Islands by thé Review Team, 12-16October (1989). Community DevelopmentReport - Final Report (1989)

Hansard, (1990) Questions on No-tice. Question number 12.

Hansard, (1991) Report of sélectCommittee, 16 Oct 19991- Chatham Islands

County Council (Rates and County Dues Vali-dation) Bill: report of Internai affairs and localgovemment commrttee.

Inskeep, E. (1991) Tourism Plan-ning: An Integrated & Sustainable TourismApproach. Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York

loannides, D. & T. Petersen (2003).Tourism non entrepreneurship in peripheraldestinations: a case study of small and me-dium tourism enterprises on Bomholm, Den-mark. Tourism geographies 5(4) 408-435

Jollifife. L (2003) Cultural rural tou-rism évidence from Canada. Annals of Tou-rism Research. 30, 2, 307-322.

King, M. & R. Momson (1990)A Land Apart: Thé Chatham Islands of NewZealand. Random House: Glenfield NZ.

MacDonald R. & L. Jolliffe (2003)Cultural rural tourism: Evidence from Cana-da. Annals ofTourism Research, 30 (2): 307-323.

Mitchell, R & D. Reid (2001) Com-munity intégration Island tourism in Pem. An-nais ofTourism Research 28, l, 113-139.

Tapsell, P. (1985) Options Paper onChatham Islands, Wellington, Ministoy of In-temal Affairs

TaylorBaines and Associâtes (1989)Report on thé Follow up visit to thé ChathamIslands by thé review team 12-16 October.Wellington, Dept of Internai AfFairs

Taylor Baines and Associâtes, andLincoln International (1989) Review of théChatham Islands Economy, Commissioned bythé Départaient of Internai Affairs on Behalfof thé Ministerial Committee on thé Chatham

Islands, Christchurch, Taylor Baines and As-sociales. September

Reed, M. (1997) Power relations andcommunity based tourism planning. Annals ofTourism Research, 24, 3, 506-591.

Scheyvens, R. (1999) Case study:Ecotourism and thé empowerment of localcommunities. Tourism Management 20 (2),98-108.

Wiltshier, P. and Cardow,A. (2001) Public Meeting ofChatham IslandsVisitor Industries Stakeholders Group Fee-dback Report Auckland, Unitec Institute ofTechnology

Woodley, A. (1993). Tourism & sus-tainable development: Thé community pers-pective. In J.G. Nelson, R. Butler, and G. Wall(eds.) Tourism and Sustainable Development:Monitoring, Planning, Managing (pp 135-146). Waterloo: Héritage Resources Centre,University of Waterloo.

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Malta, 2 5-27 May 2006^ ri - ^^' (F--»

A. G'- Ls)' S. û..^

by Eugenio Yunis, Head of thé Sustainable Development ofTourism De-partment World Tourism Organization

.UNWVfli . ttMT . NÏH8TO ISM ORGANIZATi

I,. n spite ofterrorism, natural

disasters, health scares, oil priée ri-ses, exchange rate fluctuations andéconomie and political uncertain-ties -just some of thé issues facingthé tourism industry in 2005-, in-temational tourist arrivais world-

wide béat ail expectations last year,achieving an all-time record of 808millions arrivais. International tou-nsm receipts reached also a recordin 2005: around 680 billion USDaccording to thé preliminary fore-cast.

Thé islands' share in termsof international tourist arrivais isnot easy to calculate, since intema-tional data do not include tourists

ù-avelling to islands that are partofa continental country. However,when considering small island sta-tes, many of them hâve witnessedstrong growth rates in their tou-rist arrivais since 1990, includingCape Verde, Mauritius, DominicanRepublic, Cuba, Brunei, to namebut a few. This reflects thé strongattractiveness that islands hâve

always produced on travellers.In économie terms, tourism

receipts in many small island sta-tes represent a substantial propor-tion of service experts (up to 90%m countries like Bahamas, Do-mimcan Republic and Maldives).Besides, in some SIDS, given thé

trans-sectoral nature of tourism, ithas been increasingly utilized asa catalyst for thé development ofagriculture, fisheries, handicraftsand other industries and services.

In an industry as competiti-ve as tourism, and with beach tou-

rism fonning a considérable seg-ment, islands hâve been extremelyactive in capitalizing on thé econo-mie benefits derived from tourism,often forgetting thé potential socialand environmental impacts.

One spécifie trend that iscurrently taking place in many is-land destinations is thé rapid de-velopment of émise tourism. Thissegment offers gréât advantages forsmall islands with a rcduced hôtelcapacity, allowing them to benefitfrom bigger tourist flows withoutdeveloping a heavy accommoda-tion infrastructure. However, inislands where a substantial hôtelcapacity already exists, émise tou-rism can also become a négativeélément generating more damage,in économie and environmentalterms, than benefits to thé localeconomy.

Thé case of émise tourismillustrâtes thé complexity of ma-king tourism more sustainable inislands. It is notjust about control-ling and managing thé potentialnégative socio-cultural and envi-

ronmental impacts of thé industrToiirism is in a very spécial postion to benefit local communitie

economically and socially, andtraise awareness and support f(thé conservation of thé enviroi

ment. Within thé tourism secte

économie development and envronmental protection should mbe seen as opposing forces - théshould be pursued hand in handiaspirations that can and should tmutually reinforcing. Policies aiactions must aim to strengthen ttbenefits and reduce thé costs (tourism.

Massive growth is préditted for tourism in thé forthcomiii

years, providing excellent oppoitunities for spreading prosperitin developing countries, includiiSIDS, and also in depressed or isolated areas of developed nation'but at thé same time presentiiiconsidérable challenges and potential threats to thé environment afllocal communities if not well ni1

naged. For instance, climate chaige is recognised as a major globiissue, with significant implicatio»for tourism, especially m islafl<l<Similarly, sustainable forms ofto"rism can be strategically importaifor preserving délicate ecosysteB1and biodiversity, providing atainable form of économie use

opposed to more aggressive indus-trial activities. There is also an in-

creasmg appréciation of thé poten-tial rôle of tourism in addressing

orld poverty, through bringing aource of income and employmento thé heart of some of thé poorestommumties.

It is true that most of thépacts oftourism are thé result of

étions taken by private sector en-erprises and by tourists themsel-ves. However, there is a clear need

or govermnents to take a leadingole if truly significant progress iso be achieved in making tourism

more sustainable. There are a num-

ber of reasons that justify public,govemmental action in thé tourismsector:

Thé tourism industry isvery fragmented. It is difficultfor thé individual actions of manymicro, small and médium sizedbusinesses to make a positive dif-ference and coordination is requi-red; such coordination is normallyprovided, or at least stimulated bygovemments. Islands hâve an ad-

vantage in tenns of coordination,since their territory is often small.

