2-THE VEDIC PERIOD

Course content Syllabus and its Focus:

SOURCES: Vedas and Epics (brief mention); Iron Artifacts and Pottery. A

brief comparative study of Early and Later Vedic society and economy.

The coming of Indo-Aryans

- The Aryans originally lived in Central Asia and region around the Caspian Sea.

- Forced by shortage of food and fodder, they left their original home

- Some went to Europe while others came to India around 1500BC.

- Those who came to India are known as Indo-Aryans

- Aryans first settled in Punjab. The civilisation developed during this age

came to be known as Vedic Civilisation.

The source of Vedic civilisation came from Vedic literature, The Vedas.

Vedas means knowledge

Vedas are not an individual religious work or collection of

books compiled at a particular time.

Vedic literature was handed down from generation to

generation by word of mouth.

- It consists of three classes

1. The Veda: A collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and

sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas:

a. Rigveda:

It is a collection of hymns.

It has about 1028 hymns

These highlight the political, social, economic and religious

conditions of Rigvedic India.

b. Samveda:

c. Yajurveda:

It is a collection of

songs taken from

RigVeda

It is a collection of

sacrificial formulae

d. Atharvaveda:

It is a collection of

spells and charms

2. The Brahmanas:

These are prose texts which contain details about the meaning of

Vedic hymns, their applications, stories of their origins, etc.

3. Aranyakas and Upanishads

The concluding portions of the Brahmans are known as Aranyakas.

They deal with philosophy and mysticism.

Literal meaning of Upanishads is ‘to sit down near someone’. Denotes

pupil sitting near teacher for the purpose of confidential

communication of secret doctrine.

Archaeological Sources-Iron and Pottery

- Along with many Vedas many archaeological sources have been discovered in different

parts of India.

- Aryans moved south east and finally settled on areas mentioned in the map as pastoral -

agricultural communities and kingdoms.

- transformation from pastoral to settled agricultural communities took between 1000 to

1500 years

For the Aryans, the period of transition was characterized by war and strife

against the local population. Therefore they did not have enough opportunity

to develop science and technology.

They were constantly in search of agricultural land, mineral deposits and ores

and they cleared dense forests for these purposes.

l

- Yajurveda speaks of ploughs drawn by teams of twelve oxen.

- The strong plough could be made of wood trimmed down by bronze tools, but the

ploughshare for cultivating strong soil had to be of iron.

- Where did the iron come from?

o Copper may have been available in Rajasthan, but Iron deposits lay much

farther away in the east i.e at the eastern end of the Gangetic plain in south-

east Bihar.

- Evidences like copper harpoons, shoulder celts and semi human figures dated

about 1000 B.C., have been found all over the Gangetic plain especially in

Ataranjikhera, Kausambi near Allahabad, Jakhera in district Etah, in Uttar Pradesh

and Hallur in Karnataka.

- The tools and artefacts lead us to surmise that these were peddled by Aryan

traders.

- These objects imply that Aryans knew copper refining by controlled fire using

good kilns.

- The demand for high grade iron increased tremendously with time. As a result,

Aryans explored new deposits of iron all over the country, going as far as Andhra

and Mysore by about 200 to 100 B.C.

- Knowledge of the metallurgy of iron, copper, silver and tin continued to be

developed by the Aryans till well into the Mauryan period.

- At Hastinapur in Uttar Pradesh copper objects have been unearthed apart from

glass beads and bangles, bone disc, etc.

- Iron tools including arrows and spearheads, chisels, axes and knives have been

found at at Atranjikhera(UP).

Movement of Aryans towards south east is supported by the discovery of

Red Ware known as Northern Black Polished Ware found almost all over

western Uttar Pradesh.

The pottery was made of well - leyigated clay with little tempering material and

had a strikingly lustrous surface

Craftsmen such as wood-workers, cabinet and chariot-makers, metal-

workers arid ship builders were free members of the tribe. Weaving and

spinning was done only by Women

- At Jakhera(Rajasthan), apart from wheat, barley, rice, cattle, pig and horse a large

number of iron implements have been discovered.

- The most frequently reported finds are arrowheads (both barbed and leaf-shaped) and

spearheads. Axes with shaft hole are reported from Noh and Atranjikhera.

- Atranjikhera has also yielded iron tongs.

