2. literature review 2.1 traditional uses of medicinal...

Literature review

Chemical and Biological Screening of Selected Medicinal Plants 21

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Traditional uses of medicinal plants in fertility regulation

A large number of plants or their extracts have been used as antifertility

agents in traditional medicine in indigenous systems of medicine in different

countries throughout the world. Throughout history, women have tried to control

their fertility with various levels of societal support. The information was passed

from mother to daughter and generation to generation. Many herbal remedies are

traditionally used as contraceptives (to prevent ovulation or fertilization),

abortifacients (to prevent implantation), emmenagogue (to stimulate uterine flow)

or oxytocic (to stimulate uterine contractions, particularly to promote labour)

agents1. This study presents certain data indicating that traditional medical systems

practised by various ethnic groups all over the world employed plants/plant based

formulations as means of birth-control measures.

The use of plants as abortifacients, emmenagogues, and as local

contraceptives might have been known to the ancient physicians of India as reported

in some of the available books, journals, monographs and reviews2-19. Traditional

use of plants for fertility regulation in other countries, i.e., Africa, Brazil, Camroon,

California, Haiti, Korea, Russia, Trininad & Tabago is also evident from the

available literature20-28. In this literature review, the correct botanical names were

mentioned after verification from published literature and available database. In

some cases, the plant family names have been updated on their taxonomy and

nomenclature29-31.

Therefore, a comprehensive data of medicinal plants (Table 3), inhabitating

throughout the world regarding their traditional usage by females of various

tribes/ethnic groups for fertility regulation, has been prepared by us32.

Literature review


Table 3: Plants with traditional/folkloric use in fertility regulation29 & references therein

S.

No.

Plant Name with Family Part

used*

Dosage

form

used†

Traditional

use††

Country

where used

1 Aa paleacea (H.B.K.) Rchb. f. [Orchidaceae]

LF - C,S Peru

2 Abroma angusta Linn. [Sterculaceae]

RT DE E India

3 Abrus precatorius Linn.

[Fabaceae]

RT, SD DE, PO A India

4 Abuta grandiflora (Mart.) Sand. [Menispermaceae]

RT, ST - C Peru

5 Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. [Fabaceae]

FR, FL - C Egypt

6 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.)

Willd. [Fabaceae]

BR, LF, GU

DE C India

7 Acalypha grandis Benth.

[Euphorbiaceae]

LF PO C Vanuatu

8 Acalypha indica Linn.

[Euphorbiaceae]

PL DE E India

9 Acalypha wilkesiana Muell., Arg. [Euphorbiaceae]

PX EX A Papua New Guinea

10 Achillea clavenae Linn. [Asteraceae]

PX DE E Italy

11 Achillea millefolium Linn. [Asteraceae]

PL IN A, E Europe, America

LF DE A India 12 Achyranthes aspera Linn. [Amaranthaceae]

RT DE C Pakistan

13 Achyranthes bidentata Blume. [Amaranthaceae]

LF,

RT

JU, PA C India

14 Aconitum heterophyllum

Wall. [Ranunculaceae] RT DE A India

15 Acorus calamus Linn. [Araceae]

RT DE, IN A India

16 Acosmium dasycarpum

(Vogel) Yakovlev [Fabaceae] BR DE A Brazil

Literature review


PL DE A,E India 17 Adhatoda vasica Nees Syn. Justicia adhatoda L. [Acanthaceae] RT PO A Pakistan

18 Adiantum Capillus-veneris

[Adiantaceae] PX DE A Spain

19 Aerva lantana (L.) Juss. ex. Shult [Amaranthaceae]

RT - A India

20 Aframomum sceptrum K. Schum. [Zingiberaceae]

SD - A Africa

21 Agave americana Linn. [Agavaceae]

RT Sap DE A India

22 Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

[Asteraceae]

FL - A Cameroon

23 Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. [Simaroubaceae]

SB PA C India

24 Alangium salvifolium (L. f.) Wang. [Alangiaceae]

RT JU A India

25 Albizia lebbek Linn. Benth

[Fabaceae] SB DE A Cameroon

26 Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. [Alangiaceae]

RT EX A India

27 Allium cepa Linn. [Liliaceae] BU - A, E India

28 Allium sativum Linn. [Liliaceae]

SD, BU - E India

29 Aloe barbadensis Mill.Syn. A. indica, A. litoralis, A. vera

[Liliaceae]

LF - A India

30 Alphitonia zizyphoides (Soland.) A.Gray [Rhamnaceae]

SB JU A Vanautu

31 Alternanthera philoxeroides

Griseb. [Amaranthaceae] PL - A India

32 Alstonia pacifica Seem. [Apocynaceae]

Sap DE C Vanuatu

33 Alstonia spectabilis R. Br. [Apocynaceae]

BR, LF EX, Raw A,C Papua New Guinea

34 Alstonia vitiensis Seem. var. neo-ebudica Monachino

[Apocynaceae]

LF BU MA C Vanuatu

Literature review


35 Alysicarpus vaginalis [Fabaceae]

RT - C India

36 Amaranthus spinosus Linn. [Amaranthaceae]

- - A India

37 Ambrosia arborecens Mill.

[Asteraceae]

LF IN C Peru

38 Ambrosia cumanenesis Mill.

[Asteraceae]

- - A Trinidad and Tobago

39 Ambrosia elatior Linn.

[Asteraceae]

LF,ST - C Argentina

40 Ambrosia maritama Linn.

[Asteraceae]

LF - A Pakistan

41 Ambrosia tenuifolia Spreng.

[Asteraceae]

PX IN A Paraguay

42 Anacardium occidentale

Linn. [Anacardiaceae] BR DE A,C Brazil

FR JU A India,Malaya 43 Ananas comosus Merr.Syn. A. sativus [Bromeliaceae]

LF PA A India

44 Anastatica hierochuntica

Linn. [Brassicaceae] - - A,C India

45 Aneilema conspicuum Kunth. [Commelinaceae]

RT - E India

46 Aneilema scapiflorum Wight. [Commelinaceae]

- - E India

47 Anethum sowa Kurz. [Apiaceae]

FR DE C India

48 Anisomeles malabarica (L.) R.Br. ex. Sims. [Labiatae]

PL - E Mauritius, Malasya

49 Annona reticulta Linn. [Annonaceae]

SD PO A India

SD PO A India 50 Annona squamosa Linn. [Annonaceae]

RT PA A India

51 Anthemis cotula Linn. [Asteraceae]

LF, FL - E America, Australia, Europe, Siberia

Literature review


52 Anthemis nobilis Linn. [Asteraceae]

Oil - E India

53 Anthocephalus cadamba

Miq.syn. A. cadamba [Rubiaceae]

RT, FL - A India

54 Anthriscus nemerosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng. [Apiaceae]

PL - A India

55 Anthurium paraguariense Engl.[Araceae]

- - A,E Argentina

56 Anthurium tessmannii

[Araceae] LF PO C Columbia

57 Antidesma ghaesaembilla

Gaertn. Syn. A. Paniculatum Roxb. [Euphorbiaceae]

WD - E India

58 Apium graveolens Linn. [Apiaceae]

SD DE A,E India

59 Apocynum androsaemifolium

Linn. [Apocynaceae] RT DE North America

60 Aquilegia canadensis Linn. [Apiaceae]

PL - E Massachusettes,Europe

61 Arctium lappa Linn. [Asteraceae]

LF, RT IN A Pakistan

FR DE A India 62 Areca catechu Linn. [Arecaceae]

IF - A India

63 Arecastrum romanzoffianum [Arecaceae]

RT IN A Paraguay

64 Argemone mexicana Linn. [Papaveraceae]

ST DE E West Indies

65 Argyreia speciosa Sweet. [Convolvulaceae]

TU PA C India

66 Argyrochosma nivea (Poir.) Windham [Pteridaceae]

PL - C Argentina

67 Arisaema atrorubens

[Araceae] RH IN C Canada

68 Arisaema leschenaultii

[Araceae] TU, SP PA C India

69 Arisaema tortuosum Wall. Schott [Araceae]

TU, SP PA C India

Literature review


70 Arisaema triphyllum Torr. [Araceae]

RT DE C United states

71 Aristolochia bracteata Retz. [Aristolochiaceae]

RT PO E India

72 Aristolochia rugosa Lam. [Aristolochiaceae]

RT - A Trinidad,

Tobago

73 Aristolochia clematitis Linn. [Aristolochiaceae]

SD - C Hungary

74 Aristolochia tagala Cham. [Aristolochiaceae]

RT DE E Bangladesh

75 Aristolochia trilobata Lam. [Aristolochiaceae]

LF DE A Trininad

76 Armoracia rusticana P. Gaertn. [Brassicaceae]

- - A -

77 Artemisia absinthium Linn. [Asteraceae]

LF Taken in

warm water

E United States

78 Artemisia compestris Linn. [Asteraceae]

PL - E Jordan

79 Artemisia siversiana Willd. [Asteraceae]

LF DE A India

80 Artemisia vulgaris Linn. [Asteraceae]

LF, RT PO C India

81 Aristolochia indica Linn. [Aristolochiaceae]

RT - A,E India

82 Asarum canadense Linn.

[Aristolochiaceae]

RT,

RH

DE C North America

83 Asclepias hallii A. Gray

[Asclepiadaceae] PL IN C United States

84 Asclepias syriaca Linn. [Asclepiadaceae]

RT,

RH

IN C Canada

85 Asparagus acutifolia Linn. [Liliaceae]

FR DE C Europe

86 Asparagus officinalis Linn. [Liliaceae]

FR DE C Europe

87 Aspidosperma excelsum

Benth. [Apocynaceae] BR MA A,C Brazil

Literature review


88 Aspidosperma quebracho-

blanco Schltdl. [Apocynaceae]

LF - C Argentina

89 Asplenium adiantum-nigrum

Linn. [Polypodiaceae] PL - C India

90 Asplenium nidus Linn. [Aspleniaceae]

LF - C Vanautu

91 Atractylis gummifera Linn. [Asteraceae]

RT DE C Arabia

92 Austroeupatorium

inulaefolium HBK. Syn. Eupatorium inulaefolium

HBK. [Asteraceae]

PX DE A Paraguay

93 Avicennia marina Forssk. Vierch. [Avicenniaceae]

LF EX A India

GU - C India 94 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. [Meliaceae]

FR Oil C Pakistan

95 Baccharis cylindrica (Less.) DC. [Asteraceae]

LF IN A Paraguay

96 Bahia dissecta (A. Gray) Britton [Asteraceae]

RT DE C United States

97 Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.Syn. B. bambos

(L.)Voss [Poaceae]

RT, LF DE E India

98 Barleria crista Linn. [Acanthaceae]

RT PO A India

99 Barringtonia edulis Seem. [Lecythidaceae]

SB IN C Vanautu

RT DE A India 100 Basella alba Linn. [Basellaceae]

LF MA A Cameroon

101 Bauhinia racemosa Lam. [Fabaceae]

SB PA A India

102 Bauhinia retusa Ham. [Fabaceae]

RE - E India

103 Berberis aristata DC. [Berberidaceae]

EX DE E India

104 Beta vulgaris Linn. [Chenopodiaceae]

LF, RT, SD

- E India

Literature review


105 Betula bhojpattra Wall. & B. Utilis.[Betulaceae]

SB DE A India

106 Bischofia javanica Bl. [Bischofiaceae]

SB JU A Vanautu

107 Blechnum orientale Linn. [Blechnaceae]

PX, LF Eaten raw S Papua New Guinea

108 Blumea balsamifera L. DC. [Asteraceae]

LF DE E India

109 Blumea lacera

DC.[Asteraceae] PL - E India

110 Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. [Nyctaginaceae]

RT PO A Pakistan

111 Bombax ceiba L. [Bombacaceae]

SD PO A India

112 Bombax ellipticum Kunth. [Bombacaceae]

- IN S Mexico

113 Borassus flabellifer Linn.

[Arecaceae]

RT DE C India

114 Boswellia glabra Roxb. [Burseraceae]

RE - E India

115 Boswellia serrata Roxb. [Burseraceae]

RE - E India

116 Brassica indica

[Brassicaceae] SD PO C India

117 Brassica juncea Coss [Brassicaceae]

Oil - E India

118 Brassica nigra Linn. & Koch. [Brassicaceae]

SD DE A India

119 Bromelia pinguin Linn. [Bromeliaceae]

FR JU A Jamaica

120 Brownea latifolia Jacq. [Fabaceae]

FL IN A Trininad

121 Bryonia dioica Jacq. [Cucurbitaceae]

RT MA E Italy

122 Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng. [Euphorbiaceae]

BR EX C India

Literature review


123 Bromelia balansae Menz.

[Bromeliaceae] RH IN A Paraguay

RT - A India 124 Buddleja asiatica Lour. [Buddlejaceae]

RT DE A Pakistan

125 Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) Clarke [Cyperaceae]

LF,ST - C Argentina

126 Bursera simaruba (L.)Sarg.[Burseraceae]

BR DE C Panama

127 Butea monosperma (Lam.)

Kuntze [Fabaceae]

FL,LF,

SD

- A,E India

128 Caesalpinia bonducella Linn. [Fabaceae]

SD PO E India

129 Caesalpinia pulchrrima

(Linn.) Swartz. [Fabaceae] LF IN A,E India,Nigeria

130 Caesalpinia sappan Linn. [Fabaceae]

WD,LF DE E India

131 Caladium seguinium (Jacq.) Vent. [Araceae ]

PL JU C South America, Germany,India

132 Calendula officinalis Linn. [Asteraceae]

FL - A,E India

133 Callicarpa macrophylla

Vahl. [Verbenaceae] - - C India

134 Callicarpa sp. [Verbenaceae] LF JU C Torres-Straits

135 Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R. Br. [Asclepiadaceae]

RB JU A India

136 Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br.

