2002 national air quality status...

2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT

2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITYSTATUS REPORT



ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT BUREAUDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources

DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue, Quezon CityTel. Nos. 928-1185 and 920-2258



Republic of the PhilippinesDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources

Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines 1100Tel. Nos. (632) 929-66-26 to 29 / (632) 929-65-52

929-66-20 / 929-66-33 to 35929-70-41 to 43

MEMORANDUM FOR HER EXCELLENCY GLORIA MACAPAGAL-ARROYO

THROUGH : HONORABLE ALBERTO ROMULOExecutive Secretary

FROM : The Secretary

SUBJECT : 2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT

DATE : 8 December 2003

Respectfully transmitted is the “2002 National Air Quality Status Report.” The report documents thequality of air, from 1975 up to 2002, sources of air pollutants, and trends, based on the available data. Itlikewise discusses the policies, programs and projects implemented by the government and other sectors toprevent air pollution, the issues and concerns, and recommendations.

This report is submitted in compliance to Section 6 of Republic Act No. 8749 (Clean Air Act of 1999), andSection 4, Rule XIV of DENR Administrative Order No. 2000-81, Series of 2000, otherwise known as thesaid Act’s Implementing Rules and Regulations.

cc: The President, Senate of the PhilippinesSpeaker, House of Representatives of the Philippines

ELISEA G. GOZUN



PREFACE

For the past several decades, increasing industrialization and modernization have beenoccurring in the Philippines. This is part of the reason why we are experiencing air quality degradationin the country today. With the Clean Air Act, we have a comprehensive policy-planning tool for airquality management.

The Clean Air Act is the guiding framework in the effective implementation of air qualitymanagement interventions and programs. Since it took effect in 1999, air quality has somewhatimproved in parts of the country as monitored by the Environmental Management Bureau of theDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources.

The publication of this National Air Quality Status Report is required by Part V, Rule XIV,Section 4 of the Clean Air Act. The report reviews the status of the air quality in the country, withemphasis on key cities such as Metro Manila. The air quality status report summarizes the extentof air pollution in the country, per type of pollutant and per type of source. It includes an analysis ofthe current situation and identifies trends in air pollution. It identifies critical areas, activities orprojects which need closer monitoring or regulation. Other pertinent qualitative and quantitativeinformation concerning the extent of air pollution and the air quality performance rating of industriesin the country are also included. Finally, recommendations are also proposed, highlighting areasfor necessary executive and legislative action.

The report is intended to be a reference document for stakeholders and the public, to providea common knowledge base for our concerted effort to further improve Philippine air quality. EachFilipino shares the air as a common resource and life support, so each should be well aware of thequality of this air. We all have a stake in improving the quality of air that we breathe. Let’s all act toclean the air!

2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT


ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS USED

ADB - Asian Development BankBLIST - Baguio City, La Trinidad, Itogon, Sablan, and TubaBTU - British Thermal UnitCAA - Clean Air ActCAR - Cordillera Autonomous RegionCCC - Center for Corporate CitizenshipCFCs - ChlorofluorocarbonsCH

4- Methane

CMEs - Coconut Methyl EstersCNG - Compressed Natural GasCO - Carbon MonoxideCO2 - Carbon DioxideCOC - Certificate of ConformityCOCAP - Concerned Citizens Against PollutionDA - Department of AgricultureDDT - Dichloro Diphenyl TrichloroethaneDENR - Department of Environment and Natural ResourcesDIVs - Dutch Intervention VehiclesDOE - Department of EnergyDOH - Department of HealthDOST - Department of Science and TechnologyDOTC - Department of Transportation and CommunicationDPWH - Department of Public Works and HighwaysDTI - Department of Trade and IndustryDV - Diesel-fed VehicleEANET - Acid Deposition Monitoring in East AsiaEDB - Ethylene DibromideEDC - Ethylene DichlorideEDSA - Epifanio delos Santos AvenueEEID - Environmental Education and Information DivisionEENP - Environmental Education Network of the PhilippinesEMB - Environmental Management BureauESWMA - Ecological Solid Waste Management ActFECRTP - Fuel Efficiency and Conservation on Road Transport ProgramFMB - Forest Management BureauGEF - Global Environmental Facilityg/L - Grams per literHCs - HydrocarbonsHFCs - HydrofluorocarbonsIAEA - International Atomic Energy AgencyIEC - Information, Education, and CommunicationIRR - Implementing Rules and RegulationsLGUs - Local Government UnitsLLDA - Laguna Lake Development AuthorityLTO - Land Transportation OfficeMC/TC - Motorcycle/TricycleMEIP - Metro Manila Environmental Improvement ProgramMiriam P.E.A.C.E. - Miriam Public Education and Awareness Campaign