EARLY VEDIC AGE (RIG VEDIC AGE)

- The period during which the Vedas and other Vedic literature were written is known as the

Vedic Age.

- During this period, the Aryans permanently settled down in India, and gave birth to

the Vedic Civilization.

- It is called Vedic Civilization, because Vedas are the chief source of our knowledge

about this civilization.

THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS

1. The village:

The Aryans lived in well-planned villages.

A village consisted of a number of joint families. The village was called a gram.

It was rectangular in shape.

There was usually a stockade around the village. There was one main entrance

gate in a village. It had well laid out streets. The houses were constructed in a

systematic way.

These houses were made of wood, bamboo, straw and reeds. These were, in fact,

thatched huts, tied together by ropes, bars and pegs

The king interfered very little in village life. Every village had, what we today

call, local self-government, or something similar to it.

A group of villages was called the vish.

2. The family and status of women:

The family was the primary unit

of society. There was the joint

family system.

Often three generations lived

together — the father, the

grandfather and the

grandchildren. The eldest male

member was the head of the

family. He was called grihapati.

He had full authority over all the members-of the joint family. It was also his

duty to look after the family members.

Thus, it was a patriarchal system of family, a system in which the male head

held the final authority.

This does not mean that women had no status in the family. They occupied an

honourable place.

They were given the opportunities to get education. Women composed the

Rigvedic hymns even. Women had also the right to choose

their husbands. Often swayamvaras were organized

3. Division of the society :

The Aryan society was divided into four classes, namely, the

Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the Sudras. These

were, in fact, occupational groups of people. The occupations of

these classes were as under:

The Brahmanas performed various rituals,

looked after religious or spiritual matters and recited prayers.

The Kshatriyas were the ruling and the warrior class. Their prime duty was to

govern and defend their land.

The Vaisyas followed

the occupation of agriculture, cattle-

rearing and trade.

The Sudras were the

class who made their living by doing

manual and other unskilled jobs to

serve the other three classes

82

4. Food and food habit:

The Aryans ate simple but nourishing food.

Wheat, maize and barley were their staple diet. They also took milk and milk products

such as butter, ghee, curd and cheese.

They also consumed wild honey, fruits, vegetables and meat. They even served special

food to special guests on special occasions. Among drinks, they took soma juice and

sura juice, which were intoxicating strong drinks. The former drink was even offered to

gods in religious ceremonies.

5. Games and amusement:

Aryans also found time for games and amusements. Hunting, horse-racing, chariot-

racing, wrestling, dancing, music and dice gambling were their favorite recreations.

ECONOMIC LIFE

1. Agriculture:

- Aryans were primarily agriculturists.

- Their main occupation was the cultivation of land.

- They got water for irrigation from wells, canals and lakes. But mostly they depended upon

rains. They carried on cultivation of land with the help of a pair of oxen.

- Wheat, barley, rice, cotton and oilseeds were the main products from their fields.

2. Domestication of animals:

- Aryans were shepherds by occupation.

- Cattle-rearing was also common economic activity.

- The cattle were the measure of their wealth, property and status.

- Cow was the main and highly valued cattle. The status of a family was judged from the

number of cows it had.

- Cow was also used even as a medium of exchange of goods. The cow was called

Aghnya. Injuring or killing of cow was prohibited.

3. Trade and commerce:

- Some Aryans engaged themselves in trade and commerce.

- Trade was done mainly through barter system.

- The value of a thing was measured in terms of the cows.

- Thus cow was the standard value.

- Of course, a sort of coin, known as "Niska", was also in use during those days.

4. Other occupations:

- The Aryans made a lot of progress in different arts and crafts.

- So the Rigveda mentions about the potters, weavers, carpenters, jewellers, iron and

goldsmiths, leather workers, metal-crafters, chariot-makers.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

Aryans were religious people. They worshipped many gods but believed that

ultimately there was one god. Actually they saw many in one, and one in many.

The Aryans offered all worships in the open. They made' no temples, shrines or

idols for the purpose. Prayers were offered in the form of yajna, both

individually and collectively.

Often the priest or the brahmin helped them in performing the yajna. He was

given a parting gift or "dakshina" after the yajna was performed.

Varuna, the sky-god, was the sovereign of the universe. He had knowledge of

everything and nothing could be hidden from him.

Indra was the god of rain, thunder and war. He was believed to protect the Aryans

against their enemies and give them prosperity.