[Asclepiadaceae]

LA, PL,

RT

DE A India

137 Camptosema paraguariense var. Parviflorum Hassl.[Fabaceae]

LF,RT DE C Paraguay

138 Canarium indicum (L.) [Burseraceae]

FR (Nut) PO S Papua New Guinea

139 Cannabis sativa Linn.Syn. C.

indica (Lamk.)Wehmer [Moraceae]

- - A,E India

Literature review


140 Capsella bursa-pastoris

Moench. [Brassicaceae] PL IN A,E Ethopia

141 Careya arborea Roxb. [Lecythidaceae]

FB PA C India

142 Carica papaya Linn. [Caricaceae]

SD DE A,E India

143 Carthamus tinctorius L. Syn. Cnicus indicus [Asteraceae]

FL - A Indochina

144 Carum carvi Linn. [Apiaceae]

FR DE S India

145 Cascabela thevetia (Linn.) Lippold [Apocynaceae]

SD PA A India

146 Casearia ilicifolia Vent. [Flacourtiaceae]

LF DE A,E Haiti

147 Cassia alata L. Roxb.

[Fabaceae]

LF DE A Cameroon

148 Cassia fistula Linn. [Fabaceae]

FR Pulp A India

149 Cassia lanceolata Linn. & Forsk. [Fabaceae]

LF PO C India

150 Cassia occidentalis Linn. [Fabaceae]

RT PO C India

151 Castilleja angustifolia

[Scrophulariaceae] - DE C United States

152 Casurina equisetifolia J.R. et G.Forst. [Casuarinaceae]

SB,

LF

JU C Vanautu

153 Catasetum fimbriatum Lindl. [Orchidaceae]

Bu S C Paraguay

154 Caulophyllum thalictroides

L. [Berberidaceae] RT DE A, C United States

155 Cayratia trifolia Domin. [Vitiaceae]

FR FR C Vanautu

156 Cedrela odorata L. [Meliaceae]

BR IN A Mexico

157 Cedrela toona Roxb. [Meliaceae]

FL - E India

158 Celastrus paniculata Willd. [Celastraceae]

SD Oil A, E India

Literature review


159 Celosia argentea Linn. [Amaranthaceae]

RT PA A India

160 Cenchrus biflorus Roxb. [Poaceae]

ST,

SD

PO A India

161 Cerbera manghas Linn. [Apocynaceae]

FR - A India

162 Cerbera odollam Gaertn.

[Apocynaceae]

SD,

LF

JU A India

163 Cestrum nocturnum Linn. [Solanaceae]

FL,LF IN A Mexico

164 Cetraria islandica L. Ach. [Parmeliaceae]

TH DE E Italy

165 Cheirantus Cheiri L. [Brassicaceae]

FL,SD DE E Jordan

166 Chelidonium majus Linn. [Papaveraceae]

PL JU C Soviet Union

167 Chenopodium album Linn. [Chenopodiaceae]

PL - A Hungary

168 Chenopodium ambrosioides

L. [Chenopodiaceae] PL - A, E Central and South

America

169 Chenopodium botrys Linn. [Chenopodiaceae]

LF Syrup E Massachusettes

170 Chenopodium hybridum

Linn. [Chenopodiaceae] LF IN E Massachusettes

171 Chenopodium multifidum Linn. [Chenopodiaceae]

PL - A,E Central and South America

172 Chrysanthemum indicum

Linn.

[Asteraceae]

- - E India

173 Chrysanthemum parthenium

(L.) Pers. [Asteraceae] LF DE A Pakistan

174 Chusquea ramosissima

Lindm. [Poaceae] YS Chewed C Paraguay

175 Cicer arietinum Linn. [Fabaceae]

- - E India

176 Cichorium intybus Linn. [Asteraceae]

SD - E India

Literature review


177 Cicuta maculata Linn. [Apiaceae]

RT Chewed C United States

178 Cienfuegosia drummondii Lewton [Malvaceae]

RT DE C Paraguay

179 Cinchona calisaya Wedd.

[Rubiaceae]

BR DE A India

180 Cinnamomum camphora

Nees & Eberm. [Lauraceae] - Oil E India

181 Cinnamomum cassia Blume [Lauraceae]

- Oil E India

182 Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Breyn) Nees [Lauraceae]

BR DE A Spain

183 Cissampelos pareira Linn.

[Menispermaceae]

RT DE E India

184 Citrullus colocynthis Schrad. [Cucurbitaceae]

RT PO A India

185 Citrus bergamia Risso [Rutaceae]

- Oil C Italy

186 Citrus medica Linn. [Rutaceae]

FR DE E India

187 Clerodendrum phlomidis

Linn. f. [Verbenaceae] RT PO S India

188 Clobba marantia

[Zingiberaceae] - - C Melanesia, Gunantuna

189 Cnicus benedictus [Asteraceae]

PL IN C North America

190 Cocos nucifera Linn. [Arecaceae]

SD JU C Java

PL - A Vanautu 191 Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl. [Euphorbiaceae]

LF Eaten

raw C Papua New Guinea

192 Coffea arabica L. [Rubiaceae]

BE DE A Italy

193 Coix lacryma-jobi L. [Poaceae]

SD IN A,E Korea

194 Commelina erecta Linn. [Commelinaceae]

PX DE C Paraguay

Literature review


195 Commiphora mukul (Hook. Ex Stocks) [Burseraceae]

RE - E India

196 Copaifera guyanensis Desf. [Fabaceae]

SD DE A Brazil

197 Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. [Boraginaceae]

FR DE A India

198 Cordia gharaf Roxb. [Boraginaceae]

LF - A India

199 Cordia quarensis Gürke

[Boraginaceae]

RT Chewed C Africa

200 Cordia rothii Roem. & Schult [Boraginaceae]

RT - A India

201 Costus speciosus Koeing

[Zingiberaceae]

RH PA A India

202 Crassocephalum montuossum [Asteraceae]

LF DE A Uganda

203 Crateva magna (Lour.) DC. [Capparidaceae]

ST twig - A Pakistan

204 Crataeva nurvala Buch.Ham. [Capparidaceae]

SB DE C India

205 Crocus sativus Linn.

[Iridaceae]

FL - A,E India

206 Crotalaria juncea Linn. [Fabaceae]

LF - A,E India

207 Croton lobatus HBK. Hutch.[Euphorbiaceae]

PL IN S Ivory Coast

208 Croton penduliflorus Hutch. [Euphorbiaceae]

FR PA A Nigeria

209 Croton tiglium Linn. [Euphorbiaceae]

RT,

SD

Oil A Africa

FR - A,E India 210 Cuminum cyminum Linn. [Apiaceae]

FR DE A Tunisia

211 Cupressus sempervirens Linn. [Cupressaceae]

- - A Italy

212 Curarea tecunarum Barneby & Krukoff [Menispermaceae]

ST WE C Brazil

Literature review


213 Curcuma longa Linn. [Zingiberaceae]

RH DE E India

214 Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. [Zingiberaceae]

RH - E India

- DE E India 215 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. [Convolvulaceae]

SD - C Pakistan

216 Cuscuta sp. (Tourn.) Linn. [Convolvulaceae]

PL - C United States

217 Cydista potosina (K Schum & Loes) Loes [Bignoniaceae]

- IN A Mexico

218 Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Staph Syn. Andropogon

citratus DC. [Poaceae]

RT DE E Latin america

219 Cynodon dactylon Pers. [Poaceae]

PL WE A India

220 Cyperus esculentus

[Cyperaceae] PE IN A Cameroon

221 Cyperus redolens Maury

[Cyperaceae]

RT MA C Paraguay

222 Cyperus rotundus Linn.

[Cyperaceae]

TU - E India

223 Cytisus scoparius Linn.

[Fabaceae]

LF DE A Pakistan

224 Daphne genkwa Sieh, et Zucc. [Thymelaeaceae]

FL, RT - A China

225 Datura metel Linn. [Solanaceae]

LF, FR, RT

DE C India

226 Daucus carota Linn. [Apiaceae]

SD IN A India

227 Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsahusen [Loranthaceae]

ST PA A India

228 Dendrocalamus strictus

(Roxb.) [Poaceae] LF PA A India

229 Derris brevipes Baker. [Fabaceae]

RT PO C India

Literature review


230 Desmodium retroflexum DC. [Fabaceae]

RT - E India

231 Dieffenbachia sequine (Jack) Schott [Araceae]

LF, ST Chewed C Dominic Puerto Rico, Santa Lucia, Cuba

232 Dioscorea composita

(Hemsl.) [Dioscoreaceae] TU - C Indio’s American

233 Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn. [Dioscoreaceae]

TU EX C India

234 Dioscorea sativa Thunb. [Dioscoreaceae]

TU Eaten raw

C Australia

235 Diospyros cordifolia Roxb.

[Ebenaceae]

FR,

RT

DE A India

236 Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. [Ebenaceae]

RT DE A Cameroon

237 Dolichandrone falcata Seem. [Bignoniaceae]

- - A India

238 Drosera burmannii Vahl. [Droseraceae]

PL PA A India

239 Duckesia verrucosa (Ducke) Cuatrec. [Humiriaceae]

SD DE C Brazil

240 Dryopteris felix-mas (Linn.) Schott [Polypodiaceae]

RT,

SD

IN C Europe, India

241 Dryopteris normalis C. Chr. [Polypodiaceae]

- DE C Mexico

242 Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum

(Juss.) Miq. [Meliaceae] LF Tea A Vanautu

243 Echinochloa frumentacea Linn. [Poaceae]

SD - S India

244 Echinops echinatus Roxb. [Asteraceae]

PL DE A India

245 Ehretia cymosa Thonn. [Boraginaceae]

LF, BR - C Nigeria

246 Eleutherine bulbosa Urb. [Iridaceae]

BU - A,E Haiti, Peru

247 Embelia ribes Burm. f. [Myrsinaceae]

RT DE C India

248 Endopleura uchi (Huber) Cuatrec. [Humiriaceae]

BR DE, MA A Brazil

Literature review


249 Entada scandens Benth. [Fabaceae]

SD Raw C Australia

250 Epimedium alpinum Linn. [Berberidaceae]

LF,

RT

Taken in wine

C Europe

251 Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engl.[Araceae]

LF JU A Vanautu

252 Eriogonum jamesii Benth. [Polygonaceae]


253 Eriosema crinitum (Kunth) G. Don [Fabaceae]

RT DE A,C Brazil

254 Eryngium foetidum L. [Apiaceae]

RT DE A,E Cuba, Venezuela

255 Erythrina indica Lam. [Fabaceae]

LF, RT - E India

256 Erythrina variegata Linn. Var. [Fabaceae]

- - E India

257 Erythroxylum coca Lam. [Erythroxylaceae]

LF - E India

258 Eugenia uniflora L. [Myrtaceae]

LF IN E Mauritius

259 Euodia elleryana F. Muell.

[Rutaceae]

BR JU C Papua New Guinea

RT - C Central America 260 Eupatoriun odoratum Linn. [Asteraceae]

PL - E India

261 Eupatoriun squalidum DC. [Asteraceae]

IF - C Paraguay

262 Euphorbia atoto Forst. f. [Euphorbiaceae]

- JU A,E Philippines, Vietnam

263 Euphorbia caducifolia Hains. [Euphorbiaceae]

RT DE A Pakistan

264 Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. [Euphorbiaceae]

RT DE A India

265 Euphorbia resinifera Berg.

[Euphorbiaceae]

- - A India

266 Euphorbia tirucalli Linn. [Euphorbiaceae]

PL JU E India

Literature review


PL JU A India 267 Excoecaria agallocha Linn. [Euphorbiaceae]

RT DE A Papua New Guinea

268 Ferula assa-foetida Linn. [Apiaceae]

RE Mixed with food

E India

269 Fevillea passiflora Vell. [Cucurbitaceae]

SD - A Brazil

270 Ficus religosa Linn. [Moraceae]

FR Mixed with sugar

C Pakistan

271 Ficus wassa Roxb. [Moraceae]

RT - C Papua New Guinea

272 Flagellaria indica Linn. [Flagellariaceae]

LF JU C Vanautu

273 Flemingia strobilifera (L.) J. St.-Hil Syn. Moghania

strobilifera (L.) J. St.-Hil. [Fabaceae]

SD Chewed C Papua New Guinea

274 Fleura aestuans Linn. [Urticaceae]

RT DE A Cameroon

275 Flemingia strobilifera R. Br. [Fabaceae]

PL - A Islanders of Indian ocean

276 Flueggea virosa (Willd.) Voigt [Phyllanthaceae]

RT DE A Uganda

277 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. [Apiaceae]

SD - E India

278 Franseria artemisioides

Willd. [Asteraceae] PL DE C Colombia

279 Fragaria vesca Linn. [Rosaceae]

LF, RH DE E Italy

280 Galium mexicanum var.

mexicanum de Wit [Rubiaceae]

LF IN A Mexico

281 Garcinia morella Desr. [Clusiaceae]

RE - E India

282 Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. [Rubiaceae]

LF - A China

283 Geum urbanum L. [Rosaceae] RT DE E Italy

Literature review


284 Glochidon sp. [Euphorbiaceae]

LF - C Vanautu

285 Glandularia platensis

(Spreng.) Schnack & Covas [Verbenaceae]

LF - C Argentina

286 Gloriosa superba Linn. [Liliaceae]

TU DE A India

287 Glossocardia bosvallia DC. [Asteraceae]

PL - E India

288 Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. [Fabaceae]

RT DE E India

289 Gossypium barbadense Linn. [Malvaceae]

RT DE A,C,E Mexico,Central America

290 Gossypium herbaceum Linn. [Malvaceae]

RT DE C India, South America

291 Gossypium indicum Lam. [Malvaceae]

SD - A, E India

292 Grewia colunnaris Sm.

[Tiliaceae]

RT PO S India

293 Hagenia abyssinica. Syn.

Brayera anthalmintica

[Rosaceae]

- - A India

294 Haematoxylon

campechianum L. [Fabaceae] PL DE A West Indies

295 Hamelia erecta Jacq. [Rubiaceae]

LF Tea A Mexico

296 Hamelia patens Jacq. [Rubiaceae]

LF DE A West Indies

297 Hedeoma pulegoides Linn. [Labiateae]

PX With tepid water

A Greek

298 Hedera helix Linn. [Araliaceae]

FR DE C Mediterranean

299 Helleborus foetidus Linn.

[Ranunculaceae]

RT - E Italy

300 Hibiscus abelmoschus Linn. [Malvaceae]

FL IN C Viti Islands

301 Hibiscus manihot Linn. [Malvaceae]

BR - E India

Literature review


PT - A India 302 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. [Malvaceae]

SB MA A Cameroon

303 Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. [Malvaceae]

FL Smoked with Tobacco

C Melanesia, Gunantuna

304 Holoptelea integrifolia

(Roxb.) Planch [Ulmaceae] RB - A India

305 Homalanthus novoguineensis

(Warb.) K. Schum. [Euphorbiaceae]

LF JU C Papua New Guinea

306 Huperzia saururus (Lam.) Trevis. [Lycopodiaceae]

PL - C Argentina

307 Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn. [Apiaceae]

PL - E India

308 Hymenaea stigonocarpa

Mart. ex Hayne [Fabaceae] BR DE C Brazil

309 Hypericum chinensis Linn. [Clusiaceae]

LF IN E Mauritius

310 Hypochoeris brasiliensis

(Less.) Benth. LF, RT DE C Paraguay

311 Hyptis cana Pohl ex Benth. [Labiateae]

LF DE A Brazil

312 Hyptis suaveolens Poit. [Labiatae]

LF DE E India, Nepal

313 Indigofera linnaei Ali [Fabaceae]

RT - C India

314 Jacaranda copaia (Aublet.) D. Don. [Bignoniaceae]

TU JU C Brazil

315 Jasminum multiflorum (Burm. f.) Andrews [Oleaceae]

- - E India

316 Jodinia rhombifolia (Hook. & Arn.) Reissek [Santalaceae]

LF - A Argentina

317 Juglans regia Linn. [Juglandaceae]

LF IN C Slovakia

318 Juniperus communis Linn. [Cupressaceae]

PX,ST, FR

DE, fruit oil

C,E India

319 Juniperus oxycedrus Linn. [Cupressaceae]

Berry - A North America

Literature review


320 Juniperus sabina

Linn.[Coniferae] LF - A Massachusettes

321 Justicia simplex D. Don Justicia japonica Thunb. [Acanthaceae]

RT PO C India

322 Kopsia sp. [Apocynaceae] LF Boiled leaf buds

C Vanautu

323 Lagenaria siceraria Standl. Syn. L. vulgaris

[Cucurbitaceae]