Sustainability relates toareas of public concem, such as théquality of air and water, natural andcultural héritage, protected areas,public spaces such as beaches, andthé quality of life in général, ailof which relate to tourism in oneway or another. Moreover, manyof thèse resources and a good num-ber oftourism attractions (such asmuséums, archaeological sites, air-Ports, etc) are generally managedby govemments.

Govemments hold many ofthe tools that can be used to makea différence - such as thé power to

;, make régulations and en-sure compliance, thé offer of eco-noinic incentives, fiscal measurcs,as Well as thé resources and insti-tutions to promote and dissemmate§°od practices.

Govemments should provide anenvironment that enables and en-

courages thé private sector, touristsand other stakeholders to respondto sustainability issues. This canbest be achieved by establishingand implementing a set of poli-cies for tourism development andmanagement, drawn up in concertwith others, policies that place sus-tainability at its centre. And, if théprinciples of sustainable develop-ment focus on local détermination

and implementation of policiesand actions, this should be placedwithin a supportive national policyframework.

This is why UNWTO andUNEP hâve worked together toproduce a set of policy guidelinesand tools aimed primarily at go-vemments, at national and local le-

vel. This work has been publishedunder thé title "Making Tourismmore Sustainable: a Guide for Po-

licy Makers" and it is also relevantto international development agen-cies, NGOs and thé private sectorto thé extent that they are affectedby, and can affect, tourism policiesand their implementation.

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MAKWG TOURISMMORE SUSTAINASLE

A G»W« fa, Pofe), MUnn

Thé sustainability of tourism isan issue of equal importance inboth developed and developingcounfa-ies, as well as in big or very

small temtories, including islands.However, thé balance ofpnoritiesmay vary between them, and eachcountry should adapt or apply withdifférent emphasis thé policies andtools recommended to its own par-ticular circumstances, in tenus ofits overall development level, thésize ofits tourism sector, and espe-cially thé vision it bas for its ownfuture.

In islands, some of thémam problems encountered are théfollowing:

Shortage in waste collec-tion and treatment facilities

High import costs due totransport costs

Reduced water storage ca-pacity entailing dry periods andpublic health problems

Increased human densityCoastal érosionEtc.

Due to their size and theirisolation, islands concentrate ailchallenges of sustainability whendeveloping tourism. Thé UNWTO-UNEP Guide introduces some keypnnciples and an agenda for moresustainable tourism, framed aroundthé following set of 12 Aims, ailadaptable to islands specificities:l. Economie viability: To en-sure thé viability and competitive-ness oftourism enterprises, so thatthey are able to continue to pros-per and deliver benefits in thé longterm. In small économies, diversi-fication must be aimed at, in orderto reduce dependence on one ortwo économie activities. Tourismm small islands should be conside-red as only one of thé componentsof, and be fully integrated into, théoverall sustainable development ofthé island. Thé objective is to rein-force thé capacity ofislands to facecrises that would normally affectonly some sectors of their econo-mies;

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2. Local prosperity: To maxi-mise thé contribution of tourism

to thé prosperity of thé host des-tination, including thé proportionof visiter spending that is retainedlocally. This is about reducing lea-kages, as well as developing linka-ges in thé local economy. Islandsare prone to économie leakages,but are also in a spécial geogra-phical position to establish a bettercontrol on them.

3. Employment quality: Tostrengthen thé number and qualityof local jobs created and suppor-ted by tourism, including thé levelof pay, conditions of service andavailability to ail without discri-mination by gender, race, disabi-lity or in other ways. Small Stateshâve often major problems regar-ding employment of local peoplein their dealings with big tourismcompanies. This is an issue mwhich international organizationsand NGOs hâve a cmcial rôle toplay in terms of awareness raisingabout corporate social responsibi-lity.4. Social equity: To seek a wi-despread distribution of économieand social benefits from tourism

throughout thé récipient commum-ty, including improving opportum-ties, income and services availableto thé poor.5. Visitor fulfilment: To pro-vide a safe, satisfying and fulfillingexpérience for visitors, availableto ail without discrimination bygender, race, disability or in otherways. Visitor satisfaction oftenrefers to thé quality and authen-ticity of tourism facilities and in-frastructures. In islands, tourismdevelopers need to innovate andfind local resources to meet thèse

two requirements in order to avoidhigh imports of foreign goods andprovide a local character to tourismfacilities.

6. Local control: To engageand empower local communities in

planning and décision taking aboutthé management and fiiture deve-lopment of tourism in their area,in consultation with other stake-holders. Ail stakeholders and local

communities should be involvedin tourism development and ma-nagement and reap benefits fromtourism. In some small islands,training and éducation in tourismat high level has to be reinforced toachieve this aim.

7. Community wellbeing: Tomaintain and strengthen thé qualityoflife of local communities, inclu-

ding social stmctures and access toresources, amenities and life sup-port Systems, avoiding any form ofsocial dégradation or exploitation.Small islands should consider not

only thé environmental but alsothé socio-cultural carrying capa-city of thé island in their tourismpolicy and strategy, and thé maxi-mum limits established in terms of

both, number of tourists and builtinfrastmcture, must be respectéeby ail stakeholders;8. Cultural richness: To res-

pect and enhance thé historié he-ritage, authentic culture, traditionsand distinctiveness ofhost commu-

nities. Endémie cultures developedin islands represent an incompara-blé richness and strong componentto diversify thé tourism offer thatbas often concentrated in one seg-ment: sun and beach;

9. Physical integrity: Tomaintain and enhance thé qualityof landscapes, both urban and ru-rai, and avoid thé physical andvisual dégradation of thé environ-ment. Sustainable tourism in small

islands requires thé developmentand adoption of alternative buil-ding designs of tourism facilities,according to thé characteristics ofeach island. In addition, ail tou-rism infrastmcture building plansshould respect a minimum distan-ce from thé coast in order to avoid

to contribute to, or to suffer from,

coastal érosion;

10. Biological diversity: Tosupport thé conservation of natu-rai areas, habitats and wildlife, andminimize damage to them. Tou-rism planning should be based ona sound knowledge of thé naturalresources of thé island, aiming alsoat their conservation, in particularavoiding thé introduction of nonendogenous species in such fragileecosy stems;11. Resource efficiency: To mi-nimize thé use of scarce and non-

renewable resources in thé deve-

lopment and opération of tourismfacilities and services. Develop-ment and adoption ofecoefi&ciencyand cleaner production stratégiesand policies are required; in parti-cular, thé use of renewable energysources and environmentally soundtechnologies should be consideredin ail building construction tourismprojects. This allows reducing théenergetic dependence ofislands.12. Environmental purity: Tominimise thé pollution of air, wa-ter and land and thé génération ofwaste by tourism enterprises andvisitors. Thé smaller thé island, thémore important are waste disposaiproblems.