POLITICAL LIFE

1. The King

In the Rig Vedic Civilisation, a number of joint families made a village (gram). A

group of villages (grams) formed a clan (vish), and several clan formed a tribe

(jana). Each t r ibe had a king.

Tritrus, Bharatas, Purus, Paktas, etc. were some of the small kingdoms of that

period. Kuru, Panchala and Videha were some of the major kingdoms of U.P.,

Bihar and West Bengal region.

The king had to rule according to the wishes of the tribe. He had to lead and defend

the tribe during war and maintain internal peace.

Before they went out to fight, they performed yajnas, and did the same after the

victory.

2. Ministers, advisers and officials:

The king was assisted by ministers, advisers and officials in discharge of his duties.

The chief among them was the Purohita, who advised the king in religious matters,

and those relating to moral conduct.

Next to him was the Senani, head of the army. He led the forces in times of war.

Then there was the Gramani, the village headman who helped the king in looking

after the affairs of a village.

3. The Sabha and the Samiti :

There were two assemblies, called the sabha and the samiti. The sabha was a small

selected group of elders of the families. This could be called the council of the elders

of the village. The sabha was in direct and close contact with the king.

The samiti consisted of all people of the tribe, where anybody could go and put

forward his views or give his suggestions.

THE VEDIC LITERATURE AND SCIENCE

During this period, very rich Vedic literature was produced.

The Rigveda is the first and the oldest among them all.

It is believed to have been revealed by gods to the Rishis (the Saints).

The Vedic literature is also called Shruti which means divine revelation for the

reason.

Besides the four Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads also

form a part of early Vedic literature.

Mathematics was divided into various branches like arithmetic, geometry and

algebra. Arithmetic was known as anka ganita, Geometry as rekha ganita and

algebra as (bija ganita).

The people were also aware of various types of mathematical calculations like cubes,

cube roots, square roots and under roots: The concept of zero was known to them.

The decimal system was also used.

Astronomy was well developed. The people knew about solar and lunar

eclipses and about the movement of other heavenly bodies and calculated their

positions at different times. They had prepared an accurate calendar.

LATER VEDIC AGE (THE EPIC AGE)

From the Sapt Sindhu region, the Aryans pushed forward and slowly occupied

the whole of Northern India. They settled in the valleys of Ganga and

Yamuna.

The period during which they found new settlements is known as the Later

Vedic Period

The span of this period is considered to be roughly between 1000 BC and 600

BC. Most of our knowledge about this period is drawn from the later Vedic

literature produced during this period.

These include the sutras, the V edangas, the Upayedas, the six Darshanas

(schools of Indian philosophy), the Puranas, the Dharmashastras, and especially the

great epics, namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

Because these great epics were written during this period, this age is also

described as the Epic Age.

CHANGES IN THE SOCIETY

Status of women:

There was a certain downward swing in the position of women.

The birth of a son was more welcome whereas daughters were considered a source of

misery.

Women were denied the right to inherit property and they were not allowed to attend

assemblies)

Polygamy in the higher section of society i.e., among the kings and nobles was in

practice which made the women assume subordinate position.

There was no more practice of remarriage for widows.

Education which some women received was of a high order, Gargi and Maitreyi rose

up as great scholars and philosophers.

Caste system:

In the later Vedic Period, the caste system became rigid.

The Brahmans and the Kshatriyas enjoyed many privileges.

Brahmans were considered superior. Kshatriyas were equally important and they came

to be regarded as the ruling class.

The Vaishyas were engaged in business, trade and agriculture.

The Shudras were looked down by the upper three castes. They would live outside the

village or the town boundaries.

The four Ashramas:

In the later Vedic Period, the whole life span of an Aryan came to be divided into four

stages known as 'ashramas' each of 25 years of duration.

The Brahmacharya Ashrama was meant for a pupil to attain knowledge in the

gurukuls. He had to follow strict discipline.

The Grihastha Ashrama. In this ashrama, the man married, led family life and

took full responsibilities of his family till the age of 50 years.