FR,

SD

DE E India

LF DE E India 324 Laurus nobilis Linn. [Lauraceae]

Raw berry

Distillate A Lebanan

325 Lawsonia inermis Linn. Syn. L. alba [Lythraceae]

LF PO A India

326 Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. [Labiatae]

LF IN A Jamaica

327 Lepidium sativum Linn. [Brassicaceae]

SD Oil A,E India

328 Licuala sp. [Arecaceae] RB Chewed C Islands (Buka)

329 Ligusticum porter Coult. and Rose [Apiaceae]

RT DE E America, Europe

330 Ligusticum scoticum L.

[Apiaceae]

SD - E Massachusetts

331 Lithospermum arvense Linn. [Boraginaceae]

PL Mixed with food

- Europe

332 Lithospermum officinale

Linn. [Boraginaceae] RT IN C United States

333 Lithospermum ruderale

[Boraginaceae] RT IN C United States

334 Lobelia nicotianifolia Heyne [Campanulaceae]

PL DE C Indian

335 Lonicera ciliosa

[Caprifoliaceae] LF IN C United States

336 Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. [Cucurbitaceae]

RB DE A India

Literature review


337 Luffa echinata Roxb. [Cucurbitaceae]

- - A India

338 Lycopodium annotinum Linn. [Lycopodiaceae]

PL DE C Soviet Union

339 Lycopodium clavatum Linn. [Lycopodiaceae]

PL - E India

340 Lycopodium complanatum

Linn. [Lycopodiaceae ] - DE E Massachusettes

341 Lygodium dichotomum

Sw.[Schizaeaceae] RT - C Buka Islands

342 Mallotus philippinensis

Muell. [Euphorbiaceae] FR DE C India

343 Mallotus sp. [Euphorbiaceae] RT - C Oceania (Buka)

344 Malva parviflora L. [Malvaceae]

PL DE A India

345 Mardenia molissima E. Fourn. [Apocynaceae]

RT DE A Brazil

346 Mareya micrantha (Benth.) Müll.Arg. [Euphorbiaceae]

BR, LF DE A Nigeria

347 Mariscus cylindristachyus

Steud.[Cyperaceae] PE - A Cameroon

348 Marsdenia tenacissima

(Wright & Arn.) [Asclepiadaceae]

RT DE E India

349 Maytenus ilicifolia Mart. [Celastraceae]

LF, RT DE C Paraguay

350 Melastoma malabathricum Linn. [Melastomataceae]

PL - A Islanders of Indian Ocean

351 Melia azadirachta Linn. [Malvaceae]

FL, LF,

RE

- C India

352 Melochia hermannioides Saint. Hill. [Sterculaceae]

RT MA C Paraguay

353 Memecylon amplexicaule

Roxb. [Melastomataceae] - - A India

LF DE E India 354 Mentha arvensis Linn. [Labiatae]

PL PO C Pakistan

Literature review


355 Mentha longifolia Linn. [Labiateae]

LF PO C Pakistan

356 Mentha pulegium Linn. [Labiateae]

LF IN A America

357 Mesua ferrea Linn. [Clusiaceae]

LF PO C India

358 Meyna spinosa Roxb.ex. Link

[Rubiaceae] FR, SD PA A India

359 Michelia champaca Linn. [Magnoliaceae]

LF MA S India

360 Microglossa pyrifolia Lam. Kuntze [Asteraceae]

LF, RT - A Nigeria

361 Micromeria brownei (Sw.) Benth. [Labiatae]

LF - A Jamaica

362 Mimosa pudica Linn. [Fabaceae]

RT DE,JU

C India

363 Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. [Rubiaceae]

BR - C India

364 Mollugo cerviana Ser. [Ficoidaceae]

FL DE E

365 Mollugo pentaphylla Linn.

[Ficoidaceae]

PL - E

India

RT DE E India 366 Momordica charantia Linn. [Cucurbitaceae]

SD - A Cameroon, Pakistan

367 Momordica foetida Schum.

[Cucurbitaceae]

LF - A Cameroon

368 Morinda citrifolia Linn. [Rubiaceae]

LF, FR DE A,E India

369 Momordica tuberosa Cogn. Syn. M. cymbalaria

[Cucurbitaceae]

RT DE A India

370 Moringa concanesis Nimmo ex Dalz. And Gibs. [Moringaceae]

SB - A India

371 Moringa oleifera Lam.Syn. M.pterygosperma Gaertn.

[Moringaceae]

SB - A,E India

Literature review


372 Mouriri pusa Gardner [Melastomataceae]

BR,

LF

DE C Brazil

373 Murraya panniculata (Linn.) Jack. [Rutaceae]

RT - A China

ST, FL PO A India 374 Musa sapientum L.Syn. M.

paradisiacal auct. [Musaceae]

RT PO A Ethopia

375 Myristica fragrans Houtt [Myristicaceae]

SD - A India

376 Nepeta cataria Linn. [Labiateae]

PL DE C Pakistan

377 Nardostachys gradiflora DC. [Valerianaceae]

ST - C India

378 Narcissus tazetta Linn.

[Amaryllidaceae]

- - A -

379 Nardostachys jatamansi DC. [Valerianaceae]

RT DE E India

380 Nasturtium officinalis R.Br. [Brassicaceae]

PL - A Pakistan

PL - E India

RT - A Pakistan

381 Nerium indicum Mill. [Apocynaceae]

LF DE A Italy

PL - A India 382 Nerium odorum Soland. Syn. N. oleander [Apocynaceae]

RT - A Pakistan

383 Nicotiana tabaccum Linn.

[Solanaceae]

LF MA A Cameroon

384 Nierembergia linariefolia

Graham [Solanaceae] PL - A Argentina

385 Nigella sativa Linn.Syn. N.

indica [Ranunculaceae] SD PO A,E India

386 Nothocnide repanda (Bl.) Bl. [Urticaceae]

LF JU A Vanautu

387 Ocimum basilicum Linn. [Labiatae]

LF Chewed C Gunantuna

388 Olea europea Linn. [Oleaceae]

LF DE A Italy

Literature review


389 Ocimum sanctum Linn. [Labiatae]

LF - E India

390 Omalanthus nutans (Forst. f.) Guillemin [Euphorbiaceae]

FR - A Vanautu

391 Origanum majorana Linn. [Labiatae]

LF - A Germany

- Oil A India 392 Origanum vulgare Linn. [Labiatae]

FL DE E Italy

393 Oxalis physocalyx Zucc. ex Progel [Oxalidaceae]

PL JU A Brazil

394 Oxytenanthera abyssinica Munero [Poaceae]

LF - A Cameroon

395 Paeonia officinalis Linn. [Ranunculaceae]

- DE C Soviet Union

396 Pandanus odoratissimus L.f. [Pandanaceae]

RT, IF - A India

- - A India 397 Pandanus tectorius Soland. Ex Parkinson [Pandanaceae]

SB - C Vanautu

398 Papaver somniferum Linn. [Papaveraceae]

FR Milk from raw capsule

A Pakistan

399 Pedilanthus tithymaloides (L.) Poit.[Euphorbiaceae]

ST - A India

400 Peganum harmala Linn. [Zygophyllaceae]

PL - A,E India

401 Pemphis acidula J.R. et G. Forst. [Lythraceae]

SB IN A Vanautu

402 Pericopsis angolensis (Bak.) van Meeuwen [Fabaceae]

RT DE A Tanzania

PL - A,C Amazon, Cuba, Haiti 403 Persea americana Mill. [Lauraceae]

SD Fresh C,S Peru

404 Petrea volubilis

[Verbenaceae] - - A Jamaica

405 Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) [Apiaceae]

LF DE A,C Argentina, Spain

406 Peucedanum graveolens

Benth. [Apiaceae] SD - E India

Literature review


407 Phaseolus bracteatus Nees et Mart. [Fabaceae]

RT DE S Paraguay

408 Philodendron dyscarpium

R.E. Schult. [Araceae] LF PO C Columbia

409 Phlox stansburyi (Torr.) A. Heller [Polemoniaceae]

LF DE C United States

410 Phoradendron macrophyllum

(Engelm.) Kokerell [Loranthaceae]

- DE C California

411 Phyllantus ciccoides M.A. [Euphorbiaceae]

SB JU C Vanautu

412 Physalis angulata Linn. [Solanaceae]

SD PO A Cameroon

413 Physalis alkekengi Linn. [Solanaceae]

FR PO A Iran

414 Physalis minima Linn. [Solanaceae]

PX DE C India

415 Physalis angulata Linn.

[Solanaceae]

SD PO A Cameroon

416 Picrorhiza kurrooa Benth. [Scrophulariaceae]

RH - A,E India

417 Piliostigma thonningii

(Schum.) Milne-Redh.[Fabaceae]

RT - C East Africa

418 Pipturus argenteus (Forst. F.) Wedd. [Urticaceae]

SB PO C Vanautu

419 Piper longum Linn. [Piperaceae]

FR - A,E India

420 Pisum sativum Linn. [Fabaceae]

SD - C India

421 Plantago lanceolata Linn. [Plantaginaceae]

PL PO Europe

422 Plectranthus scutellarioides (L.) R.Br. [Labiatae]

LF JU A Vanautu

423 Pleioceras barteri Baill. [Apocynaceae]

LF,

RT

JU A,E Nigeria

424 Plumbago indica Linn.

Syn. P. rosea

[Plumbaginaceae]

RT DE A India

Literature review


425 Plumbago ovata Forsk. [Plantaginaceae]

SD, Husk Mucilage

A Pakistan

426 Plumbago zeylanica Linn. [Plumbaginaceae]

RT DE A India

427 Plumeria acuminata Ait.

Syn. P. acutifolia Poir.

[Apocynaceae]

RT PA A India

428 Pneumatopteris glandulifera

(Brackeneridge) Holtt. [Thelypteridaceae]

LF Raw C Vanautu

429 Polygala monyicola

var. brizoides Steyerm [Polygalaceae]

PL - C China

430 Polygala longicaulis H.B.K. [Polygalaceae]

FL, SD - C China

431 Pongamia pinnata L. Pierre [Fabaceae]

SB JU A Vanautu

432 Populus alba Linn. [Salicaceae]

SB DE C Mediterranean

433 Pouzolzia hypoleuca Wedd. [Urticaceae]

RT IF,PO C Zimbabwe

434 Prangos ferulacea Lindl.

[Apiaceae]

LF DE A Iran

435 Prangos pabularia Lindl.

[Apiaceae]

RT DE E India

436 Prosopis algarobilla Griseb. [Fabaceae]

RT DE C South America

BR, FL PO S,A India 437 Prosopis cinearia (Linn.) Druce [Fabaceae]

RT,FR - S,A India

438 Prosopis ruscifolia Gris. [Fabaceae]

LF DE A Paraguay

439 Prunus emarginata

[Rosaceae] WD DE C United States

440 Prunus mahaleb Linn. [Rosaceae]

SD - E India

441 Psittacanthus robustus Mart. [Lorantaceae]

LF DE A Brazil

Literature review


442 Pterocarpus angolensis DC. [Fabaceae]

SB - A Tanzania

443 Pterocarpus erinaceous Poir. [Fabaceae]

LF, ST - A Nigeria

444 Pterocarpus indicus Willd. [Fabaceae]

SB JU C Vanautu

445 Pterocarpus officinalis Jacq.

[Fabaceae]

BR, WD DE A,E Haiti, West Indies

446 Punica granatum Linn. [Punicaceae]

PC - A,C,E India

447 Pyrethrum indicum DC. [Asteraceae]

RT DE A India

448 Pyrethrum umbelliferum

Boiss. [Asteraceae] RT - A India

449 Pyrrosia confluens (R.Br.) Ching [Polypodiaceae]

ST - C Vanautu

450 Randia dumetorum Lamk. [Rubiaceae]

SD - A India

451 Randia spinosa (Poir.) [Rubiaceae]

FR - A India

452 Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. [Ranunculaceae]

PL - E India

453 Rhamnus catharticus Linn. [Rhamnaceae]

- - E Massachusettes

454 Raphanus sativus Linn. [Brassicaceae]

SD - E India

455 Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. [Apocynaceae]

RT DE A India

456 Rauwolfia vomitoria afz.

[Apocynaceae]

RT IN A Cameroon

457 Rosmarinus officinalis Linn.

[Labiatae]

PL DE C Central America

458 Rhoeo spathacea (SW.) Stearn.

[Commelinaceae]

LF IN A,E Haiti, West Indies

459 Rhus trilobata Nutt. [Anacardiaceae]

LF DE C United states

Literature review


460 Rhynchospora cephalotes

(L.) Vahl [Cyperaceae] RT DE C Brazil

461 Rhynchosia minima DC. [Fabaceae]

LF DE A India

462 Rhytidophyllum auriculatum

Hook [Gesneriaceae] LF DE A,E Haiti, West Indies

463 Ricinus communis Linn. [Euphorbiaceae]

SD PO C Pakistan

464 Rivea hypocrateriformis

Choisy. [Convolvulaceae] PX DE C India

465 Rourea induta Planch. [Connaraceae]

LF, RT DE A Brazil

466 Rubia cordifolia Linn. [Rubiaceae]

RT - A,E India

467 Rubus moluccanus Linn. [Rosaceae]

LF DE A,E India

468 Rudbeckia laciniata L. Syn. R.hirta L.[Asteraceae]

PL DE E Mexico

469 Ruellia tuberosa L. [Acanthaceae]

- - A America

470 Ruta angustifolia Linn. [Rutaceae]

LF Oil A India

471 Ruta chalepensis Linn. [Rutaceae]

PL IN A Mexico

472 Ruta graveolens Linn.

[Rutaceae]

LF Oil A,E India, United States

473 Ruta montana Linn.

[Rutaceae]

PX DE A Spain

474 Saccharum bengalense Retz. [Poaceae]

LF DE A India

475 Saccharum officinarum L. [Poaceae]

ST JU A Cameroon

476 Salsola sp. [Chenopodiaceae] LF IN C Algiers

477 Salvia plebeia R. Br. [Labiatae]

SD DE A India

478 Samida rosea Sims. [Flacourtiaceae]

LF - A,E Haiti

Literature review


479 Santalum album Linn. [Santalaceae]

PL - A India

480 Sapindus trifoliatus Auct. [Sapindaceae]

SD DE A India

481 Scaevola sericea Vahl. [Goodeniaceae]

LF - C Vanautu

482 Schinus areira L. [Anacardiaceae]

LF - A Argentina

483 Scilla indica (Baker) [Liliaceae]

BU - E India

484 Sclerolobium aureum (Tul.) Baill. [Fabaceae]

BR DE C Brazil

485 Semecarpus anacardium

Linn. [Anacardiaceae] RT Cooked

roots A,E India

486 Siegesbeckia orientalis L. [Asteraceae]

LF IN E Mauritius

487 Sida acuta Burm.f. [Malvaceae]

LF Fresh A Cameroon

488 Senecio aureus Linn. [Asteraceae]

PX DE A,C United States

489 Sesamum indicum DC. [Pedaliaceae]

SD PA taken orally

A,E India

490 Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers. [Fabaceae]