In order to put thèse poli-cies into practice, thé Guide givesa detailed description ofeleven dif-ferent and complementary tools:l/ Measurement instmments:

Thèse can be used in deter-

mining levels of tourism and im-pact and keeping abreast of exis-ting or potential changes:

1. 1, Sustainability indica-tors and monitoring

1. 2, Thé identification

tourism limits2, Command and control instru-ments:

Thèse are instruments

through which govemment is ableto exert strict control on aspects of,development and opération,ked by législation:

2. 1, Législation, régulationand licensing

2.2, Land use planning anddevelopment control3, Economie instruments:

Thèse are about influencingbehavior and impact through fi-nancial means and sending signaisthrough thé marketplace:

3. 1, Economie instruments4, Voluntary instruments:

Thèse instmments provideframeworks or processes that en-courage stakeholders voluntarilyto abide by sustainable approachesand practices:

4. 1, Guidelines and codesof conduct

4. 2, Reporting and audi-tmg

4. 3, Voluntary certification5, Supporting instruments:

Thèse are instmmentsthrough which govemments candirectly or indirectly influence andsupport enterprises in making theiropérations more sustainable:

5. 1, Infrastructure pro vi-sion and management

5.2, Capacity building5. 3, Marketing and infor-

mation services

To conclude, l would liketo refer to two other areas ofwork

ofUNWTO, which are ofrelevan-ce to small islands.

Thé first one refers to Indi-

cators ofSustainable Developmentfor Tourism Destinations. Soundmanagement of tourism requiresreadily available évidence ofchan-ges m impact aver time, so thatadjustments to policies and actionscan be made. Indicators that relateto sustainability aims and objecti-ves should be established to mo-nitor thé condition, performanceand impact oftourism. A UNWTOpublication on indicators includes

one section on small islands, aswell as one on coastal zones andone more spécifie on beach desti-nations. In addition, it deals withmany général sustainable issuesparticularly relevant to islands likeaccessibility, leakages, sea waterquality, soft water management,waste management, land use in-tensity, etc. Finally, nine of thé 25case studies included at thé end ofthé guide refer to islands.

Thé second area and rela-ted UNWTO publication l wouldlike to highlight today is Tourismand Climate Change. We hâve areport prepared in parallel with théorgamzation of thé First Conferen-ce on this topic, held inApril 2003

in Djerba, Tunisia. In two environ-ments which are vital for tourismactivities and where tourism is anequally vital component in regio-nal and local économies - coastalzones and mountain régions - cli-mate change puts tourism at risk.Important market changes couldresult. Seaside tourism, especiallyin islands, seems likely to sufferdamage from most of thé effectsof climate change, notably beachérosion, higher sea levels, coralbleaching, greater damage fromsea surges and storms, and reducedwater supply. Thé Djerba Declara-tion calls ail tourism stakeholdersto address and to adapt to thé ad-verse effects ofclimate change andto formulate appropriate actionplans or stratégies.

l invite ail Insula lectorsto study and help disseminate théthree main publications l referred.By adapting ail this technical in-formation and ail thèse guidelinesto thé particularities ofeach islanddestination, national and localauthorities, private tourism com-panies and local communities canfind thé way to enhance tourismbenefits, and to reduce poverty inthé poorest islands, while protec-ting thé natural environment andcultural héritage.

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iî^ï

RByAmandine Thomas

Lalf a kilometer off thésouthem coast ofSingapore's mainisland, lies a place rich in historyand beauty which is beginning toattract mterest from both locals andtounsts alike. With an overall landmass of 5 square kilometers, Sen-tosa is thé fourth largest in Singa-pore's archipelago composed of58islands (excluding thé mam one).Some 70% of thé island's live-ablesurface is made up of secondaiy

playsnimaltor li-arrots

ï andlands.T 3.2

picturesque white

Thé island with a cheque-red historyw

Sentosa island has beenthrough a storied past in order tobecome what it is today. In it'stime it has changea names on seve-rai différent occasions dependingupon who was currently occupyingthé small but well placed island^Up until thé year 1830, thé localsrcferred to it as Pulau Panjang("long island"). In an 1828 sketchofSingapore Island and its nearestneighbors, thé island is referred toas Pô. Panjang. Thé Malay namewas Pulau Belakang Mati, whichfa-anslates to thé "Island (Pulau) ofDeath (Mati) from Behind (Bela-kang)". One account attributed thérather ominous name to thé nume-rous accounts ofmurder and piracyin thé island's past.

A second account daimsthat during thé late 1840's an out-break of disease on thé island de-pleted thé majority of thé originalBugis settlers. Although geogra-

phically well positioned and plea-sant to thé eye, thé island bas neverseen large numbers in populationas thé amount of fertile soil nee-ded to maintain suitable food sup-plies has always left something tobe desired.

A military past

In thé nineteenth century,when thé rapid growth of thé har-bor located between Sentosa andSingapore's main island led toconcem over thé protection of lo-cal coal/eserves against enemyattack, plans to fortify thé islandwere drawn up by local adminis-tration. Forts were put in placeacross thé island to ensure securityand monitor activity.

Fort Siloso, Fort Serapong,Fort Connaught, and thé Mount Im-biah Battery being among thé lar-gest of thèse installations. Duringthé Second Worid War, thé islandbecame a British military outpost.Then in 1947, after the'Japaneseoccupation, thé island became thébase of thé locally enlisted FirstSingapore Régiment of thé RoyalArtillery(lstSRRA).

It was then disband andits guns dismantled ten years af-terwards. Fort Siloso and Fort Se-rapong followed suit and becamea Catholic retreat and a Protestantchurch house respectively.

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Fort Cormaught was left to ruins.In 1967, Pulau Belakang Mati be-came thé home base for thé Singa-pore Naval Volunteer Force and ahost of other military centers wereset up there including Thé Schoolof Maritime Training as well as théfirst of Singapore's Naval MédicalCenters.

troduced to safeguard public use ofthé immédiate sea-front land) andlarge parks and roads built alongthé sea has actually résultée inmany "waterfront" residential de-velopments being located over halfa kilometer away from thé shore-line.