for the Environmentµg/Ncm - Microgram/Normal cubic meter



MMAQISDP - Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement SectorDevelopment Programme

MBFOE - Million Barrels of Fuel Oil EquivalentMMCFPD - Metro Manila Commission Fire Protection DepartmentMMDA - Metro Manila Development AuthorityMO - Manila ObservatoryNAMRIA - National Mapping and Resource Information AuthorityNCR - National Capital RegionNcm - Normal cubic meterNEDA - National Economic and Development AuthorityNGO - Non-governmental OrganizationNGUT - Natural Gas Utilization for TransportNGV - Natural Gas VehiclenGy/h - Mini Gray per hourNO2 - Nitrogen DioxideNOx - Nitrogen OxideN2O - Nitrous OxideNPO - National Printing OfficeO3 - OzoneODS - Ozone Depleting SubstancesOFWs - Overseas Filipino WorkersOTRPT - On-the-Road Performance TestingPAB - Pollution Adjudication BoardPAGASA - Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical

Services AdministrationPAO - Public Affairs OfficePb - LeadPBSP - Philippine Business for Social ProgressPCA - Partnership for Clean AirPCAEF - Partnership for Clean Air Exhibition and ForumPCIERD - Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research

and DevelopmentP.D. - Presidential DecreePENRO - Provincial Environment and Natural Resources OfficerPFCs - PerfluorocarbonsPGH - Philippine General HospitalPIA - Philippine Information AgencyPM10 - Particulate matter, 10 microns in diameter or smallerPM

2.5- Particulate matter less than 2.5 microns

in diameterPMex - Particulate Matter (exhaust emissions)PMtw - Particulate Matter (tire wear)PNRI - Philippine Nuclear Research InstitutePOPs - Persistent Organic Pollutantsppm - Parts per millionPTO - Permit to operatePUJ - Public Utility JeepneysQC - Quezon City


R and D - Research and DevelopmentSMR - Self-Monitoring ReportSO2 - Sulfur DioxideSOx - Sulfur OxideTOG - Total Organic GasesTSP - Total Suspended ParticulatesTUP - Technological University of the PhilippinesUP-NCTS - University of the Philippines - National Center for

Transport StudiesURBAIR - Urban AirUSAID - United States Agency for International DevelopmentUS-EPA - United States Environmental Protection AgencyUVs - Utility VehiclesVOC - Volatile Organic CompoundsWHO - World Health Organization



Executive Summary

Air Pollutants 2

Criteria Pollutants

Total Suspended Particulates 3Sulfur Dioxide 18Nitrogen Dioxide 22Carbon Monoxide 23Lead 24Ozone and Related Oxidants 26

Non-Criteria Pollutants

Solids and Metals 27Volatile Organic Compounds 29Halogen Compounds 31Ozone-Depleting Substances 32Greenhouse Gases 33Radioactive Compounds 33Odors 38

Sources of Air Pollution 39

Mobile Sources 39Stationary Sources 41Area Sources 43

Health Impacts 44 Trends 46 Issues 47

Government Responses 50

Programs and Projects (DENR and other government agencies) 50Monitoring and Enforcement 51Information and Education 57Research and Development 58

NGO and Private Sector Responses 59

Appropriate Technologies and Best Practices 61

Recommendations 65

TABLE OF CONTENTS


LIST OF TABLES

No. Title Page No.