LF, SD PA E India

491 Sterculia banksiana Guillaumin [Sterculaceae]

LF JU A Vanautu

492 Stephavia japonica (Thumb.) Miers. [Menispermaceae]

RT PA A India

493 Semecarpus stellata Linn. [Anacardiaceae]

RT DE C India

494 Sium latifolium Linn. [Apiaceae]

- - E Massachusettes

495 Smithia conferta J.E. Sm. [Fabaceae]

LF EX A India

496 Smilax fluminensis Steudel [Liliaceae]

RH DE, IN A Paraguay

497 Smilacina stellata [Liliaceae] RT, LF IN C United states

498 Simaba suffruticosa Engl. [Simaroubaceae]

RT MA A Brazil

Literature review


499 Solanum agrarium Sendtn. [Solanaceae]

RT DE A Brazil

500 Solanum incanum L. Syn. Solanum sanctum L. [Solanaceae]

FR - C India, Nigeria

501 Solenostemon scutellarioides

L. [Labiatae] PL - E Vanautu

502 Sporobolus indicus (L.) Brong. [Poaceae]

LF - C Argentina

503 Solanum virginianum Linn. [Solanaceae]

RT DE A India

504 Soymida febrifuga A. Juss [Meliaceae]

SB DE A India

505 Sphaeralcea munroana

(Douglas) Spanch. [Malvaceae]


506 Stemodia durantifolia (L.) S.

[Scrophulariaceae] PL DE A,E Haiti, West Indies

507 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis

Vahl Enum. Syn. Verbena

jamaicensis [Verbenaceae]

- - A India

508 Stephavia japonica (Thumb.) Miers. [Menispermaceae]

RT PA A India

509 Stemodia ericifolia K. Schum. [Scrophulariaceae]

PL DE C Paraguay

510 Stevia rebaudiana

[Asteraceae] LF, ST IN C Paraguay

511 Stenomesson incarnatum

(Kunth) Baker [Amaryllidaceae]

BU A Peru

512 Stenomesson variegatum

[Amaryllidaceae] - - C South America

513 Stipa tenacissima Linn. [Poaceae]

SD DE A Spain

514 Strychnos pseudoquina A.

[Loganiaceae]

LF, SB DE A Brazil

515 Stylosanthes scabra Vog. [Fabaceae]

PX MA S Paraguay

516 Styrax benzoin Dryand. [Styracaceae]

BR, IF - A Islanders of Indian Ocean

517 Syagrus petraea (Mart.) Becc. [Arecaceae]

FR - C Brazil

Literature review


518 Tabernaemontana heyneana

Wall. [Apocynaceae] LA - A India

519 Tagetes erectus [Asteraceae] FL - E Nigeria

520 Tanacetum parthenium L. Sch. [Asteraceae]

PX IN A Mexico

521 Tanacetum vulgare Linn. [Asteraceae]

FL, LF IN A,C United States

522 Taxus baccata Linn. [Taxaceae]

FR - E India

523 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. [Taxaceae]

LF - A Pakistan

524 Tecomella undulata (Roxb.) Seem. [Bignoniaceae]

BR PO A Pakistan

525 Tephrosia purpurea Linn.

Pers. [Fabaceae] LF - A India

526 Tephrosia densiflora Hook.f. [Fabaceae]

RT DE A Nigeria

527 Thelypteris cf. scalaris

(Christ.) Alton [Thelypteridaceae]

PL Fresh or dried

C Peru

528 Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. Syn. Thevetia

neriifolia

[Apocynaceae]

SD PA A India

529 Thysanolaena (Roxb.) O. Kuntze [Poaceae]

FL PA C India

530 Tillandsia decomposita

Baker[Bromeliaceae] FS DE C South America

531 Tournefortia bicolor S. [Boraginaceae]

LF IN A,E Haiti, west Indies

532 Trachylobium

hornemannianum

Heyne. [Fabaceae]

RE - E India

533 Trachyspermum

roxburghianum

(DC.) Sprague Syn. Carum

roxburghianum [Apiaceae]

- - E India

534 Trianthema pentandra Linn. [Aizoaceae]

PL - A India

Literature review


535 Trianthema portulacastrum

Linn. [Aizoaceae] RT PO A India

536 Trichosanthes bracteata

(Lam.) Voigt Syn. T. palmata [Cucurbitaceae]

SD PO A India

537 Trichosanthes cucumerina

Linn. [Cucurbitaceae] - - E India

538 Trifolium subterraneum Linn. [Fabaceae]

- - A India

539 Trichosanthes tricuspidata

Lour. [Cucurbitaceae] SD PO C India

540 Trigonella foenumgraeceum

Linn. [Fabaceae] SD - E India

541 Triumfetta bartramia Linn. [Tiliaceae]

RT IN E India

542 Turnera ulmifolia Linn. [Turneraceae]

LF IN A Jamaica

543 Tussilago farfara Linn. [Asteraceae]

LF,RT - A India

544 Uraria lagopoides DC. [Fabaceae]

PL DE A India

545 Uraria lagopodioides Desv. [Fabaceae]

PL PA A India

546 Urena lobata Linn. [Malvaceae]

LF JU C India,

New Ireland

547 Urginea indica Kunth. [Liliaceae]

BU - E India

548 Uritica dioica Linn. [Urticaceae]

- - E India

549 Urospatha antisylleptica

[Araceae] SP PO C Columbia

550 Valeriana montana Linn. [Valerianaceae]

RT Tea S Montenegro

551 Ventilago neo-caledonica schlecht. [Rhamnaceae]

LF - C Vanautu

552 Veratrum californicum

[Liliaceae]

RT DE C United states

Literature review


553 Vernonia amygdalina Delile [Asteraceae]

LF DE A Cameroon

554 Verbena officinalis Linn. [Verbenaceae]

PL DE A India

555 Vetiveria zizanioides L. Nash Ex Small [Poaceae]

RT - A Mauritius

556 Viburnum foetidum Wall. [Caprifoliaceae]

LF DE,

Oil

E India

557 Viburnum prunifolium Linn. [Caprifoliaceae]

- DE C Italy

558 Vicoa indica (L.) DC.Syn. V.

auriculata Cass, Pentanema

indicum (L.) Ling [Asteraceae]

RT PA S India

559 Vigna phaseoloides Baker [Fabaceae]

RT IN C East Africa

560 Vinca rosea Linn.Syn.

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don., Lochnera rosea (L.) Reichb. [Apocynaceae]

- - A Philippines

561 Viscum articulatum Burm.f. [Viscaceae]

ST Pills A India

562 Vitex agnus-castus Linn. Sp. Pl. [Verbenaceae]

PL - A Europe

563 Vitex lagundi [Verbenaceae] RT - C Kurtachi, North Bougainvile

564 Vitex negundo Linn.

[Verbenaceae]

RT,

SD

DE A,E India, Solomon Islands (Buka)

565 Vitex trifolia Linn. [Verbenaceae]

FR - A India

566 Waltheria americana Linn. [Sterculaceae]

- - A Africa

567 Wedelia gracilis [Asteraceae] PL - A Jamaica

568 Wedelia trilobata (L.) Hitchc. [Asteraceae]

- - A Africa

569 Withania coagulans (Stocks.) Dunal. [Solanaceae]

FR IN E Pakistan

Literature review


PL DE A India 570 Withania somnifera Dunal [Solanaceae]

RT DE A Cameroon

571 Xanthium spinosum Linn. [Asteraceae]

LF - C Spain

572 Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich [Annonaceae]

FR - A Africa

573 Zaluzania triloba (Ort.) Pers. [Asteraceae]

PX IN A Mexico

574 Zingiber officinale Rosc. [Zingiberaceae]

RT PO A

575 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) [Rhamnaceae]

RB PO A

Pakistan

576 Ziziphora tenuior Linn. [Labiatae]

SD IN E India

577 Zizyphus xylopyrus (Retz.)

Willd. [Rhamnaceae]

FR MA C India

*Abbreviations used for Plant part used: AP (All parts), BR (Bark), BU (Bulb), EX (Exudates), FJ

(Fruit juice), FL (Flower), FB (Flower buds), FR (Fruit), FS (Flower stem), GU(Gum), HU (Husk),

IF (Inflorescence), LA(Latex), LF (Leaf), PC (Pericarp), PE (Peduncle), PL (Whole plant), PT

(Petals), PX (Plant without root), RB (Root bark), RE (Resin), RH (Rhizome), RT (Root), SB (stem

bark), SD (Seed), SP (Sapadix), ST (Stem), TH (Thallus)TU (Tuber), WD (wood), YS (Young stem)

† Abbreviation used for formulation used: Decoction (DE), Infusion (IN), Juice (JU), Maceration

(MA), Powder (PO), Paste (PA), Extract (EX), Water Extract (WE)

††Abbreviation used for traditional/folkloric use: Abortifacient (A), Contraceptive (C), Emmenagogue

(E), Steriliser (S)

As can be seen in Table 2 and Figure 4, around 298 plants have been

mentioned as abortifacient (42 %), 188 as contraceptives (31 %), 149 as

emmenagogues (24 %), and 17 as sterilizers (3 %), however, some of the plants have

multiple uses depending on the dose. Among 132 families containing 577 plants

having role in fertility control in females, leguminosae constitutes 5.5 %, asteraceae

4.5 %, compositae 4.3 %, euphorbiaceae 4.2 %, apocynaceae 3.4 %, fabaceae &

umbelliferae 3 % each and others in lesser proportion. Among various parts of plants

used in fertility regulation are leaves (25 %), roots (22 %), fruits (15 %), seeds (12

%), flowers (4 %) and root barks, exudates, gums, buds etc. in small proportion

Literature review


(Figure 5). Most of these species are utilized as decoctions (31 %), infusions (10 %),

powder (8 %), paste and juice (5 % each), maceration (3 %) and others in lower

proportion, mixture with milk/sugar or water (Figure 6).

Figure 4. Herbal antifertility agents

Figure 5. Plant parts used in fertility

Regulation

Figure 6. Herbal dosage forms in fertility regulation

Literature review


2.2 Experimental evidences of medicinal plants use in fertility regulation

Abrus precatorius (Family: Fabaceae) popularly known as Indian licorice is

reported to possess antifertility and anti-implantation properties. Zia-ul-Haque et al.

(1983b) reported the post-coital (days 2-5) antifertility (100 % Sterility) effect of

abridine, isolated constituent from this plant, when administered p.o. at a dose of 1

mg/mL in female rats. In conclusion, A. precatorius possesses 100 % antifertility

activity in female rats33-35.

Acalypha indica L. (Family: Euphorbiaceae) is reported to have a post-coital

antifertility activity. The petroleum ether and ethanol extract of whole plant of AI at

dose of 600 mg/kg body weight p.o. (5-6 days post-coitum) showed significant anti-

implantation activity. The loss of implantation caused by these extracts may be due

to antizygotic, blastocytotoxic or anti-implantation activity. The petroleum ether and

the ethanol extracts also exhibited estrogenic activity as shown by the significant

increase in uterine weight, diameter of the uterus, thickness of endometrium, height

of the endometrial epithelium and vaginal epithelial cornification in immature rats.

In conclusion, A. indica L. possess significant post coital antiimplantation activity in

female albino rats which might be due to the presence of estrogenic nature of sterols

and flavanoids in the extract36-37.

Ailanthus excelsa (Family: Simaroubaceae) has shown strong

antiimplantation (72 %) and abortifacient activitities (56 %) when its stem bark

hydroalcoholic extract was administered at dose levels (200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.).

The extract showed, furthermore, significant (P < 0.05) increase in uterine weight in

immature ovariectomised rats. Simultaneous administration of extract with ethinyl

estradiol caused significant antiestrogenic activity38. Dhanasekaran et al. (1993) also

reported remarkably anti-implantation and early abortifacient activities in female

albino rats at a dose of 250 mg equivalent of plant material/kg body weight39.

Ananas comosus (AC) Linn. (Family: Bromeliaceae) showed abortifacient

properties of juices of the unripe fruits and leaves. Further, antifertility effects of the

petroleum ether extract of the rhizome and green fruits have also been reported40-42.

Pakrashi and Basek (1970) isolated various steroids (Ergosterol peroxide, β-

Sitosterol, 5α-stigmastane-3β,5,6β-triol (III) 3-monobenzoate) from AC leaves, out

Literature review


of which, β-Sitosterol showed significant abortifacient effect after day 1 but no

activity on days 6-7 in mice when administered orally before and after implantation

at a dose of 30 mg/kg body weight. Ergosterol peroxide compound showed the

maximum abortifacient effect at both stages of pregnancy, but the action was

delayed (starting from Days 13-16), especially when given after implantation43.

However, recently Yakubu et al. (2011) have investigated the effect of unripe fruit

juice of AC for abortifacient activity in pregnant Wistar rats (7-14 days after

gestation) and reported that number and weights of live fetuses, number of

implantation sites, corpora lutea, computed percent implantation index, resorption

index, pre- and post-implantation losses were not significantly (p > 0.05) altered.

Neither fetal death nor provoked vaginal bleeding was observed in the pregnant rats

whereas maternal weight increased in all the experimental animals with that of the

control augmenting least. The 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight doses increased (p <

0.05) the serum concentrations of progesterone and oestrogen in the pregnant rats44.

Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. (Family: Aristolochiaceae) is used in India for

their antifertility and abortifacient effects45. The ethyl acetate fraction of the

ethanolic extract of AB was tested for pre-coital and post-coital anti-implantation

and abortifacient activities in female albino rats. The ethyl acetate fraction of

ethanolic extract of aerial parts of AB at doses of 20 and 40 mg/kg body weight by

oral route (5-6 days postcoitum) exhibited 28.86 and 58.65 % anti-implantation

activity, respectively. These treatments also caused 18.61 (P < 0.01) and 37.22 % (P

< 0.001) abortifacient activities, respectively. The total antifertility activity in the

pre-coital studies was found to be 47.47 and 95.87 % for the two doses tested

respectively46. The main active constituent responsible for antifertility activity is

identified as aristolic acid47.

Azadirachta indica (Family: Meliaceae) is perhaps the most useful traditional

medicinal plant in India. Along with leaves, bark, seeds, NIM-76, a volatile fraction

from neem oil is reported to have post-coital antifertility activity in rats, rabbits and

monkeys48. In another study, intrauterine application of neem oil caused a pre-

implantation block in fertility49.

Literature review


Bambusa vulgaris Linn. (Family: Poaceae) is used as an emmenagogue, and

abortifacient in Nigerian folklore medicine50. Its leaves extract at dose 250 mg/kg

body weight significantly (p<0.05) decreased the number of live fetuses, whereas

the 500 mg/kg body weight dose produced no live fetus. The extract at both the

doses reduced the survival rate of the fetus to 29 and 0 %, whereas the same doses

produced abortion at the rate of 60 and 100 %, respectively. The extract also

decreased the concentrations of serum progesterone, follicle-stimulating and

luteinizing hormones. While there was no effect on the weight of the uterus,

uterine/body weight ratio, length of the right uterine horn and uterine cholesterol,

however, the alkaline phosphatase activity and glucose concentration were

decreased significantly51.