M<-unl F-abar

see thé development of thé island.Since then, some S$420 milliondollars in private capital and ano-ther S$500 million in govemmentfùnding hâve been put in place tofiirther enhance thé developmentthé island. In 1974 thé SingaporeCâble Car System was built, ma-king thé connection between Sen-tosa and Mount Faber. A séries of

attractions were subsequently ope-ned for visitors including Fort Si-loso, thé Surrender Chamber waxmuséum, Musical Fountain, andUnderwater World. Thé causewaybridge has made travel to and fromthé island much more accessible

to single day visitors coming fromthé mainland since being inaugu-rated in 1992. Thé Sentosa Mono-

rail System was opened in 1982 totransport visitors to vanous stationslocated throughout thé island.

Thé last major transforma-tion began in 2002 with thé imple-mentation ofits latest S$10 billionmaster plan. Singapore is conti-nuously reinventing itselfto main-tain its compétitive position amongthé ever compétitive tourism mar-kets and its récent announcementto attract integrated rcsort develo-

pments with gaming componentsin mind will fùrther enhance itsposition as a first rate destinationin Asia. To reinforce its mark asan entertainment destination, Sin-gapore is also in thé process ofcreatmg a total leisure destinationconcept located at thé southem-most part of thé island state knownas "Thé Sentosa-Harbourfi-ont-Mount Faber Destination". Thereis also thé "Sentosa Express" lightrail System which will seamlesslyconnect Singapore's Mass RapidTransit (MRT) railway to Sentosa.

Sentosa island is among thé Sin- From nature walks to mu-gapore's largest tourism draws, seums, beaches to luxury hoteïs,attracting both régional and inter- nothing is overlooked... and alïofnational tourists. Each year, some it enjoyed in thé island's natural5 million visitors cross thé bridge peace and tranquility.aver thé largest harbor in thé worldto be welcomed in thé ever enchan-ting world ofthis island paradise.

Thé big change

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After Singapore acquiredits independence, a variety of landréclamation projects were carriedout to cope with thé coimtry's everbooming population. Historically,thé island nation has had waterfi-ont

dwellings - in thé many villagehouses set on stilts which lined théshoreline and thé luxurious villas

which thé économie élite ofSinga-pore's pre-war society had built todot every corner ofpopular beach-front. With thé réclamation, thé li-festyle of thé old sea-front villagesand beach-front villas became a

thingofthepast.

This is especially tme asdevelopers who purchase thé state-reclaimed lands will more often

than not build up to thé highestpemiissible density, which in tumleads to high rise condominiums.In addition, thé Foreshore Act (in-

In thé 1970's, thé govem-ment opted to take advantage ofthé islands location and ascetic

appeal to develop it into a holidayresort for local visitors as well as

international tourists. In 1972,stemming from a contest orga-nized by thé Singapore TouristPromotion Board, thé island was

renamed Sentosa, a Malay wordmeaning "Peace and Tranquillity".Thé Sentosa Development Corpo-ration was formed and incorpora-ted on September Ist 1972 to over-

Thé Scntosa Resort

Sentosa has been transfor-

med from a military backwaterinto a top flight tourist and lifestyledestination in 20 years. More oftenthat not in thé Asian marketplace,developers incorporate leisure at-tractions as part ofa larger real es-tate project. Thé Sentosa Resort isamong thé exceptions to this rulein that it is first and foremost a lo-cation developed for leisure andtourism instead ofreal estate.

By Chet Van Duzer

A floatmg island-can such athing exist? Surely chunks of thésolid earth on which we stand can-not drift easily about thé surface ofa body of water? But floating is-lands do indeed exist on six of théseven continents and sometimes inthé océans between them; they mayhâve trees growing upon them, behundreds of meters across, andsupport thé weight of humans li-ving upon them and even of cattlegrazing upon them. Floating is-lands are kept buoyant by thé lightspongy tissues of certain aquaticplants, by gases released into theirsoil by decomposing végétation, orby both of thèse forces.

Floating islands naturallyattracted thé attention of ancientauthors, and Pliny thé Younger(Epistles 8.20) has left us an evo-cative description of thé floatingislands in Lacus Vadimonis, nowa marshy pond known as Lago diBassano, Laghetto di Bassano, orLaghetto di Basanello, on thé bankof thé Tiber about sixty kilometersnorthofRome:

«No boats are allowedon thé lake, as its waters are sa-cred; but several floating islandsswim about it, covered with reeds,mshes, and whatever other plantsthé fertile marshy ground nearbyand thé edge of thé lake produce.Each island has its peculiar shapeand size, but thé edges of ail ofthem are wom away by their fi-e-

quent collisions with thé shoreand one another. They are ail ofthé same thickness and buoyancy,for their shallow bases are shapedlike thé hull of a boat. This maybe clearly observed from ail sides:thé islands lie half above and halfbelow thé water's surface. Someti-

mes they cluster together and seemto form a little continent; someti-mes they are dispersed by thé shif-ting winds; at other times, whenthé wind falls dead, they float inisolation. Often a large island sailsalong with a small islandjoined toit, like a ship with its tender, or asif one were striving to out-sail théother; then again they are ail drivento one spot on thé shore, whose li-mits they thus advance; and nowhère, and now there, they diminishor restore thé area of thé lake, untilat last they occupy thé center agamand so restore it to its usual size.Sheep, seeking grass, proceed notonly to thé shores of thé lake, butalso upon thèse islands, nor do theyperceive that thé ground is mobile,until, far from thé shore, they arealarmed to find themselves sur-rounded by water, as though theyhad been suddenly conveyed andplaced there. Afterwards, whenthé wind drives them back again,

they as little perceive their retumas their departure.»

and with thé shore is accurate, forthis is a common feature of floa-ting islands in lakes, including thégréât floating islands of papyrusin thé lakes of thé Upemba Basm,upper Lualaba River, Zaïre; théfloating islands of Orange Lake,Florida, which are being studiedby Mark Clark of thé University ofFlorida; thé floating islands of théIberâ Wetlands near Corrientes,

Argentina, which are being studiedby Juan José Neiff of thé ConsejoNacional de Investigaciones Cien-tificas y Técnicas; thé floating is-land in thé Lago di Posta Fibrenosoutheast of Rome (Fig. l), whichis being studied by Laura Casellaof thé Università degli studi diRoma "La Sapienza, " and thé floa-ting islands on thé surface of théZacatôn sinkhole in Tamaulipas,Mexico (Fig. 2), which hâve yetbe thoroughly investigated.