1 Philippine Emission Inventory, 2001 (tons) 2

2 NCR Total Suspended Particulates Levels, 1996-2002(µg/Ncm) 4

3 Air Quality Monitoring Stations with Maximum TSPReadings in Metro Manila, 1975-2002 (µg/Ncm) 6

4 Air Quality Monitoring Stations Exceeding the 90 µg/NcmAnnual TSP Level 8

5 Precautionary Actions to Take When TSP Pollution is High 12

6 Particulate Matter (PM) from Area, Stationary and MobileSources, 2001 (tons) 13

7 Summary of PM10

Concentration Data for PNRI MetroManila Stations 14

8 Summary of PM2.5

Concentration for PNRI Metro ManilaStations 14

9 Location of Maximum SO2 Level in Metro Manila, 1975-

1993 (ppm) 18

10 SOx from Area, Stationary and Mobile Sources, 2001 (tons) 21

11 NOx from Area, Stationary and Mobile Sources, 2001 (tons) 22

12 CO from Area, Stationary and Mobile Sources, 2001 (tons) 23

13 Ambient Lead Levels in Metro Manila, 1987-2000 (µg/Ncm) 24

14 VOC from Area and Stationary Sources, 2001 (tons) 30

15 Annual CFC Consumption in the Philippines, 1994-2002(metric tons) 31

16 Philippine Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory, 1994(gigagrams/year) 34

17 Mean Gamma dose Rates for 16 Regions including NCR,CAR and ARMM, 1982 – 2002 36

18 Mean Gamma Dose Rates from Districts of National CapitalRegion, 1982 – 2002 37


LIST OF TABLES

No. Title Page No.

19 Emissions from Mobile Sources in NCR, 2001 39

20 Motor Vehicle Registration in the Philippines, 1991-2001 40

21 Emission Estimates in the Industrial Sector, Metro Manila,1997 (metric tons) 41

22 Number of Metro Manila Polluting Firms 42

23 Power Plant Emissions, 2001 (based on Self-MonitoringReports) 43

24 Cost Estimates for the MMAQISDP ($ million) 49

25 MMDA Roadside Apprehensions, 1997-2001 52

26 MMDA Apprehensions in 2001, by Vehicle Type 53

27 Number of Issuances Covering Industrial Air PollutantSources, 2002 53

28 Statistical Report on Violations Related to the Clean Air Act,2002 54


LIST OF FIGURES

No. Title Page No.

1 Maximum TSP Levels in Metro Manila (1975 - 2002) 7

2 Maximum TSP Levels Nationwide (1995 - 2001) 11

3 Time Series Plot of Particulate (PM2.5

and PM10

) Concentrationsfor the PNRI Station at the Ateneo de Manila Campus(November 1996 to June 2002) 15