Butea monosperma Lam. (Fabaceae) flowers, leaves and seeds have been

traditionally used as abortifacient in India2,3. Butin extracted from seeds of BM

showed anti-implantation activity when administrated orally to adult female rats at

the doses of 5, 10 and 20 mg/rat from day 1 to day 5 of pregnancy and it was

observed that there was a dose dependent termination of pregnancy and reduction in

the number of implantation sites at lower doses and reported Butin, a weak estrogen,

in that a significant uterotrophic effect was discerned even at 1/20th the

anticonceptive dose52. In another study by El-Halawany et al. (2011), methanol

extracts of BM revealed significant estrogenic activity on ERβ only53.

Citrus medica (CM) Linn. (Rutaceae) seeds have exhibited estrogenic

activity54-55. Its alcohol (2.5 mg/kg) and the chloroform extracts (1.0 gm/kg)

exhibited significant anti-implantation activity in female wistar rats (1-7 day post-

coital) respectively. The ethanol and chloroform extract of CM peel showed 71.96

and 77.19 % anti-implantation activity as compared to the control respectively56.

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (HR) Linn. (Malvaceae) flowers have been reported

to possess anti-implantation and antispermatogenic activities9,57. Its ethanolic root

extract, at dose of 400 mg/kg body weight orally from day 1-7 of gestation,

prevented pregnancy in colony-bred female albino rats and showed strong anti-

implantation (100 % inhibition) and uterotropic activities58. In another study on

Literature review


mice, oral administration of the benzene extract of HR flowers, at a dose level of 1

gm/kg body weight/day from day 5-8 of gestation, led to termination of pregnancy

in about 92 % of the animals where the effect was associated with a significant fall

in peripheral level of progesterone and increase in uterine acid phosphatase activity,

as measured on 10th day59.

Embelia ribes Burm. (Family: Myrsinaceae) is one of the ingredient of

Pippaliyadi vati, an ayurvedic contraceptive formulation practiced by females in

India since ancient time60. Embelin, 2, 5-dihydroxy-3-undecyl-p-benzoquinone, the

bioactive molecule in the berries, when administered (15, 30, 60 and 120 mg/kg,

p.o.) in proven fertile female rats exhibited 55.55-83.33 % anti-implantation effect61.

Garg and Garg (1978) have reported that root powder of ER at 100 mg/kg, p.o.

exhibited 100 % inhibition of pregnancy in female albino rats62. Kholkute et al.

(1978) administered powdered berries of ER in the diet at a dose level of 2 and 4

g/day and observed 62 % antifertility activity with a dose of 4 g/day63. Embelin, 50

to 100mg/kg, p.o. in rats (Day 1-7 of pregnancy) exhibited 85.71 % anti-

implantation activity as well as significant antiestrogenic and progestational

properties64.

Gloriosa superb (GS) (Family: Liliaceae) tuber is used as abortifacient in

Zambia65. Malpani et al. (2011) have reported that aqueous extract of GS at doses of

50, 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight by oral route shows significant abortifacient,

antiimplantation and uterotonic activities in female wistar rats. The early

abortifacient activity of the plant is owing to its oxytocic potential which may be due

to the presence of alkaloids such as colchicines66.

Heliotropium indicum (Family: Boraginaceae) is reported to have 40 %

antiimplantation activity67. The leaves ethanol extract, fractioned with n-hexane and

benzene, at oral doses of 200 mg/kg and 400mg/kg body weight in albino rats, has

shown better abortifacient and moderate antiimplantation activities. Ethanol extract

exhibited 50 % abortion whereas n-hexane and Benzene fractions caused 60, 50 &

60 % and 30 & 60 % abortion in pregnant rats respectively at doses of 200 & 400

mg/kg body wt. respectively. The effect on percentage preimplantation loss in

Literature review


pregnant rats was 30 and 35 % in ethanol extract, 40 and 60 % in n-hexane fraction,

30 and 50% in benzene extract at the dose of 200 & 400 mg/kg body weight

respectively68.

Mutreja et al. (2008) investigated effect of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.

(Family: Nymphaeaceae) seeds on the reproductive organs of female rats and

reported that ethanolic seed extract at a dose of 800 mg/kg by oral route brought

about a significant decline in the weight of ovary, protein and glycogen levels and as

a result, caused estrogen inhibition in female rats due to its antiestrogenic nature69.

Piper betel Linn. of family Piperaceae commonly known as the betel vine or

paan [Hindi] is an important medicinal plant whose leaves are widely used as a

mouth freshener in India. Biswal (2014) has reported the antioestrogenic effect of

aqueous and methanolic extracts betel leaves in female albino rats, probabley due to

flavonoid and steroidal contents70.

Plumbago zeylanica L. (Family: Plumbaginaceae) is widely used as a

complementary and alternative medicine around the world. In antifertility study, the

effects of petroleum ether, chloroform, acetone, ethanol and aqueous extracts of the

PZ leaves on the estrous cycle of rats were studied at two dose levels, namely, 200

and 400 mg/kg and assessed with regard to their oestrogenic activity in the same

species. The results indicated that the acetone and ethanol extracts were most

effective in interrupting the estrous cycle of the rats (p<0.05). The animals exhibited

a prolonged diestrous stage of the estrous cycle leading to a temporary inhibition of

ovulation. The antiovulatory activity was reversible on discontinuation of the

treatment. Both extracts showed significant (p<0.05) oestrogenic and anti-

oestrogenic activities71.

Saha et al. (2012) reported that n-BuOH fraction of the tubers ethanolic

extract of Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC, belonging to the family

Fabaceae exhibited significant antifertility activity in laboratory animals. Further,

bioactivity-guided fractionation identified Puerarin as the major constituent that

exerted pregnancy-terminating effects. Oral administration of puerarin at ≥ 300

mg/kg per day for days (D) 1-2 post-coitus resulted in complete implantation

Literature review


failure. Serum oestradiol levels during D2-D5 and progesterone P(4) level on D5

remained unaffected, but the endometrial expression of oestrogen receptor α (ERα)

and ERβ was adversely modulated that disrupted the implantation-specific

characteristic endometrial oestrogenic milieu72.

Vicoa indica (VI) DC. (Family: Asteraceae) is used by the tribal women of

Bihar in India as antifertility agent. The antifertility activity of VI was also tested in

proven fertile bonnet monkeys. The dry powder of the whole plant was fed to the

cycling monkeys on day 1 to 14 of menstrual cycle or day 9 to 14 of cycle or on day

2 to 5 after delivery and the fertility was evaluated in the following cycle in cycle

fed monkey or after weaning the young one in the post-partum fed monkeys. Results

indicated that while feeding in the post-partum monkeys did not confer any

protection against pregnancy feeding during day 1 to 14 of cycle, protected from

pregnancy. The monkeys did not become pregnant even after exposure to the proven

fertile male monkeys for 13 ovulatory cycles while all the vehicle fed monkeys

became pregnant within 3 cycles76. Its isolated compounds, Vicolides B and D

showed antifertility and abortifacient effects in albino rats73. Vicolide B caused

resorption of implants whereas Vicolide D prevented implantation. Vicolide D

showed 52.43% & 71.43% inhibition of implantation and abortifacient activities

respectively, when administered p.o. in rats at a dose of 200 mg/kg body weight74-75.

In another study, Banjauri, herbal medicine containing VI, has successfully

possessed antifertility activity in phase I and II clinical trials77.

2.3 Phytocostituents having antifertility potential

A number of active principles representing numerous chemical compounds

have been envasiged with their probable role in fertility regulation especially in

females (Table 4). The compounds may be alkaloids, glycosides, saponins,

flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, lipids, phenolics etc. obtained from plant sources

and are reported to posseses antifertility activity32 & references therein. Many of these

compounds are found in a single plant and oftenly; their synergistic action may be

seen. Some of the potent phytoconstituents with potential antifertility effects have

been shown in Figure 7.

Literature review


Table 4. Phytoconstituents with reported antifertility potential32 & references therein

S.

No.

Phytoconstituent (s) with

source

Part

used

Dose

mg/kg,

p.o.

Days post

-coitum

Animal Activity

(%)

A Antiimplantation activity

1 Abridine

[Abrus pricatorius L.]

SD 1 mg/

animal

2-5 Rat 100

2 Saponins

[Achyranthes bidentata Blume.]

RT 218 1-10 Mice -

3 Isoadiantone

[Adiantum capillus-veneris]

PL

- - Rat -

5α-stigmastane-3β,5,6β-triol-3-mon

[Ananas comosus Merr.]

40 6-7 Mice 100

Sitosterol


30 1 Mice 93

4

Ergosterol peroxide


LF

30 6- 7 Mice 100

Aristolochic acid

[Aristolochia indica L.] 100 1,6 or 7 Mice 100 5

p-Coumaric acid

[Aristolochia indica L.]

RT

50 6 Mice 100

6 Butin

[Butea monosperma Lam.]

SD 20 1-5 Rat 90

7 Isothankuniside

[Centella asiatica L.]

LF - - Mice Consistent

8 Datura lactone

[Datura quercifolia Kunth]

-

100 1-7 - 73.3

9 Fraxinellone

[Dictamnus albus L.]

RB - 1-10 Rat -

10 Embelin

[Embelia ribes Burm f.]

BR 100 1-5 Rat 100

11 Anethole

[Foeniculum vulgare Mill.]

SD 500 1-5 Rat 60

Literature review


12 n-hexacosanol, campesterol,chalinasterol, sitosterol, stigmasterol, [Heliotropium indicum L.]

- 500 - Rat 40

13 Marsdekoside A and B

[Marsdenia koi Tsiang]

PL - - Rat -

14 Yuehchukene

[Murraya paniculata L.]

RT 3 1-2 Rat Potent

15 Piperine

[Piper longum L.]

RT 150 1-7 Rat 60

16 Plumbagin

[Plumbago zeylanica L.]

PL 20 1-5 Rat 83

17 Oleanolic acid-3β-glucoside

[Randia dumetorum Lamk.]

SD 100 1-5 Rat 100

18 Chalepensin

[Ruta graveolens L.]

RT,SB, LF

36 1-8 Rat 80

19 Acacetin, Luteolin

[Striga lutea Lour.]

PL 5-25 1-4 Rat,

Mice

Significant

Vicolide B

[Vicoa indica L.]

50 8-14 Rat 100 20

Vicolide D

[Vicoa indica L.]

PL

200 8-14 Rat 71

21 5,7,3’-trihydroxy-6,8,4’-trimethoxy flavones

[Vitex negundo L.]

SD 100 4-6 Mice 100

B Abortifacient activity

1 Methyl aristolate

[Aristolochia indica L.] RT 60 6, 7 Rat 100

2 Yuanhuatine [Daphe Sp.] FL

50µg - Monkey Significant

3 Yuanhuacine

[Daphne genkwa] RT 70-80

µg

- Woman Significant

4 α and β Momorcharins

[Momordica charantia L.] SD - - Mice Significant

Literature review


5 Momorcochin [Momordica

cochinchinensis Spreng.] RT - - Mice -

6 Piperine

[Piper sp.]

- - 8-12 - Significant

10 5-11 Rat 75

7 Plumbagin

[Plumbago zeylanica L.]

PL

50 6-9 Rat Significant

C Contraceptive activity

1 Triterpene glycoside

[Androsace septentrionalis L.]

- 100 - Mice, Rat

-

2 Cirantine

[Citrus aurantium L.]

Peel 0.75 - Rabbit -

3 Ferujol

[Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke.]

PX 0.6 1-5 Rat 100

Literature review


OOH

HO O

OCH3

Acacetin

O

O

HO

OH

OH

Butin

O OO

H3C

H2C

CH3

Chalepensin

O

O

HO

OH

Embelin

O

HO

H3CO

O

O

OH

H

H

OH

H

OO

OH

OH

H

OH

H

H

OH

H

O

Cirantine

O OHO

O

Ferujol

OO

O

Fraxinellone

H

H OH

H

Isoadiantone

OOH

HO O

OH

OH

Luteolin

Literature review


RO

CH3

COOCH=CHC6H5

OH

CHOHCH3

OH

CH3

Marsdenikoiside A

R =

O

O

O

O

O

H

COCH3

H

H

H

COCH3

H

O

OH

H

OCH3

OH

H

OH

CHOHCH3COOC6H5

CH3

OHCH3

RO

Marsdenikoiside B

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

OO

OHOHOH

O

O

OH

OH

OH

CH3

Rutin

HO

H

H

H

H

Sitosterol

N

H

H

H

HN

Yuanchukene

R1 R2

Yuanhuacine (CH=CH)(CH2)4Me

OCOPh

Yuanhuatine Ph (1,2-dihydro) OCOPh

O

H

OH

OH

R2

R1

O

O

O

H

H

O

CH2OH

12

Figure 7. Isolated phytoconstituents with antifertility activity

Literature review


2.4 Plants selected for the study

Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f.

Family: Verbenaceae

Synonym: C. multiflorum Burm f.

Vernacular names: Arni [Hindi], Agnimantha [Sanskrit], Clerodendrum or Wind- -killer [English]

Figure 8. Image of Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f.

Description

Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f. is a common shrub of arid plains, low hills

and tropical deserts. It is large shrub or small tree growing up to a height of about 9

m and is distributed more or less throughout India, Myanmar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka

and south-east Asia. In India, it is found in drier regions of Delhi, Haryana, Uttar

Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orrisa, Diu Island, Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat,

Maharashtra and Karnataka78-79. The leaves are simple, exstipulate, opposite, deltoid

ovate-rhomboid ovate, 1.5 to 5 cm in length, 1 to 4 cm in breadth, petiole 3.5 cm

long, both surfaces of leaf are puberulous, reticulate and unicostate. Stem is straight,

unbranched, cylindrical, 9 cm long, 2.5 cm in diameter with uneven surface. Roots

are 7 to 15 cm long and 0.2 to 3.0 cm thick pieces which are occasionally branched,

cylindrical, tough, yellowish-brown externally, bark thin, outer surface rough due to

exfoliation, with hard fracture and slightly astringent taste80.

Literature review


Traditional Uses

Clerodendrum phlomidis has been used traditionally in treating bronchitis,

headache, inflammation, weakness, drowsiness, digestive problems and joint pains81.

A decoction of leaves is used along with other plants for inflammation, and is

effective in treating bronchitis, headache, weakness, drowsiness and digestive

problems6. Root decoction is used traditionally in treating inflammation, jaundice,

piles, swelling of body, spleen enlargement, urinary disease, asthma, nervous

disorders and rheumatism82-83. Root bark of the plant together with rice wash has

been used traditionally to cause sterility in females in ancient India84.

Phytochemical review

� The leaves are found to contain a crystalline non-glucoside bitter principle

(C17H16O6), ceryl alcohol, β-sitosterole, γ-sitosterole, Palmatic acid, cerotic

acid and pectolinaringenin85. Bharitkar et al. (2015) have reported three new

compounds pectolinaringenin-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, 24β-ethylcholesta-

5, 22E, 25-triene-3β-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and andrographolide in the

leaves86.