Pliny's observation aboutthé edges of thé islands being womaway by collision with each other

Chet Van Duzer, a

duate of thé University of Califbrniaat Berkeley, is a writer in living Ca-litomia. He recently published Diebook Floating Islands: A Global BI-bliography with Cantor Press, http:./www. cantorpress. com, and also wri-tes aboLit thé history of cartography-Email: chetv@aol.com

Thé floating island in thé Lago di Posta Fibreno southeast of Rome.

sinkhole in

A particular floating islandin England helped scientists rea-lize thé importance of gases re-leased by decomposing végétationto thé buoyancy offloating islands.Derwentwater, a lake in England'sLake District, was famous for anintermittent floating island whichonly appeared following hot sum-mers, always in thé same spot (Fig.3). Some had argued that upwel-lings of water fi-om a stream thatflowed into thé lake were what

buoyed up thé island. Victonanscientists took an interest in théproblem, and Jonathan Otley, théauthor of a famous guidebook tothé Lake District, took samples ofthé gas trapped in thé island anddetermined that gases from thédécomposition of végétation wereresponsible for thé island's rising.A hot summer increases thé rateof décomposition which releasesmore gas which makes thé island,which is actually a section of thélake bottom, buoyant enough torise to thé surface.

Floating islands commonlyrise in newly-flooded réservoirs.If thé area flooded has peaty soil(peaty soil contains decomposingvégétation), once thé réservoir isfilled certain types of peat on thébottom of thé réservoir will be-corne buoyant. If thé peat is cove-red by deep water, thé weight of théwater over it will hold thé peat tothé bottom, but in shallow parts ofthé réservoir, less than two meters

deep or so, this buoyancy can tearsections of peaty soil up from thébottom of thé réservoir, and theyrise to thé surface as floating is-lands. Thé island can be colonizedby varions plants, including trees.In hydroelectric réservoirs thèseislands can cause serious problemsifthey are drawn into thé intake forthé power génération equipment.It is difificult and expensive to re-move floating islands from reser-voirs, but it is possible to preventor mitigate this problem before aréservoir is flooded. By studyingthé soils in thé area to be flooded

it is possible to predict which areaswould rise as floating islands, andtheir rising can be forestalled byloading gravel on thèse areas, forexample, before thé réservoir isfilled.

Floating islands also formduring floods of thé gréât tropicalrivers of thé world when large mas-ses ofaquatic végétation or chunksof their banks are tom away andcarried downriver. Thé Congo inAfrica is one such river, and floa-

ting islands that came down théCongo were reported 240 km outto sea from thé river's mouth (see

Fig. 4 next page). Floating islandsare also common in thé Sepik Riverin Papua New Guinea followingthé monsoon rains. Thé islands arecalled "lik lik aislans" in PidginEnglish, and can be up to 100 me-ters across with still-living trees onthem. Thé Rio Paranâ and Rio dela Plata in South America also ge-nerate floating islands-when theyflood they are filled with floatingislands called camalotes, which

Fig. 4. A. Goering,-SchwimmendeInseln und die Hochlande desCongo, 1883 (author's collection).

are matted masses of water hya-cinth. A famous épisode at Conven-to de San Francisco in Santa Fe,Argentina, which is located on théRio Paranâ, involved thé killing oftwo friars at thé Convento by a ja-guar that arrived on a camalote du-

ring a flood of thé Paranâ on April18, 1825.

In thé flood of 1905, théRio de la Plata at Buenos Aireswas covercd with camalotes as fars thé eye could see, some half a

mile long and 100 feet wide, othersjust a few feet in diameter. As theycame down thé river thèse islands

hit moored ships and tore thé shipsom their moorings. And thé islan-

ds brought passengers with them:.

nany species of tropical snakes,deer, a puma, parrots, and mon-keys. An Indian baby was found ona floating island that came ashorelear Rosario, and although he was'veak from hunger and exposure,

he was brought back to health.Of course floating islands

that corne down rivers end up atsea; many are quickly destroyedby thé waves, but others survivefor quite some time, and accountsof floating islands seen at sea arerare. An article in thé November8, 1908 édition of thé WashingtonPost reports that a United Statesémiser in thé Caribbean north ofHonduras encountered an islandwhich they soon discovered wasfloating (this is certainly one of thélargest floating islands ever seen atsea):

«It proved to be a little is-land about three quarters of a milearound and a quarter wide. In sha-pe it was long and narrow, with athick growth of vines and bushesreaching down to thé water's veryedge. Three tall cocoanut palmsgrew in thé middle of it. No life

of any kind was on thé island, norwas there any water, though ins-tead of being sandy or rocky assuch islands usually are, thé soilwas rich, dark and very moist.After gathering thé cocoanutsthé sailors retumed to thé crui-ser, which, oddly enough, seemedmuch further off, and considerablymore to thé southwest than whenthey left her. Then it just dawnedon them that they had been visi-ting one of thé floating islands sooften heard about but seldom seenin thé South Atlantic. Further ob-servation confirmed thé suspicion,as thé cruiser remained near it longenough to see thé island change itsposition.»

A story published in seve-rai newspapers in June and July of1902, gives a remarkable accountof two floating islands spotted atsea in thé Caribbean.

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61

Thé Norwegian ship Donald, stea-ming from Banes, Cuba, on itsway to Philadelphia, encountered afloating island about 30 miles frornthé island of San Salvador:

«"On passing Watlins is-land, which lay off about 30 mi-les, " said Skipper Wamecke, "westeamed close to a floating island.Upon it were what appeared to be alarge number ofstately palm trees.l had never encountered anythinglike this in ail my seafaring life.Thé floating island was movmg,and that, too, at a slow rate. Cu-nous for a thorough investigation,l steamed still doser to thé object,and was amazed to find what l tookto be palm trees were full-growncocoanut trees, and laden with fmitof thé largest kind. Then l ordereda boat lowered and, together withthé first mate, made a landing onthé still moving island.

"Then another suqîrise awaited

us. High up in thé trees was a smallcolony of mischievous monkeys,and as we got nearer they shied anumber of cocoanuts at us. Aftera lot of trouble we secured two ofthé attacking simians and at leasta dozen cocoanuts. Then we tookto our boats, boarded thé steamer,ordered full steam ahead, and soonthé strange floating island was lostin thé haze astem.