The Vanaprastha Ashrama. During this period, the man had to give up his family

life and spend his time (till the age of 75 years) in meditation and prayer,

The Sanyasa Ashrama.This stage started from the age of 75. He had to

renounce the worldly pleasures and lead the life of a sanyasi in the forest

Gurukul system of Education

o First stage of the life was meant for attaining knowledge in Vedas, logic, ethics,

astrology, astronomy, mathematics, grammar, medicine, etc.

o Education was imparted orally in the gurukul (residence of the guru) situated in a

secluded area.

o The pupils served the guru by tending the cattle and working in the fields of

gurukul. They had to get up early in the morning. After taking bath, they chanted the

vedic mantras. Education was free but at the completion of their education, they used to give

their gurus voluntary gifts known as guru dakshina

CHANGES IN POLITICAL LIFE

In the later Vedic Period, the Aryans established large and powerful kingdoms.

The royal power increased with the establishment of large kingdoms.

The power of the king greatly increased .Rulers gave themselves titles like Ekrat (the one),

Samrat (king of kings), Sarvabhumi (ruler of all the earth) and Chakravertin (protector of

land).

The kings performed yajnas like Rajasuya (royal consecretion), Vajapeya (chariot race) and

Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice)

ECONOMIC LIFE

a) Agriculture :

Emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity.

The later Vedic Aryans grew crops such as Vrihi (rice), wheat, millet and

sugarcane.

b) Crafts :

People started using iron on a large scale. Carpentry, leather - working,

making of jewellery flourished. Chariot making also developed

c) Trade and commerce :

Barter system was still prevalent. Guilds were organised for looking after the

interests of the trading community.

RELIGIOUS LIFE

(a) Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva emerged as new Gods. Rama and Krishna, the incarnations of

Lord Vishnu, became popular deities. Durga, Kali, Lakshami and Parvati emerged as female

deities.

(b) Rituals and sacrifices:

Sacrifice became the most important part of the religion.

There rose a class of professional priests, who were given a prominent

position in the society.

The ceremonies could be performed only by them. Spells and charms and

many superstitions beliefs in spirits also became part of their religion.

c) Philosophical Doctrines: They believed in the principles of Karma (action) and

Moksha (salvation)

THE IMPACT OF ARYAN CIVILISATION

The Aryans have left a great impact. They gave to India Sanskrit language,

its grammar, phonetics and derivations.

Sanskrit remained the unifying force in the sub-continent for centuries

together. It also served as the mother of many vernacular and regional

languages.

The Aryans cleared the forests and gave an agrarian base to Indian economy,

which remains so till today.

The philosophy of the Vedas, the Upanishads and the ideals set forth by the

two Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) are the foundations of present

day Hindu religion and life.

Teaching of Lord Krishna in the Bhagvad Gita continues to inspire people with

its philosophy of selfless action

Thus the Later Vedic Period with its later Vedic literature and the value system

contained in it, has left great impact on present-day life and society.

EXERCISE

A. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. When did the Aryans migrate to India?

Ans: Around 1500 BC

2. Who were the Indo-Aryans?

Ans: The Aryans originally lived in Central Asia but due to shortage of food some of

them went to Europe while others came to India through the passes of Hindukush around

1500 BC. Those who came to India came to be known as Indo-Aryans.

3. From where did the Aryans come to India

Ans: Aryans came from Central Asia and settled in the Sapt Sindhu region.

4. Where did the Aryans settle first in India?

Ans: The Aryans first settled in Punjab in India.

5. Name the four Vedas.

Ans: Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda

6. Mention any two features of Northern Black Polished Ware.

Ans: The pottery was made of well leyigated clay with little tempering material and

had a strikingly lustrous surface.

7. Mention any four Iron Age sites of India.

Ans: Ataranjikhera, Kausambi near Allahabad, Jakhera in district Etah, in Uttar Pradesh

and Hallur in Karnataka.

8. What was Niska?

Ans: Niska was a type of coin in use during the Rigvedic period.

9. Who was grihapati?

Ans: Eldest male member was the head of the family. He was called grihapati

10. Name the two assemblies which took up all the important matters

relating to the jana.

Ans: The Sabha and the Samiti

11. Mention the areas in which Aryans settled in the later Vedic Age.

Ans: From the Sapt Sindhu region, the Aryans pushed forward and slowly

occupied the whole of Northern India. They settled in the valleys of Ganga and

Yamuna. The period during which they found new settlements is known as the

Later Vedic Period

12. Name two great epics of Epic Age. Who wrote them?

Ans: Ramayana by Ved Vyas, Mahabharata by Valmiki

13. Mention two features of the Gurukul system

Ans: First stage of the life was meant for attaining knowledge in Vedas, logic, ethics,

astrology, astronomy, mathematics, grammar, medicine, etc. Education was imparted

orally in the gurukul (residence of the guru) situated in a secluded area.