� Gupta et al. (1967) isolated D-mannitol, β-D-glucoside of β-sitosterol, β-

sitosterol and cetyl alcohol from the stem87.

� The roots have been reported to contain β-sitosterol, γ-sitosterol, ceryl

alcohol, clerodin (C24H34O7), clerosterol (C29H48O), clerodendrin-A

(C27H26O17) and α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-D-glucopyranosyl-7-O-

naringin-4ʹ-O-α-D-glucopyranoside-5-methylether88-89.

� Flowers of C. phlomidis are reported to contain 6,4’-dimethyl-7-acetoxy-

scutellarein, pectolinaringenin, apigenin, hispidulin and luteolin from

chalcone glycoside (4,2’,4’-trihydroxy-6’-methoxychalcone-4,4’α-D-

diglucoside), 7-hydroxy flavones 7-hydroxy flavonone 7-O-glucoside90-91.

� Pandey et al., (2008) have isolated Lupeol ester i.e. Lup-20(29)-en-3-

triacontanoate, tetratriacontanol, 24β-ethylcholesta-5,22E, 25-triene-3β-ol in

the aerial parts of this plant92.

Literature review


Biological activities:

Analgesic activity:

The ethanol extract of leaves showed significant analgesic activity at 300

mg/kg in albino mice (either sex, 20-25 g) when evaluated (150 and 300 mg/kg, i.p.)

by Eddy’s hot plate method, thus supporting its folklore claim as analgesic93.

Anti-amnesic activity:

The aqueous bark extract at 100 and 200 mg/kg, p.o. was evaluated for anti-

amnesic activity in young Swiss mice (8 weeks, either sex) and old Swiss mice (28

weeks, either sex). The dose at 200 mg/kg more significantly enhanced the learning

and memory of aged animals rather than the young ones. The extract profoundly

increased step-down latency (SDL) indicating improvement in the memory of

younger mice and significantly inhibited the acetylcholinesterase (AchE) activity

indicating its potential in the attenuation of learning and memory deficits especially

in aged mice. The study concluded that C. phlomidis as a potential nootropic and

anti-cholinesterase agent94.

Anti-asthmatic activity:

The aqueous bark extract (yield 7.9% w/w) of leaves was screened for anti-

asthmatic activity in male albino mice (Swiss strain, 22 to 25 g). The effect of

extract (2, 4 & 10 mg/mL) on goat tracheal chain was also studied, indicating a

significant activity at 4 and 10 mg/mL with the relaxant effect (depression of

histamine receptor 1). The extract at dose levels of 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg, i.p. in

milk-induced eosinophilia showed the significant antagonizing effect at 100 mg/kg.

In three-day treatment of the aqueous extract, the 100 mg/kg dose showed 73.25%

protection of mast cell degranulation. The aqueous extract, when studied for

capillary permeability, significantly decreased transmittance at 100 mg/kg dose

level, indicating its effect on optical density of the eye. The overall study shows the

beneficial use of aqueous extract in the treatment of asthma and related conditions95.

Antimicrobial studies:

Both methanolic (yield 4.4% w/w) and acetone (yield 1.7% w/w) extracts of

stems and leaves (combined) were screened for Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-

negative bacteria and fungi species by an agar diffusion method, respectively.

Literature review


Acetone extract was not active while the methanolic extract showed inhibition

against Citrobacter freundii and Staphylococcus epidermidis. The study concluded

that the antimicrobial activity might be attributed to various active constituents

present in either mono or combined way of them96. Ethyl acetate and hexane extracts

of leaves (yield 8.4 and 1.1 % w/w) and stems (yield 3.21 and 0.52 % w/w) at

concentration of 1 mg/ml were screened for human pathogens and plant pathogens

by poison plate technique, respectively. The leaf extract (particularly hexane extract)

was found more active than stem extract on both pathogens. However, the stem

extract was only inhibitory to plant pathogens97. Antifungal activity of two flavones,

flavonone glucoside and one chalcone glucoside isolated from C. phlomidis was

studied. Chalcone glucoside was highly promising followed by pectolinaringenin,

flavonone glucoside and flavones98.

Antiplasmodial activity:

The ethanol leaves extract showed 96 % inhibition at 100 µg/mL conc. and a

50 % inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 25 µg/mL against Plasmodium

falciparum. The study concluded that the activity might be due to the presence of

iridoids, but no iridoids have been reported yet from C. phlomidis99.

Hypoglycemic activity:

A defatted ethanol extract of leaves was screened for hypoglycemic activity

in alloxan-induced diabetic rats at two dose levels, 100 and 200 mg/kg. The extract

at 200 mg/kg exhibited significant hypoglycemic activity and also reduced altered

cholesterol and triglycerides levels. In the histopathological studies, more prominent

islet cells were seen in both metformin and ethanol extract (200 mg/kg) treated

groups100.

Immunomodulatory activity:

A methanol extract of roots was evaluated for specific immune response

(antihyaluronidase titer, plaque forming cell assay and delayed-type hypersensitivity

test) and non-specific immune response (carbon clearance and E. coli-induced

abdominal sepsis). The specific immune response was studied in BLAB/c albino

mice (either sex, 22 to 25 g) for 7 days. The extract at 300 mg/kg showed

significance in antihyaluronidase titre, plaque forming cell assay and delayed-type

Literature review


hypersensitivity test. In carbon clearance test (5-day treatment) and E. coli-induced

abdominal sepsis (15-day treatment) the extract showed increased phagocytic index,

significant clearance of carbon particles and only 20% mortality in 24 h particularly

without any symptoms of peritonitis in surviving animals. The study showed that the

methanol extract exhibits the immunomodulatory activity probably might be due to

chemical constituents such as diterpenoids and flavonoids present in the extract101.

Other activities:

The isolated flavone (7-hydroxy flavones) from C. phlomidis acts on targets

like aromatase, alcohol dehydrogenase, 17β-hydroxyl steroid oxydoreductase,

multidrug resistance transporter (MDR-TR)-P-glycoprotein transporter (PGP-TR)

and 3,5-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase and also exerts in vivo antinociceptive

activity102. C. phlomidis has also shown minor tranquilizing effect103,

antidiarrhoeal104, and antihepatotoxic activities105.

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre

Family: Fabaceae

Synonyms: Pongamia glabra Vent., Derris indica (Lam.) Bennett, Cystisus

pinnatus Lam., Millettia novo-guineensis Kane & Hat and

Millettia pinnata (L.) Panigrahi

Vernacular names: Karanj [Hindi], Pongam [Tamil] and Indian beech [English]

Description:

Pongamia pinnata L. is native to India and widely distributed along

Southeast Asia to the West Pacific and North Australia. Karanj is found in hilly

region in south India up to an elevation of about 1220 m and in Himalayas106-108. It

is a medium sized semi evergreen glabrous tree with a short bole and spreading

crown up to 18 m or more in height, bark grayish green or brown , very often

mottled with dark brown dots, specks, lines or streak; leaves compound, leaflets 5-7

ovate, acuminate or elliptic; Flowers lilac or pinkish white, fragnant, in axillary

racemes; fruits thick, woody, smooth, compressed, with a short curved beak, seeds 1

or 2 per pod, reniform to nearly round, smooth or wrinkled, testa reddish brown

leathery109.

Literature review


Figure 9. Image of P. pinnata (L.) Pierre

Traditional Uses

All parts of P. pinnata L. are traditionally used in the treatment of Snakebite

treatment of tumors, piles, skin diseases, wounds and ulcer; Fruits in abdominal

tumor as anthelmintic; Flowers in diabetes; Seeds and seed oil in keratitis, urinary

discharges, piles, ulcer, chronic fever, rheumatism, leucoderma, lumbago, scabies,

leprosy, bronchitis, whooping cough, chronic skin diseases, wound treatment,

chronic fever, hypertension, and liver pain; Leaves in rheumatism, gonorrhea, skin

diseases,genitalia, fever, piles, scabies, anthelmintic, diarrhea, dyspepsia, flatulence,

glycosuria, wound treatment, as antiseptic and blood purifier. Stem/stem bark in

diabetes, malaria, bleeding piles, beriberi, anthelmintic, elexteric, hemorrhoid,

ophthalmopathy, vaginopathy, skin diseases, genitalia, sinus, stomach pain,

intestinal disorder and wound treatment; Roots in wound and gastric treatment,

gonorrhea, cleaning gums, teeth, and ulcers and also used in vaginal and skin

Literature review


diseases110. Powdered stem bark of this plant is squeezed with water and its juice is

drunk to induce abortion in Vanuatu Island111.

Phytochemical Review:

The phytochemical studies of P. pinnata L. resulted in the isolation of

flavonoid derivatives (flavones, flavans and chalcones). Several compounds from

other classes were also detected in this species, such as sesquiterpene, diterpene,

triterpenes, steroids, aminoacid derivatives, disaccharide, fatty acids, and esters.

� Flowers have been reported to contain flavones (Fisetin tetramethyl ether),

methylenedioxy flavones (Demethoxykanugin, Kanugin), furanoflavones

(Karanjin, Lanceolatin B, Pongaglabol methyl ether, Pongaglabol,

Isopongaglabol, Kanjone, 6-methoxyisopongaglabol, Pinnatin and

Glabone)112-113.

� Fruits contains furanoflavones (3′-methoxyfuro[8,7:4″,5″] flavones, Pongol,

2′,5′-dimethoxyfuro [8,7:4″,5″] flavones), flavonoid glycosides (Pongapinnol

A, B, C and D) and coumestan (Pongacoumestan)114-116.

� Leaves are reported to possess flavones (Kaempferol, Quercetin), rotenoids

(11,12a-dihidroxy-munduserone, 12a-hydroxy-α-toxicarol), flavonoid

glycosides (Vitexin, Isoquercetrin, Kaempferol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside),

flavonoid diglycosides (Kaempferol 3-O-β-D-rutinoside, Rutin) and

isoflavone glycosides (4′-O-methyl-genistein7-O-β-D-rutinoside, 2′,5′-

dimethoxy-genistein7-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1″-6″)-O-β-D-

glucopyranoside)117.

� Stem/ stem bark contains Demethoxykanugin, Kanugin, Karanjin,

Luteolin, Milletocalyxin C, 5-methoxy-(3″,4″-dihydro-3″, 4″-diacetoxy)-2″,

2″-dimethylpyrano-(7,8:5″,6″)-flavone, 5-hydroxy-4′-methoxy-7-[(3-methyl-

2-butenyl)oxy]-isoflavone, Maackiain, Medicarpin, Pongachin, Pongamone

(A, B, C, D and E), Pongapin, 3’-methoxypongapin, 3′, 4′-methylenedioxy-

(4″, 5″:7, 8)-furanoflavanone and tunicatachalcones, 114,118-122.

� Roots and its bark contains Ponganone (II-XI), Ovalitenin B, Ovalitenone,

Pongamol, Milletenone, 2′-hydroxy-3,4,4′, 6′-tetramethoxychalcone,

Isoglabrachromene, Maackiain, Medicarpin, Ovalifolin, 3′,4′-dihydroxy-4H-

Literature review


furo[2,3-h] chromen-4-one, 3,3′,4′-trihydroxy-4H-furo[2,3-h] chromen-4-

one123-124.

� Miscellaneous compounds like terpenes, diterpenes, sesquiterpenes,

Stigmasterol and β-sitosterol alongwith their acetate and galactosides, two

caffeic esters (hexacosanyl caffeate and triacontanyl caffeate) etc. have also

been reported in this plant110.


Antioxidant activity:

Essa and Subramanian (2006) studied the antioxidant activity of the

ethanolic extract of the leaves on NH4Cl-induced hyper-ammonemic rats and found

that oral administration (300mg/kgb.wt) significantly reduced the level of TBARS,

HP, and CD and increased the level of SOD, CAT, GPx and GSH in liver and

kidney. The methanolic extract inhibited 72.47%, 75.86%, 68.11% and 77.46% on

lipidperoxidation, reducing power, superoxide anion and hydroxyl radical

scavenging activity at 50 µg/ml concentration respectively. The anti-oxidant

property may be related to the flavonoids and polyphenol present in the extract125-126.

Antimicrobial activity:

Various extracts of the plant exhibited antibacterial activity against a broad

spectrum of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Various isolated compounds

(3,7-dimethoxyflavone, Quercetin, Kanugin, Karanjin, Lanceolatin B, Pachycarin D,

Pongaglabol, Pinnatin, Pongaflavone/karanjachromene, Pongachromene, Rutin,

Ovalifolin, Maackiain, Cycloart-23-ene-3β,25-diol, Lupeol etc.) seem to be

responsible for the antibacterial activity of various extracts of different parts of P.

pinnata. Seed oil showed maximum antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger

followed by Aspergillus terreus and Candida albicans. The maximum inhibition

was observed in pure oil (100%) and a minimum of 40-45% for oil for all tested

fungi110.

Anti-protozoal activity:

The bark and leaf extract with low IC50 values of 9-43 µg dry extract/ml has

been shown to be potential as anti-malarial by possessing antiplasmodial activity

Literature review


against Plasmodium falciparum127. This activity might be associated with its

constituent, lupeol, which blocked the invasion of Plasmodium falciparum

merozoites into erythrocytes at IC50 1.5 µg/ml128.

Antiinflammatory activity:

Prabha et al. (2003) reported that the methanolic extract of roots showed

significant protection against mucosal damage induced by aspirin and has a tendency

to decrease acetic acid-induced ulcer after 10-days treatment129. Prabha et al. (2009)

later evaluated that when administered orally (po), the methanolic seeds extract

showed dose-dependent (12.5-50 mg/kg for 5 days) ulcer protective effects against

gastric ulcer induced by 2h cold restraint stress. Optimal effective dose of extract

(25 mg/kg) showed anti-ulcerogenic activity against acute gastric ulcers induced by

pylorus ligation and aspirin and duodenal ulcer induced by cysteamine but not

against ethanol-induced gastric ulcer130.

Methanol extract of the root were tested orally at the dosages of 15, 20 and

25 mg/kg, on gastric ulcerations experimentally induced by aspirin, alcohol and

pylorus ligation models. The extract at the dose of 25 mg/kg showed 79.30 % and

82.20 % inhibition when gastric ulcerations were induced by aspirin and ethanol and

66.38 % inhibition showed in pylorus ligation at adose of 20 mg/kg respectively.

The methanol extract at 20 and 25 mg/kg significantly (P < 0.001) inhibited ulcer

formation. Methanol extract which contains flavonoids, triterpenes, carotinoids and

saponins, may exhibit anti-ulcer properties126.

Anticonvulsant activity:

Manigauha et al. (2009) reported that treatment of maximal electroshock-

induced seizure (MES) in wistar albino mice (150 mA for 0.2s) with the ethanolic

extract of the P. pinnata leaves (250 mg/kg i.p.) showed significant anticonvulsant

activity by lowering the duration of extension phase (4, 12 ± 0.67) when compared

to control group (9, 64 ± 0.41)131. In further study, Manigauha and Patel (2010)

found that treatment of pentylenetetrazole-induced convulsion (PTZ) in the same

type of rats (80 mg/kg, i.p.) with the leaves ethanolic extract (250 mg/kg, i.p.)

significantly lowered the duration of extension phase (3.72 ± 0.65) when compared

to control group (8.94 ± 0.42) 132.