"But another surpnse was mstore for us on thé following day,when we passed within glass sightof another singular floating objectjust off thé port bow. Thé lookoutsung out 'Land ahead. ' This ama-zed me, for l knew according to théchart land was not miles near. Still,curious from thé previous day'sexpérience, l determined to solvethis fùrther mystery of thé sea, sol gave orders for thé ship to steamclose to what l now made out to beanother floating island. Again l hada boat lowercd, and with thé same

crew we landed on thé island."We found it to be an exact du-

plicate of thé day beforc, with thisexception-instead of monkeyswe found a big covey of parrotsof most brilliant plumage. Amongthem was one who was evidentlythé patriarch of thé tribe, and l donot exaggerate when l say that théaged fellow could cuss in two lan-guages. He was evidently a lostpet. We took him and a couple ofhis fellows aboard thé steamer, andsoon left thé floating island in thédistance."»

Thèse accounts offloatingislands seen at sea are ofparticularinterest to evolutionary biologists,as they lend support to thé theorythat floating islands hâve been im-portant in thé dispersai of plant andanimal species across thé océans,and thus important in thé processof évolution.

Floating island, lake Titicaca (Peru)mine work

msula fs âge

NEREIDE AWARD2006

Ischia thé green island ofthé gulfofNaples:14 October 2006.

During thé workshop dedi-cated to "Environmental Culture:thé World of thé Sea" thé IVth edi-tion of thé "Néréide" Award wascelebrated by thé Alekos Founda-tion at thé Museo Rizzoli Premi-

ses, in Lacco Ameno-Ischia.Thé aim ofthis initiative is

to offer a large visibility and an ap-propriate récognition to a person,or institution, having distinguishedit selfduring thé previous year, forthé quality of their engagement mfavor of thé environment and thémarine world.

Under thé auspices of théCampania région, thé Province ofNaples and thé Municipality of

Lacco Amena, thé Néréide Awarddivided in four thematic sections,was attributed to:

- Luca Genoni for his world

record, (-141 meters) in apneadive.

- to Greenpeace for it's ac-tion fighting whale-fishing.

- to Geco entreprize for aninnovative method to reduce coas-tal érosion,

and finally to INSULA forits promotion of marine bio-technologies

TycL-jiSs.-)

Mw/f^M) SwwUte esvw! w ̂ .»i» flsi-ytWW1 '»

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INMEMORIAM

^

HAPPY NEW YEAR2007

AU INSULA's staff, andmore particularly its président AnaMarija Margan and its secretarygénéral Fier Giovanni D'Ayala,wish you an excellent year 2007,fùll ofsuccess, and prospenty.

A year 2007 placed underthé sign of culture and more speci-fically islands cultural héritages.

2UR NEW FORUMIS AVAILABLE

Thé International ScientificCouncil for Island Developmentbas thé pleasurc to announce youthat its new forum has just openedand is accessible to this address:

http://insula. aceboard. com

Many debates and discus-sions will take place there, and willhelp INSULA to continue to workat thé development of islands,through projects and actions.

Our website is still availa-blé at this adress:

www.insula. org

1. "Tii^-'TNËS"::

and

l ^ ' r'-;^^.

W( 'i^M

r11''^We deeply regret thé unex-

pected decease of MARIA ELISABR1SCHETTO, an eminent cultu-rai anthropologist, teaching at théUniversity ofCatania (Italy). Insu-la's active member and friend, sheplayed a créative and leading rôlein founding thé UNESCO Cen-ter of Sicily, aiming at diffusingUNESCO's ideals among thé Sici-lian and Mediterranean académieworld. From her privileged pointof view, Sicily in thé mid of thé

Mediterranean, she understood théimportance of régional aad inten-e-gional scientific and cultural colla-boration organizing and directingthé Euro-Mediterranean Institutefor interdisciplinary anthropology(CEMDAI) which soon became atrue nurseiy for young post-gra-duated social scientists. Many ofus will miss Maria Elisa's scien-tific strictness and creativity, butmany will follow thé roads she basopened with generous enthusiasm-

Thé Convention on théProtection and Promotion of théDiversity of Cultural Expressions,adopted by UNESCO's GénéralConférence in October 2005, willenter into force on 18 March 2007,three months after thé deposit ofthé 30th instmment of ratificationon 18 December at UNESCO. Asof 15 December, 22 instmments ofratification had been registered*.On thé 18th, another 13 coun-tries**, as well as thé EuropeanCommunity, deposited their instm-ment at thé Organization's Head-quarters, bringing thé total numberof ratifications received to 35. Thé

Director-General of UNESCO,Koïchiro Matsuura, welcomed théhigh-level of interest shown byMember States for this new légalinstrument. "Thé rapidity of thé ra-tification process is unprecedented.None ofUNESCO's other culturalconventions has been adopted byso many States in so little time,"Mr Matsuura said. "Thé ratifica-on by thé European Union, made

possible by Article 27 of thé textallowing "accession by any regio-

l économie intégration organiza-ion" is a first, and will celebratedt a spécial ceremony on Decem-

ber 19 inBrussels.

Thé result ofa long processof maturation and frwo years of in-tense negotiations, marked by nu-mérous meetings of independentand then govenunental experts,thé text seeks to reaffirm thé linksbetween culture, development anddialogue, and to create an inno-vative platform for internationalcultural coopération. To this end,it reaffirms thé sovereign rights ofStates to elaborate cultural poli-cies with a view both "to protectand promote thé diversity ofcultu-rai expressions" and "to create théconditions for cultures to flourish

and to freely interact in a mutuallybénéficiai manner" (Article l).

It also consecrates thé rôleof culture as an a actor in develo-pment (Article 13), mobilizes civilsociety to achieve its goals (article11), and places international soli-darity at thé heart ofits mechanism

(articles 12 to 19), by including thécréation of an international fund

for cultural diversity (article 18).It also highlights "thé importanceof intellectual property rights insustaining those involved in cultu-rai creativity" and reaffinns that"freedom of thought, expressionand information, as well as diver-sity of thé média, enable culturalexpressions to flourish within so-cieties."

With thé adoption of théConvention on thé Protection and

Promotion of thé Diversity ofCultural Expressions, UNESCOnow disposes of a comprehensiveset of standard-setting instmmentsin thé cultural domain, compri-smg seven conventions coveringcultural diversity in ail of its ma-nifestations, and especially, thétwo pillars of culture: héritage -immovable, movable and intangi-

blé, including traditional culturalexpressions - and contemporarycreativity. Three conventions - thé1972 World Héritage Convention;thé 2003 convention on intangi-blé cultural héritage; and thé 2005convention on cultural diversity- will provide a particularly favou-râblé fi-amework for UNESCO'saction in défense ofcultural diver-sity.