14. Mention the duties performed by the pupils.

Ans: The pupils served the guru by tending the cattle and working in the fields of

gurukul. They had to get up early in the morning. After taking bath, they chanted the

vedic mantras. Education was free but at the completion of their education, they used to

give their gurus voluntary gifts known as guru dakshina

15. Mention the titles assumed by the king of later Vedic Age.

Ans: Rulers gave themselves titles like Ekrat (the one), Samrat (king of kings),

Sarvabhumi (ruler of all the earth) and Chakravertin (protector of land).

B. STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

1. With reference to the Vedic period, answer the following questions

a) Describe the four Vedas

Vedas are a collection of hymns, prayers, Charms, litanies and sacrificial

formulae. There are four Vedas, namely:

i) RigVeda: It is a collection of hymns. It has about 1028 hymns. These

hymns highlight the political, social, economic and religious conditions

of the Rig Vedic India)

ii) Samveda : It is a collection of songs mostly taken from Rigveda.

iii) Yajurveda : It is a collection of sacrificial formulae.

iv) Atharvaveda It is a collection of spells and charms. A study of

Atharvaveda reveals that with the passage of time, the Aryans discarded

nature-worship and developed the worship of spirits.

b) What were the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads?

The Brahmanas: These are prose texts which contain details about the

meaning of Vedic hymns, their applications, stones of their origin. In a way

they contain details about rituals and philosophies.

Aranyakas and Upanishad: The concluding portions of the Brahmans are

known as Aranyakas. They deal with philosophy and mysticism.The literal

meaning of Upanishad is 'to sit down near someone'. It denotes pupil's sitting

near his guru or teacher for the purpose of a confidential communication of the

secret doctrine

2. With reference to the Vedic Age describe:

a) The family and status of women

The family was the primary unit of society. There was the joint family system.

Often three generations lived together — the father, the grandfather and the

82 grandchildren. The eldest male member was the head of the family. He was

called grihapati. He had full authority over all the members-of the joint family.

It was also his duty to look after the family members. Thus, it was a patriarchal

system of family, a system in which the male head held the final authority.

This does not mean that women had no status in the family. They occupied an

honourable place. The presence of women was essential in all ceremonies.

They were given the opportunities to get education. Women composed the

Rigvedic hymns even. Women had also the right to choose their husbands.

Often swayamvaras were organized

b) Division of society.

The Aryan society was divided into four classes, namely, the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas,

the Vaisyas and the Sudras. These were, in fact, occupational groups of people. The

occupations of these classes were as under:

The Brahmanas performed various rituals, looked after religious or spiritual matters

and recited prayers.

The Kshatriyas were the ruling and the warrior class. Their prime duty was to

govern and defend their land.

The Vaisyas followed the occupation of agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade.

The Sudras were the class who made their living by doing manual and other

unskilled jobs to serve the other three classes

c) Describe archaeological sources.

Along with Vedas many archaeological sources have been discovered in

different parts of India. The Aryans moved south-east, and finally settled in the

areas shown in the map as pastoral - agricultural communities and kingdoms. For

these people, transformation from pastoral to settled agricultural communities took

between 1000 to 1500 years, the period lasting until about 700-600 B.C

3. With reference to economic life of the Vedic Age explain:

(a) Agriculture

Aryans were primarily agriculturists. Their main occupation was the cultivation

of land. They got water for irrigation from wells, canals and lakes. But mostly

they depended upon rains. They carried on cultivation of land with the help of a

pair of oxen. Wheat, barley, rice, cotton and oilseeds were the main products

from their fields.

(b) Trade and commerce

Some Aryans engaged themselves in trade and commerce. Trade was done

mainly through barter system. The value of a thing was measured in terms of

the cows. Thus cow was the standard value. Of course, a sort of coin, known as

"Niska", was also in use during those days. Trade was carried mainly on land.

But sea trade was also not unknown to them.

4. With reference to political life of the Vedic Age explain:

(a) The position of king

In the Rig Vedic Civilization, a number of joint families made a village (gram).