Literature review


Antidiabetic activity:

Punitha and Manoharan, (2006) reported the significant anti-hyperglycemic

of oral administration of the ethanolic extract of the flower (300 mg/kg) which

considerably reduced the blood glucose level in a similar extent to that of the

standard drug glibenclamide (600 µg/kg bw) in alloxan-induced diabetic rats133.

Rao et al. (2009) investigated some compounds (Fisetin tetramethyl ether, Luteolin,

3-methoxy-7-hydroxy-3′,4′- methylenedioxyflavone, 3′,4′-dihydroxy-4H-furo[2,3-

h]chromen-4-one, Pongaglabrone, Pongapin, Pinnatin, Pongachromene,

Pongapinone B, Ovalitenone and Pyperonylic acid) showing α-glucosidase

inhibitory activities124. In the last 3 years, the anti-diabetic activity of various extract

from the leaves, pods, root, and stem bark of this plant have been investigated and it

was found that the extracts of most of the parts of this species exhibited significant

anti-diabetic activity110.

Anthelmintic activity:

The anthelmintic activity of the methanolic extract of the seeds which needed

less time to cause the paralysis and death of Indian adult earthworm, Pherentima

posthuma, than the extracts of leaf, wood, bark, and pericarp of the fruit did was

further studied. The ethyl acetate extract exhibited higher anthelmintic activity

against the earthworm followed by the petroleum ether extract134.

Other activities:

Pongamia pinnata has also repoted to have anti-hyperammonemic activity,

cytotoxic, immunomodulatory and insecticidal activities135-137.

Casuarina equisetifolia Linn.

Family: Casuarinaceae

Synonymn: Casuarina litorea L.

Vernacular names: Junglisaru [Hindi], She-oak or Horse tail or White pine [English], Savukku [Tamil]

Description:

Casuarina equisetifolia L. is a large erect evergreen tree with a ‘conifer-like’

Literature review


appearance and grows up to 50 m height with drooping branches and needle-like

branchlets. It is an exotic species to India and native to South-East Asia, Australia

and Polynesia138-139. It is commonly found along the coast on beaches, rocky coasts,

limestone outcroppings, dry hillsides and open forests in India, Sri Lanka and

Australia140. In India, it is cultivated in coastal regions from Gujarat to Orissa, West

Bengal and Andamans. The leaves are reduced to white or brown scales fused

laterally at the base in whorls that define nodes on the branch lets. Flowers open in

March and cones mature in June to July. Fruits are grey or yellowish brown.

Propgation can be done by seeds which are obtained from the mature cones141.

Figure 10. Image of C. equisetifolia L.

Traditional uses:

In Tahiti (South pacific Island), an infusion of the bark of C. equisetifolia L. is

traditionally used for nervous disorders whereas for coughs, ulcers, stomach ache,

and constipation problems in Tonga142. In the Philippines, an infusion of the

branches is said to be diuretic, while a decoction of the bark, which contains 18%

tannin, is employed as an emmenagogue. An infusion of the leaves, in Tonga, is

used as an emetic to treat throat infections. The plant’s uses in treating throat

infections, coughs and stomach-aches are also noted in Fiji and India. In Samoa, an

infusion of the leaves is used as a remedy for coughs, asthma and diabetes. Cook

Literature review


Islanders use an infusion of the grated leaves to treat mouth infections and urinary

tract infections143-144. In western Malaysia, a decoction of the twigs is used for

treating swelling and the powdered bark is used for treating acne. In New Zealand,

the bark and twigs are used in the treatment beriberi disease by the native people145.

Raw leaves and stem bark juice are consumed by females to induce sterility in

Vanautu Island146.

Phytochemical Review:

� Roux (1957) reported d-Gallocatechin in the bark of C. equisetifolia147.

� Ansary et al. (1977) reported the the presence of 11 flavonoid glycosides i.e.

-3-arabinoside, -3-glucuronide, -3-rhamnoside and -3-rutinoside of

kaempferol as well as the -3-arabinoside, -3-galactoside, -3-glucoside, -3-

glucuronide, -3-rhamnoside, -3-ruinoside and -3-xyloside of quercetin in

leaves of C. equisetifolia148.

� Alicyclic acids (shikimic and quinic acid), polyols (dextrose, fructose and

sucrose) and amino acids were reported in fruit, bark and wood149.

� Madhulata et al. (1985) reported various phenolic constituents including

afzelin, gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, hydroquinone, juglanin, catechin,

gallocatechin, epicatechin-3-gallate, epigallocatechin-3-gallate in fruits

whereas gallic acid, methyl gallate, catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin,

epigallocatechin in the wood of C. equisetifolia150.

� Nash et al. (1994) reported an alkaloid Casuarine [1, (1R,2R,3R,6S,7S,7aR)-

3-(hydroxymethyl)-l,2,6,7-tetrahydroxypyrrolizidine] from ethanol extract of

C. equisetifolia L. (Casuarinaceae) stem bark151.

� Rastogi and Mehrotra (1998) reported acetates of β-amyrin and taraxerol,

lupenone, glutinol, lupeol, kaempferol, 3α-L-arabinoside, afzelin, gallic acid

and β-sitosterol in leaves and fruits of this plant152.

� Seven new β-amyrin derived oleanane-type triterpene coumaroyl esters were

isolated from the twigs and leaves of C. equisetifolia, together with two

known triterpenoids, erythrodiol and oleanolic acid, and a number of benzoic

acid derivatives. The structures of the seven new compounds have been

elucidated as 3-O-(E)-coumaroyl β-amyrin, 3-O-(Z)-coumaroyl β-amyrin, 3-

Literature review


O-dihydrocoumaroyl β-amyrin, 3-O-(E)-coumaroyl erythrodiol, 3-O-(Z)-

coumaroyl erythrodiol, 3-O-(E)-coumaroyl oleanolic acid and 3-O-(Z)-

coumaroyl oleanolic acid by spectroscopic analyses and chemical

degradation153.

� Ogunwande et al. (2011) have reported seventy-six compounds comprising

of monoterpene hydrocarbons (29.3%), oxygenatedmonoterpenoids (16.2%),

sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (2.7%), oxygenated derivatives (1.0%), aliphatic

(40.6%) and non-terpenoid (7.2%) compounds in the leaf oil of C.

equisetifolia. The major compounds of leaf oil were pentadecanal (32.0%)

and 1,8-cineole (13.1%). Significant quantities of α-phellandrene (7.0%),

apiole (7.2%) and α-terpinene (6.9%). The main constituents of fruit oil were

caryophyllene-oxide (11.7%), translinalool oxide (11.5%), 1,8-cineole

(9.7%), α-terpineol (8.8%) and α-pinene (8.5%)154.


Antiasthamatic activity:

Karimulla and Kumar (2011) examined the effect of ethanol extract of

Casuarina equisetifolia (CE) L. bark at 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg doses orally in the

isolated goat tracheal chain preparation and passive paw anaphylaxis in Wistar rats.

Study revealed that CE bark extract exhibited significant (p<0.01) percentage

decrease in contraction at 80 µg /ml in goat tracheal chain preparation when

compared with Histamine (50µg/ml) taken as standard. On the other hand, there was

significant inhibition in rat paw edema at the dose 50 mg/kg of CE bark extract. It

was 39.07 % and 57.82 % for 50 mg/kg and dexamethasone respectively. Paw

edema volume also significantly (p<0.01) decreased in alltime intervals at this dose

only. Control group showed (0.64 ± 0.18) paw edema volume and that of for 50

mg/kg dose and dexamethasone (standard) was (0.39 ± 0.06) and (0.27 ± 0.07) at 3

hour interval. In conclusion, the ethanolic extract of CE bark exhibited significant

dose dependent antiasthamatic activity both models155.

Anti-diarrhoeal activity:

Kumar (2011) evaluated the antidiarrhoeal activity of CE bark ethanol

extract (17.5 % w/w) at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o using castor oil-

Literature review


induced-diarrhoea, enteropooling and Small intestinal transit models in rats. The

weight and volume of intestinal content induced by castor oil were studied by

enteropooling method. Standard drug diphenoxylate (5 ml/kg, p.o) showed

significant reductions in fecal output and frequency of droppings whereas the extract

at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg p.o significantly (P<0.001) reduced the castor-oil

induced frequency and consistency of diarrhoea and enteropooling. The

gastrointestinal transit rate was expressed as the percentage of the longest distance

travelled by the charcoal divided by the total length of the small intestine. The CE

bark extract at both the doses significantly inhibited (P<0.001) the castor oil induced

charcoal meal transit. The extract showed marked reduction in the number of

diarrhoea stools and the reduction in the weight and volume of the intestinal

contents, as well as a modest reduction in intestinal transit156.

Anti-ulcer activity:

Shalini and Kumar (2011) evaluated the anti-ulcer activity of ethanol extract

(200 and 400 mg/kg p.o) of whole plant of CE by using ethanol, indomethacin and

cold-restraint stress induced gastric ulcer models in albino rats. Acute toxicity of

extract was found to be safe at the doses 2000 mg/kg p.o. The extract showed dose

dependent inhibition in ethanol induced gastric lesions with 70.37 % protection at

400 mg/kg, and 52.7% protection at 200 mg/kg). In indomethacin induced gastric

lesions, the extract showed 68.3% protection at 400 mg/kg and 51.7 % protection at

200 mg/kg. It also showed dose dependent inhibition in cold-restraint stress induced

gastric lesions where ethanol extract showed 75.02 % protection at 400 mg/kg, and

45.86 % protection at 200 mg/kg. Phytochemical studies of the ethanol extract

revealed the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids and triterpenoids which may be

responsible for the anti-ulcer properties. The ethanolic extracts of Casuarina

equisetifolia at a dose of 400 mg/kg showed similar activity to that of standard drug

omeprazole (a proton pump inhibitor). This study reveals that the ethanol extract are

potent inhibitors of gastric mucosal lesions caused by ethanol, indomethacin and

cold-restraint stress in rats157.

Antiacne activity:

Thube and Patil (2013) have reported the antiacne effect of a polyherbal gel

formaulation containing ethanol extract of Casuarina equisetifolia bark as one of its

Literature review


ingredients alongwith other plants (Barleria prionitis, Butea monosperma,

Dalbergia sissoo, Lagenaria siceraria) in male Spraguge-Dawley rats. The antiacne

effect of formulation might be due to the synergestic effect of individual drugs 158.

Shafiq et al. (2014) have also reported the antiacne effect of a cream containing

methanolic extract of CE bark in 50 patients159.

Antidiabetic activity:

Ethanolic extract of C. equisetifolia (EECE) was administered to

streptozotocin (50 mg/kg, i.p.) induced rats. Glibenclamide was used as a standard

drug. Blood glucose levels were determined after oral administration of extract (400

mg/kg, p.o.) in diabetic groups. Blood glucose levels were determined on 0, 7th, 14th

and 21st day after oral administration of ethanolic extracts of Casuarina equisetifolia

(400mg/kg). The extract significantly reduced the blood glucose levels in

streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. There was significant reduction in Total

cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, VLDL cholesterol and improvement in HDL

cholesterol in diabetic rats. These results indicated that Casuarina equisetifolia

possesses a significant hypoglycemic as well as antihyperlipidemic effect160.

Ravishankar, (2013) also reported the same effects in alloxan induced diabetic

rats161.

Antimicrobial activity:

Chaudhary et al. (2010) reported the potent antibacterial activity of methanol

extract of C. equisetifolia against Gram negative strain K. pneumoniae162. Swamy et

al. (2013) reported the significant antimicrobial activity of bark, leaves and fruit

methanolic extracts against five medicinally important bacterial strains, namely

Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas

fluoresces and three fungi namely Aspergillus flavus, Dreschlera turcica and

Fusarium verticilloides163. Amin et al. (2013) reported the anti-Helicobacter pylori

and Urease inhibition activities of methanol extract of C. equisetifolia fruits and

bark164.


Zhang et al. (2010) reported that the condensed tannins extracted from C.

equisetifolia stem bark and fine root showed very good DPPH radical scavenging

Literature review


activity and ferric reducing/antioxidant power, suggesting that these extracts may be

considered as new sources of natural antioxidants for food and nutraceutical

products165.

In another study, Priya et al. (2012) evaluated the antioxidant activity of

hexane, ethylacetate, methanol, ethanol and aqueous extracts of C. equisetifolia.

Total antioxidant activity was maximum for ethanolic extract (30.48±0.522 mg/g

equivalent ascorbic acid) and least for hexane extracts (10.16±0.350 mg/g eq.

ascorbic acid) 166. Brist et al. (2014) reported the antioxidant activity of auqueous

extract of different parts (leaves, root barks and stem bark) of C. equisetifolia. Based

on DPPH scavenging activity, the root bark extract was the most effective one with

IC50 value 36.35 µg/mL, followed by bark and leaf extracts respectively167.

Hepatoprotective activity:

Ahsan et al. (2009) reported the hepatoprotective activity of methanol extract

(yield: 12 %) of C. equisetifolia leaves in Swiss albino rats at a dose of 500 mg/kg

body weight where the extract showed significant decrease in the levels of serum

markers, indicating the protection of hepatic cells168.

Other activities:

Ramanathan et al. (2010) reported antiaggregating activity of C.

equisetifolia169. Priya et al. (2012) observed that non polar extracts of leaves

exhibited antiproliferative and apoptosis inducing activity. The active component

responsible for the apoptosis inducing effect was identified as ascorbic acid166.

Kishore and Rahman (2012) reported the spasmolytic activity of C. equisetifolia

bark extract170.

Lantana camara Linn.

Family: Verbenaceae

Synonymn: Camara vulgaris, Lantana scabrida

Vernacular names: Wild Sage, Red Sage, Yellow Sage [English], Caturang and

Raimunia [Hindi], Unnichedi [Tamil], Tantani, Ghaneri

[Marathi], Phulikampa [Telgu]

Literature review


Description:

Lantana camara (LC) is a terrestrial, evergreen aromatic, ornamental or

hedge shrub of 1-2 m height and commonly found in tropical, sub tropical and

temperate parts of the world including India with a number of flower colors viz. red,

pink, white, yellow and violet171. It is an exotic species in India. The woody shrubs

have four-sided stems with spines. The rough textured leaves have serrate margin

and release a strong odour when crushed. Inflorescences are terminal with multi

coloured flowers arranged in whorls on heads. The hard green fruits in clusters ripen

to fleshy black drupes172-174. In India, the plant starts flowering in April-May and

fruiting continues till November-December175 .