With this extensive légalcoverage, UNESCO is now betterequipped for accomplish thé mis-sion attributed by its Constitutionto respect thé "fmitful diversityof thé cultures" and to "facilitatethé frce flow ofideas by word andimage."

Deal signed for Al ReemBiosphère RéserveDeal signed for Al Reem Bios-phere Réserve An agreement wassigned on 10 January to establishthé Al Reem Biosphère Réservein northwest Qatar, which wouldcover about 17% of thé country.Thé tripartite agreement involvesthé Suprême Council for thé Envi-ronment and Natural Resources in

Qatar, UNESCO's office in Dohaand thé Shell oil company. Thénext step will be for thé three par-tners to recruit experts in natureconservation and ecosystem ma-nagers to prépare thé site nomina-tion for submission to UNESCO'sAdvisory Committee for Bios-phere Réserves in Paris before no-minations close on 30 April. Fordétails, contact thé focal point inUNESCO's Doha office.

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t

Extrême Tourism:

Lessons from thé World'sCold Wateï Islands

Edited by Godfrey Baldacchino

As allurmg, paradises, is-lands are quintessential tounstdestinations. But this trope is pre-mised on a warm and arguablypleasant climate. While a sériesof 'S's - sun, sea, sand (and sex?)may make sensé in a warm waterisland location, it is a séries of 'I s- ice, icebergs, isolation, indige-nous people - that are more likelyto serve as thé 'tourism product' mcold water islands.

This book is a timely andlong overdue, scholarly and com-parative investigation of tounsmpractices in thé world's other, coldwater, islands. Located in extrêmelatitudes and subject to extrêmeweather conditions, thèse islandshâve been developing their tounsmappeal in manners that appear sus-tainable. They présent themselvesin images that speak to thé pnstme,unique and superlative aspects oftheir natural environment, historyand culture. Limited seasonality,difficulty of access, restricted in-frastmcture, harsh climates andwater too cold to swim in, are mte-gral features of thé tourism indus-

try, often welcomed as appropnatefilters to thé slide to thé mass mar-ket.

Thé collection contains 14island case studies. Nine hail fromNorthem latitudes: Nunivak (Alas-ka, USA); Banks (Northwest Ter-ritories, Canada); Baffin (Nunavut,Canada), Greenland/ KaalaalitNunaat, Iceland, Luleâ (Sweden),Svalbard (Norway) and Solovets-ky (Russia), plus thé particularvantage point ofArctic cruise shiptourism. A second set offive casestudies cover thé Southeriy islandsof Chatham (New Zealand), Falk-lands (UK), Macquarie (Australia)and Stewart (New Zealand) andSouth Shetlands & Antarctica.

is also Visiting Professor ofSocio-logy at thé University of Malta, aDiï'ector of Global Island Network(GIN), an Executive Member ofthé International Small IslandStudies Association (ISISA) andExecutive Editer oflsland StudiesJournal.

Author: Godfrey BaldacchinoEditer: Oxford & Amsterdam, El-sevier Science, hard back, 257pp +30 pages of index.ISBN: 0-08-044656-6

Recherches sur l'histoire deF Orient Médiéval

Additionally, five concep-tuai chapters provide insights intokey tourism management issues, asthey apply to cold water island ex-penences: (a) human resources (la-bour market features, recruitment,rétention, training, career progres-sion, flexible specialization); (b)environment (thé représentation ofnature in island tourism profiling,ecological issues in typically fi-a-gile habitats, waste managementpolicies and practices; sustainabi-îityconcems); (e) promotion (de-veloping and branding tourism andlinking it with ' islandness', loca-tion, size and 'island culture'; and(d) seasonality (should it be em-braced, tolerated or challenged?)A powerful synopsis by RichardButler wraps up thé volume and itskey arguments.

Thé editor of thé volume,Godfrey Baldacchino, is thé Ca-nada Research Chair in IslandStudies at thé University of PrinceEdward Island, Canada's smallest,and only fully island province. He

ByAbdelhamidFerhi (bookin arable and french language)

Abdelahamid FEHRI

Recherches sur l'his+oirede ('Orient Médiéval

présence, actual or suggested, ofthé sea in thé sacred texts, thé Ko-ran and thé "Hadith" (words or actsof thé prophet Mohamed, conside-red as examples to be followed bythé Muslims).

From this study on thé seain thé sacred texts, several aspectsof thé médiéval Middle-East and

more exactly thé Mediterraneanare advanced, such as thé business,source of life and profit, navalwars, or thé importance of thé wa-ter in thé religious myths.

This work of Abdelhamid

Fehri thus brings a différent li-ghting in a less-known historiogra-phic aspect of this area. We stron-gly encourage his efforts, whichmaterialize in several other publi-cations, edited by his center for re-searches on Mediten-anean islands

in Cercina (Kerkennah-Tunisia),such as thé séries of work on théMediterranean shores.

Author: Abdlehamid Fehri

Editor: Faculty of littérature andhuman sciences of Sfax (Tunisia);center for researches on Mediter-

ranean islands. Cercina (Sfax-Ker-keimah; Tunisia).ISBN: 9973-51-458-0

Bateaux et ports méditerra-néens, bilan et perspectives

By Abdelhamid Barkaouiand Eric Rieth (French language)

FU.M to ton" n .l» "t"" l'»""" .l' '""Cim. Cml" ]».. to Bickr*.. ui l» «»

MÉdhE«3*«ÉtNNK

A survey of thé MédiévalMiddle-East cannot be made wi-thout an exploration of thé Medi-terranean Sea, its islands, exchan-ges, history, and myths.

Indeed, besides différentstudies in Arabie language on sub-jects such as heresiography, pro^-verbs or dynasties, thé author ,\a methodical way, looks into thé

BATEAUX ET PORTS MËDITERRANeeNS.BILAN 6T PGRSPÊCTIVES

Actes de la table roiide intErnationali

Sfax - Kerhenna 6-7 ;ivM ZOOS

Abdeihamid BARKAOUI

Enc RICTH

dé Mohamed Hawine FANTAR

It is around thé mid sixties

of thé XXth century, only three orfour décades ago that an unnoticedrevoltuion took place along théMediterranean coasts and fishingharbours.

Sails were progressivelyabandonnedwhile engins empowe-red most of thé fishing boasts andsmaller transport vessels. A varietyofwooden hand made hulls assem-

bled pièce by pièce by skilled car-penters following a thousand yearsaged technology.