A group of villages (grams) formed a clan (vish), and several clans formed a

tribe (jana). Each tribe had a king. The king was not a despot, nor was he all

powerful. He had to rule according to the wishes of the tribe. He had to lead and

defend the tribe during war and maintain internal peace. He had to settle cases

of dispute of the tribesmen. The king had to treat the people in a kind and

affectionate manner

(b) Other Ministers

The king was assisted by ministers, advisers and officials in discharge of his

duties. The chief among them was the Purohita, who advised the king in

religious matters, and those relating to moral conduct. Next to him was the

Senani who was the head of the Army, equal to the modern commander in chief

of the forces. He led the forces in times of war. Then there was the Gramani, the

village headman who helped the king in looking after the affairs of a village.

There was decentralisation o power and the king interfered very little in the

village administration

(c) Sabha and Samiti

There were two assemblies, called the sabha and the samiti. The sabha was a

small selected group of elders of the families. This could be called the council

of the elders of the village. The sabha was in direct and close contact with the

king. The samiti, on the other hand, consisted of all people of the tribe, where

anybody could go and put forward his views or give his suggestions. The samiti

was thus the General Assembly. Both sabha and samiti took up all the important

matters relating to the Jana, and helped the king in the affairs of the tribe

5. Describe the social changes in the later Vedic Age with reference to:

(a) Status of women

There was a certain downward swing in the position of women. The birth of a son was

more welcome whereas daughters were considered a source of misery. Women were

denied the right to inherit property and they were not allowed to attend assemblies

There was no more practice of remarriage for widows. But the education which

some women received was of a high order, Gargi and Maitreyi rose up as great

scholars and philosophers.

(b) Caste system

In the later Vedic Period, the caste system became rigid. The Brahmans and the

Kshatriyas enjoyed many privileges. Brahmans were considered superior.

Kshatriyas were equally important and they came to be regarded as the ruling

class. The Vaishyas were engaged in business, trade and agriculture. The

Shudras were looked down by the upper three castes. They would live outside

the village or the town boundaries. They served the upper castes.

(c) The Four Ashramas.

In the later Vedic Period, the whole life span of an Aryan came to be divided into four

stages known as 'ashramas' each of 25 years of duration.

The Brahmacharya Ashrama was meant for a pupil to attain knowledge in the

gurukuls. He had to follow strict discipline.

The Grihastha Ashrama. In this ashrama, the man married, led family life and

took full responsibilities of his family till the age of 50 years.

The Vanaprastha Ashrama. During this period, the man had to give up his family

life and spend his time (till the age of 75 years) in meditation and prayer,

The Sanyasa Ashrama.This stage started from the age of 75. He had to

renounce the worldly pleasures and lead the life of a sanyasi in the forest

6. With reference to the later Vedic Period explain:

a) Changes in economic and political life.

Rulers gave themselves titles like Ekrat (the one), Samrat (king of kings), Sarvabhumi

(ruler of all the earth) and Chakravertin (protector of land).

The kings performed yajnas like Rajasuya (royal consecretion), Vajapeya (chariot race) and

Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony became a major social

occasion. To protect the subjects became moral duty of the king

Agriculture: Later Vedic Period was mark by the emergence of agriculture as the dominant

economic activity. The later Vedic Aryans grew crops such as Vrihi (rice), wheat, millet and

sugarcane. Great progress was made in the methods of cultivation.

Crafts: Various new arts and crafts were adopted. People started using iron on a large scale.

Carpentry, leather - working, making of jewelry flourished. Chariot making also developed.

(C) Trade and commerce: Barter system was still prevalent. Somewhere the

reference of nishka (a piece of omament) as unit of value is also found, although it

cannot be said with certainty when it developed as a regular coin. Guilds were

organised for looking after the interests of the trading community

b) The impact of Aryan Civilisation.

The Aryans have left a great impact. They gave to India Sanskrit language, its

grammar, phonetics and derivations. Sanskrit remained the unifying force in the

sub-continent for centuries together. It also served as the mother of many

vernacular and regional languages.The Aryans cleared the forests and gave an

agrarian base to Indian economy, which remains so till today. The philosophy

of the Vedas, the Upanishads and the ideals set forth by the two Epics

(Ramayana and Mahabharata) are the foundations of present day Hindu religion

and life. The gods of the Later Vedic Period like Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Rama

and Krishna are worshipped till today.