Figure 11. Image of L. camara

Traditional uses

In Asian countries, Lantana camara leaves were used to treat cuts,

rheumatism, ulcers and intestinal worms. Decoctions were applied externally for

leprosy and scabies176. It has been used in folk remedies for cancers and tumors. A

tea prepared from the leaves and flowers was taken against fever, influenza and

stomach-ache. In Central and South America, the leaves were made into a poultice

to treat sores, chicken pox and measles. Fevers, colds, rheumatism, asthma and high

blood pressure were treated with preparations from the plant. In Ghana, an infusion

Literature review


of the whole plant was used for bronchitis and the powdered root in milk was given

to children for stomach-ache177. The roots of the plant have been used in the

treatment of malaria, rheumatism, and skin rashes178. The roots of the plants have

also been used traditionally as oral contraceptives by the women in South Africa179.

Extract of this plant is used in folk medicine for the treatment of cancers, chicken

pox, measles, asthma, ulcers, swellings, eczema, tumors, high blood pressure,

bilious fevers, catarrhal infections, tetanus, rheumatism, malaria and ataxy of

abdominal viscera174, 180.

Phytochemical review:

Due to the important medicinal properties, L. camara was subjected to

phytochemical investigation by various research groups. A brief review of reported

compounds is given below:

� Louw (1948) reported lantadene A (C32H44O5) as the first compound in L.

camara181.

� Sharma et al. (1990) isolated a novel triterpenoid, lantadene D (22β-

isobutyroyloxy-3-oxoolean-12-en-28-oic acid) from the leaves of L.

camara182.

� Siddiqui et al. (1995) isolated seven pentacyclic triterpeonoids, camarinic

acid, camaric acid, oleanolic acid, pomolic acid, lantanolic acid, lantanilic

acid and lantic acid from the aerial parts of L. camara183.

� A well known phenylethanoid (verbascoside), Z-isomer of verbascoside

(lantanaside) Isoverbascoside, martynoside, isonuomioside A,

derhamnosylverbascoside and calceolarioside E have been isolated from L.

camara 184-185.

� Barre et al. (1997) isolated a novel triterpene 22β-acetoxylantic acid and the

known triterpene, 22β-dimethylacryloyloxylantanolic acid from this plant186.

� The triterpenoids betulonic acid, icterogenin, betulinic acid, β-sitosterol 3-O-

β-D-glucoside and a mixture of campesterol, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol

were isolated from the stems of pink flowering taxa of L. camara187.

� Begum et al. (2002) isolated three new pentacyclic triterpenes (ursoxy acid,

Literature review


methyl ursoxylate and ursangilic acid) along with three known compounds

(dotriacontanoic acid, oleanolic acid acetate, and tetracosanoic acid) from the

aerial parts of L. camara188.

� Eight triterpenoids (betulonic acid, betulinic acid, oleanolic acid, lantadene

A, lantadene B, icterogenin, lantanilic acid and ursolic acid), three flavonoids

(hispidulin, pectolinarigenin and pectolinarin) as well as β-sitosteryl-3-O-β-

D glucoside and a mixture of campesterol, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol were

isolated from the leaves of the yellow flowering taxa of Lantana camara L.

The structures of these compounds were established by spectroscopic

methods and 2D NMR techniques189.

� Begum et al. (2008a) reported two new nortriterpenoids, lantadienone and

camaradienone along with seven known compounds, lantadene A (=(22β)-

22-{[(2Z)-2-methyl-1-oxobut-2-enyl]oxy}-3-oxo-olean-12-en-28-oic acid),

lantadene B (=(22 β)-22-[(3-methyl-1-oxobut-2-enyl)-oxy]-3-oxoolean-12-

en-28-oic acid), β-sitosterol 3-(β-d-glucopyranoside) (=(3β)-stigmast-5-en-3-

ol 3-(β-d-glucopyranoside)), camaric acid (=(3 β,22 β)-3,25-epoxy-3-

hydroxy-22-{[(2Z)-2-methyl-1-oxobut-2-enyl]oxy}olean-12-en-28-oic acid),

lantanilic acid (=(3β,22β)-3,25-epoxy-3-hydroxy-22-[(3-methyl-1-oxobut-2-

enyl)oxy]-olean-12-en-28-oic acid), lantanolic acid (=(3β)-3,25-epoxy-3-

hydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid), and camangeloyl acid (=(3 β,22 β)-3,25-

epoxy-3-hydroxy-22-{[(2Z)-2-methyl-1-oxobut-2-enyl]oxy}-11-oxours-12-

en-28-oic acid) in the aerial parts of L. camara190.

� Sousa et al. (2013) reported bicyclogermacrene (19.42%), isocaryophyllene

(16.70%), valencene (12.94%) and germacrene D (12.34%) as the main

constituents of the leaf oil from L. camara191.

� Two new natural triterpenes, lantaninilic acid and lantoic acid, along with the

known triterpenes oleanolic, ursolic, and betulinic acids were reported in the

aerial parts of L. camara192.

� L. camara root is a rich source of triterpenoid and oleanolic acid, the

bioactive compound with immense therapeutic value. Triterpenoids

(lantanolic acid, 22β-hydroxy-oleanonic acid and lantaiursolic acid), six

Literature review


oligosaccharides (ajugose, stachyose, verbascotetraose, verbascose, lantanose

A and B), flavone (camaroside), geniposide together with 8-epiloganin,

shanzhside methyl ester and lamiridoside were isolated from the roots of L.

camara193. Along with oleanolic acid and its derivatives, lantadene A,

camaric acid, β-sitosterol and its glucoside and pomonic acid, several

unidentified complex mixture of triterpenoids have been isolated from L.

camara root194.


Anthelmintic activity:

Begum et al. (2008b) tested the seven isolated compounds from the aerial

parts of L. camara for nematicidal activity against the root-knot nematode

Meloidogyne incognita195. The lantanolic acid, pomolic acid, and lantoic acid

showed 100% mortality at 1.0% concentration after 24 h, while camarin, camarinin,

lantacin and ursolic acid exhibited 100% mortality at 1.0% concentration after 48.

Lantanoside, linaroside and camaric acid isolated from the aerial parts of L. camara

L. showed 90, 85 and 100% mortality, respectively, at 1.0% concentration196. All

results were comparable with the conventional nematicide furadan (100% mortality

at 1.0% concentration after 24 h).

Antibacterial and antifungal activities:

An investigation of acetone extracts of leaves of L.camara L. and L. rugosa

Thunb. showed growth inhibitory effects against two Gram-negative (E. coli and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and two Gram-positive (Enterococcus faecalis and S.

aureus) bacteria, with MIC values varying from 0.39 mg/mL to 6.3 mg/mL197.

Antifeedant activity:

The chloroform, petroleum ether and methanol extracts of L. camara L.

showed antifeedant activity against the tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora

Waterhouse), and among all the extracts, the chloroform extract showed the highest

antifeedant effect (Deka et al., 1998). An antifeedant effect of crude lantadene from

L. camara L. on P. xylostella and Spodoptera litura larvae has also been reported198.

Literature review


Anti-fertility activity:

Mello et al. (2005) investigated the effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of

the leaves of L. camara var. aculeate on reproduction. Three doses were tested in

pregnant rats, 1, 3 and 7 g equivalent of plant material/kg body weight. The extract

decreased the frequency of fetal skeleton anomalies in females and induced

embryotoxicity as indicated by post-implantation loss, without any signs of maternal

toxicity199. In another study, the hydroalcoholic extract of L. camara L. leaves on

fertility did not interfere with overall weight or internal organ weights of male rats,

but interfered with sperm count, daily sperm production and sperm morphology in a

dose-dependent manner200.

Anti-protozoal activity:

Jonville et al. (2008) analyzed and showed very promising activity of

dichloromethane extract leaf from L. camara L. (pink flower) when tested in vitro

against cultures of chloroquine-sensitive (3D7) and chloroquine resistant (W2)

strains of P. falciparum (IC50 8.7±1.0 µg/mL and 5.7±1.6 µg/mL, respectively). The

dichloromethane extract from L. camara L. (orange flower) also showed promising

activity (IC50 14.1±8.4 µg/mL and 12.2±2.9 µg/mL, respectively). In the same study,

the dichloromethane extract (50 mg/kg) was investigated in vivo against

Plasmodium berghei infected mice, and exhibited only 5 % inhibition201. On the

other hand, the aqueous extract, at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg/day, when tested in

vivo in rats infected with P. berghei; showed partial antimalarial activity, reducing

parasite load by 25 and 49 %, respectively202. Clarkson et al. (2004) reported that an

extract of L. camara L. leaves possessed in vitro anti-plasmodial activity against a

chloroquine-sensitive strain (D10) with an IC50 value of 11µg/mL203.

Antiinflammatory activity:

Whole plant and ethanolic extracts of fresh leaves of L. camara L. were

investigated for their antiinflammatory properties using the cotton pellet

antiinflammatory bioassay technique. The treatments of the inflamed rats with the

extracts resulted in the inactivation of phosphatase and transaminase activities and

the stimulation of adenosine triphosphatase activity in plasma and exudates204.

Ghosh et al. (2010) investigated the antiinflammatory activity of oleanonic acid

Literature review


isolated from L. camara L. using the carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model.

Oleanonic acid caused a reduction in edema, which validated its in vivo

antiinflammatory effect205. Another study reported that L. camara essential oil

showed a relatively low antiinflammatory activity due to its weak ability to inhibit

lipooxygenase (IC50 81.5 mg/mL) 206.

Anti-motility activity:

Sagar et al. (2005) evaluated the antimotility activity of L. camara L. var.

acuelata leaf powder, methanolic extract, lantadene A, neostigmine and neostigmine

but with methanolic extract for antimotility activity in the intestine of treated mice.

Neostigmine was used as a promotility agent and the intestinal motility was assessed

by the charcoal meal test. In this evaluation, the percent intestinal transit

significantly increased with neostigmine, but significantly decreased by all

concentrations of methanolic extract and lantadene A. In the same study, an anti-

diarrheal effect of the methanolic extract was studied in the castor oil-induced

diarrhea model in mice. When the plant extract at 125 and 250 mg/kg doses was

administered intraperitoneally, there was a significant reduction in fecal output

compared with castor oil-treated mice. At higher doses (500 and 1000 mg/kg), faecal

output was almost completely stopped207.


Bhakta & Ganjewala (2009) showed that premature leaves of L. camara

exhibit greater potential antioxidant activity (DPPH scavenging activity, 62%). It

was also found that older leaves had less antioxidant activity (55%), indicating loss

of secondary metabolites as result of leaf senescence208. In another study, L. camara

essential oil showed high antioxidant activity evaluated by the Trolox equivalent

antioxidant capacity assay206. Kumar et al. (2014) have also reported the antioxidant

activity of methanolic extract of leaves of different varieties of L. camara209.

Antiproliferative (antitumor and anticancer) and cytotoxic activity:

Dichloromethane extracts of leaves from L. camara L. (colors of flowers:

pink and orange) were tested for in vitro cytotoxicity against human WI-38

fibroblasts. The dichloromethane extracts showed IC50 values of 69.5±12.1 and

97.2±2.4 µg/mL for L. camara with pink and orange flowers, respectively201.

Literature review


Sharma et al. (2008) studied methyl ester derivatives of lantadene obtained

from the lantadene fraction of leaves of L. camara and showed cytotoxicity against

four human cancer cell lines (HL-60, HeLa, colon 502713, and lung A-549). In the

same study, lantadene A and four methyl ester derivatives of lantadene exhibited

tumor inhibitory activity on two-stage squamous cell carcinogenesis in Swiss albino

mice210.

In a study by Shikha et al. (2010), oleanolic acid isolated from the roots of L.

camara, was converted into six semi-synthetic ester and seven amide derivatives.

The ester derivatives showed 3-6 times more selective activity than oleanolic acid

against the human ovarian cancer cell line IGR-OV-1, while amide derivatives

showed 16-53 times more selective activity against the human lung cancer cell line

HOP-62211. A crude extract of L. camara L. leaves had a cytotoxic effect on HeLa

cells at 36 h (at 100 µg/mL) to 72 h (at 25 µg/mL), by employing the 3-(4, 5-

dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) cell viability assay.

The results showed that an increase in the concentration or duration of extract

treatment was effective in killing cancer cells212.

Antiulcerogenic activity:

Sathisha et al. (2011) studied the antiulcerogenic effect of a methanolic

extract (250 and 500 mg/kg, p.o.) of L. camara L. in aspirin induced gastric

ulcerogenesis in pylorus-ligated rats and ethanol-induced gastric ulcer, and

cysteamine-induced duodenal ulcer models. The results showed that the extract

significantly reduced the ulcer index and total acidity and significantly increased

gastric pH of aspirin and pylorus ligation-induced ulcerogenesis and ethanol-induced

intestinal ulcer model. The extract also significantly reduced the ulcer index of

cysteamine induced duodenal ulcer213.

Insecticidal activity:

The petroleum ether and methanol extracts of the aerial part of L. camara

have been reported to be toxic to Callosobruchus chinensis. The extracts showed 10-

43 % mortality at 5 % concentrations, with fecundity loss at higher doses, and the

antioviposition values were 30 mg/100 g for the petroleum ether extract and 40

mg/100 g of seed for the methanol extract214. Repellent properties of different

Literature review


fractions obtained from L. camara flowers were evaluated against Aedes mosquitoes

and showed that one application of the chloroform fraction gave 100 % protection

for 2 h and up to 75.8 % protection at 7 h against Aedes aegypti mosquito bites215.

Kumar & Maneemegalai (2008) investigated the methanol and ethanol

extracts of leaves and flowers of L. camara L. and showed mosquito larvicidal

activity against 3rd and 4th instar larvae of the mosquito species A. aegypti and C.

quinquefasciatus216. In other studies, the essential oils of leaves and flowers of L.

camara L. revealed insecticidal activity against 3rd instar larvae of Musca domestica,

demonstrating mortality rates of 80 and 100 %, respectively and the oil of leaves

was effective against adults of Sitophilus zeamais (IC50 0.16% at 24 h) 217-218. A

recent study investigated the insecticidal activity of essential oil from the leaves of

L. camara L. against mosquito vectors219.

Other activities:

L. camara has also been reported to possess anticoagulant, antimutagenic,

antiviral, haemolytic and phytotoxic activities220-221.

2.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Based upon the literature survey, the study was aimed to perform

phytochemical and biological screening of selected medicinal plants.

The following were the objectives of the study:

a) Selection of plants based upon their traditional/tribal uses

b) Collection and identification of selected plants

c) Preparation of different extracts of various parts of plants

d) Pharmacognostic study of selected plant materials

e) Phytochemical screening of prepared extracts

f) Isolation of constituent (s) from prepared extracts

� Fractionation of prepared extracts

� Isolation of phytoconstituents by Column chromatography/preparative

TLC etc.

Literature review


g) Characterization or structure elucidation of isolated phytoconstituents with

the help of IR, NMR and MS spectral data

h) Screening of prepared extracts for antifertility activitiy

� Evaluation of anti-implantation activity of prepared extracts of

selected plants in fertile female rats

� Estrogenic/antiestrogenic activity of prepared extracts in female rats

when adminstratered alone and alongwith 17α-Ethinylestradiol

� Estimation of other biochemical parameters

i) Evaluation of antifertility effect of isolated fractions.

Literature review


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2. literature review 2.1 traditional uses of medicinal...

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