Century old fishing gearsand methods were still in use. Nets

were trown to sea, following théseasonal indications of thé stars at

fishing spots whose locations wastransmitted from fùrther to sun

through numberless générations.Also clouds, winds and wavescould be appreciated by thé skilledseaman watching thé sky and (...)thé breeze. A reliable weather fore-cast indeed.

But swiftly with thé engi-nés news electronic déviées corne

into use allowing to spot thé fishinggrounds and track shoals with (...)intensity. Freezers were put in ser-vice on board allowing week longfishing compains even for smallerunits supported by radio communi-cations, weather forecasts, radarsand other navigation advancedtechnologies.

Wooden time and ressour-

ces consuming, boat building wassubstitute by steel or plastic hulls.Thé last wooden vessels are still

sailing hère and there, but thé im-mense time-less know-how of thécoastal mariners communities is

ineluctably bound to disappearA remarkable effort aiming

at recording and shest light on thisfooling world is presently pursuedon thé southem Mediterranean

shores by people belonging to thé«Association tunisienne pour lasauvegarde du patrimoine maritime(Tunisian Association for thé safe-

guard of thé Maritine héritage) andthé «Centre Cercina», thé proemi-nent cultural institution of thé Ker-

kermah islands leaded by Abdelha-mid Ferhi. Thé Faculty of «Lettreset des sciences humaines»of thé

University of Sfax (Tunisia) spon-sors thé endevor.

Insula wihes to call thé rea-ders attention to thé volume «Ba-

teaux et ports Méditerranéens- Bi-lan et perspectives» representingthé proceedings of thé intematio-nal round table on thé above topicheld in Kerkeimah on 6th and 7thApril 2005 and published late 2006by MED ALI Editions. "

Thé two editors Abdetha- omid Barkaoui a specialist of Ma- ^rine Archeology of thé University ^of Sfax and Eric Rieth, research ^director at thé Musée National de

la Marine (Paris) together with théspecialised authors participating atthé Kerkennah round table, offerus a considérable overview of thé

évolution of thé ships typology,and building architecture on thénorth African coasts from anscient

times till présent days.A good peace of work and

a kee-tool for maritime history in-vestigation.

Authors: (under thé direction of)AbdelHamid Bakaoui and Eric

Rieth (foreword from MohamedHassine Fautar)Editer: Association Tunisieime

pour la Sauvegarde du PatrimoineMaritime

Med Ali Editions ( caeu@gnet.tn)tel: +216/74407440ISBN: 978-9973-33-171-7

67

Thé International Scientific Council for Island

Development (INSULA) was formally created inNovember 1989 as a non-gouvernmental or-

ganisation (NGO) whose aims is to contributeto shape island awareness and develop islands'common future, supporting necessary coop-

eration and information actions in thé scien-tific and technological fields.

Thé aims of INSULA are to contribute to thééconomie, social and cultural progress of is-lands throughout thé worid, as to thé protec-tion of island environment and thé sustainabledevelopment of their ressouros. Within sucha context, INSULA coopérâtes with UNESCO,thé European Commission and other interna-

tional organisations, as well as institutions atthé national or régional level sharing thé same

goals of interests. Through its international andmultidisciplanry network of experts and re-searchers, INSULA contributes towards bal-anced, sustainable development initiativesundertaken by island authorities.

INSULA publishes twice a year "Thé Interna-tional Journal Island Affairs'. Thé aim of this

journal is to create a world wide forum for ailthose who consider islands as an important partof mankind's héritage deserving major attention."Thé International Journal o1 Island Affairs" issent, free of charge, to thé members of INSUIAInternational Scientific Council for Island Devel-

opment. Each issue focuses on a spécifie as-pect of islands development and cultural life.

Thé membership fées are:

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Payments can be made by check (in eurosonly), MasterCard, Visa or American Express(please indicate card number and expirationdate).

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projects and actions for wich INSULA 's mem-bership is invited to play an active rôle.

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' . l

AÏS) at thé University of Prince Edward Island (UPEI),nada, is a unique, two-year full-time or équivalent part-

1,-ie graduate program, studying islands on their ownms. Thirty students hâve registered in thé programce its launch in 2003. New students join thé programher in September or January.

ilretMizzi, 1st yearMAIS studentfrom Gozo, Malta.

ly in small classes at thé world's top islandstudies institution, hosting an Institute of IslandStudies, a Canada Research Chair in Island Studies,and thé internationally peer-reviewed IslandStudies Journal (ISSN 1715-2593)

l from grants and assistantships madeavailable to students by faculty

C. : ;p®t8 for thé Chancellor Bill Andrew andDenise Andrew awards

PartlClpate in a challenging scholarly andinterdisciplinary environment, with expertprofessors based at UPEI or visiting from otherparts of thé worid

program involves six taught courses (three hours per( each for 12 weeks) and a 50, ooo-word thesis under

'rvision (spread over three académie terms).

Three Compulsory Courses, offered annually, are Thèmes& Perspectives in Island Studies (Godfrey Baldacchino);Comparative Public Policy for Islands (Barry Bartmann);Research Methods & Research Design in Island Studies(Edward M.acDonald &. Godfrey Baldacchino).

Optional courses, which can change from year toyear, hâve included thé following delivered by UPEIFaculty: Gender & Identity in thé South Pacifie {JeanMitchell); Thèmes in Island Literature (Brent MacLainé);International Relations of Small Island States {BarryBartmann); Entrepreneurship & Fisheries Managementin Small Islands (Irène Novaczek); Ecology & EconomieDevelopment in Small Islands (Palanisamy Nagarafan);Identity & Sensé of Place in Islands (Suzanne Thomas);and Political Economy of Small Island Jurisdictions(David M. ilné).

Other optional courses, delivered by distinguished visitingprofessors from overseas universities, hâve includedNature-Society Interactions on Islands (Patrick Nunn);Political Ecology oflslands {Pète Hay); Thèmes in IslandTourism (Lee Jolliffè); and Environmental Issues in Islands(Çristian Suteanu).

Guest lectures, run jointly with thé Institute oflslandStudies, hâve been delivered by such scholars as HarveyArmstrong (UK), Denbeigh Armstrong (Tasmania),Stephen Royle (Ireland), Philip Hayward (Australia),Len Kooperman (American Samoa), Péter Billing(Bornholm), Rachel Chen (Taiwan) and lain MacPherson(Skye, Scotland).

A ^

University of Prince Edward IslandCharlottetown, PE Canada, CiA 4?3Tel: (902) 566-0377Fax: (902) 566-0756www.upei.ca

Published by INSULA,Thé International Scientific Council for Island Development,

with thé support of UNESCO