4 Monthly Means for PM10

and PM 2.5

for the PNRI Station atthe Ateneo de Manila University 16

5 Correlation of PM2.5

with PM10

for Ateneo de Manila UniversityCampus 16


with PM10

for UST 17


with PM10

for Poveda Learning Center 17

8 Correlation of PM2.5-10

and PM10

for Poveda Learning Center 17

9 Ambient Sulfur Dioxide in Metro Manila (1975 - 1993) 20

10 Ambient Lead Levels in Metro Manila, 1987 - 2000 25

11 Pb Concentration in the Fine Fraction for the Ateneo de ManilaUniversity Campus (October 1998 - June 2002) 26

12 Pb Concentration in the Course Fraction for the Ateneo deManila University Campus (October 1998 - June 2002) 26

13 Zn Concentration in the Fine Fraction for the Ateneo de ManilaUniversity Campus (October 1998 - June 2002) 28

14 Zn Concentration in the Coarse Fraction for the Ateneo de ManilaUniversity Campus (October 1998 - June 2002) 28

15 Cu Concentration in the Fine Fraction for the Ateneo de ManilaUniversity Campus (October 1998 - June 2002) 28

16 Cu Concentration in the Coarse Fraction for the Ateneo de ManilaUniversity Campus (October 1998 - June 2002) 29

17 CFC Consumption in the Philippines 32

18 Frequency Distribution of Gamma Dose Rates in the Philippines(1982 – 2002) 38


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Executive Summary

Despite the numerous interventions implemented and enforced by the government, togetherwith non-government organizations (NGOs), private entities, and people’s organizations, air qualityin the Philippines today remains threatened, especially in key urban centers. While someimprovements have been recorded since the Philippine Clean Air Act was first implemented, anintensive public campaign and the strict enforcement of the Act’s implementing rules and regulationsshould be pursued further. At stake are the health and productivity of the country’s people andenvironment.

The Air Quality Management Section (AQMS) of the Central Office and the EnvironmentalQuality Monitoring Sections of the regional offices of the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)monitor air quality nationwide. Criteria pollutants monitored are total suspended particulates (TSP),particulate matter, with a diameter of 10 microns or smaller (PM

10), sulfur dioxide (SO

2), nitrogen

dioxide (NO2), ozone (O

3), carbon monoxide (CO) and lead (Pb). The only air pollutant that has

been consistently monitored over the past several decades is TSP.

Metro Manila

The area with the highest pollution in terms of annual average TSP reading has been shiftingover the years from Ermita (1975-76), Quiapo (1977), Q.C.-Araneta Ave. (1978), Pasay (1979-1980), Q.C.-Araneta Ave. (1981), back to Ermita (1982-83), Las Pinas (1986), Valenzuela (1987),back to Ermita (1988), back to Valenzuela (1989-92), Makati (1993), back to Valenzuela (1994-95),Q.C.-Quezon Ave. (1996), Q.C.-DPWH (1997), back to Valenzuela (1998), Q.C.-Araneta Ave.(1999), and Q.C. Congressional Ave. (2000-2002).

Over the past 25 years, the air quality has worsened. In 1980, the most polluted samplingstation (Pasay) exceeded the safe guideline value. By 1994, the most polluted location in MetroManila (Valenzuela station) had exceeded three times the safe guideline value. By 2000, it hadreached nearly four times (3.99) the safe guideline value (Congressional Ave. station in QuezonCity).

The highest annual reading dropped somewhat to 2.52 times the guideline value in 2001and to 2.34 times in 2002, but it is too early to tell if this indicates a long-term reversal of the trend.

Based on a shorter (five to eight years) window of data, however, and looking at specificsampling stations, the situation seems to be improving. Annual average TSP levels decreased inmany stations (Valenzuela, PAGASA, EDSA-DPWH, Q.C.-East Ave., Q.C.-Quezon Ave., Ateneo-Katipunan Rd., Makati, Pasig, Las Pinas-Belisario Subd., Congressional Ave., and Mandaluyong)although they increased in a few stations (Q.C.-Araneta Ave., Las Pinas-City Hall).

Monitoring of other criteria pollutants aside from TSP is intermittent due to limited resources.Ambient SO

2 levels were last reported in 1993 and then in 2001, but only from a single sampling

station (Manila Memorial Park, Paranaque). NOx and CO levels were last measured in 1987, ozone

levels in 1996-97, and lead levels in 1987, 1993, 1994, 1997, 2000 and 2001.

In Metro Manila, three-fourths of industrial plants surveyed in 2002 were polluting the air.Nearly one-half (46%) of these polluting firms had no permit to operate.


Outside Metro Manila

In at least seven locations outside Metro Manila, the annual average TSP readings exceededthe highest Metro Manila level: Davao City in 1999; Tagum, Mandaue, and three sampling stationsin Davao City in 1997; and Tagum, Davao City and Bacong, Negros Or. in 1996.

The major sources of air pollutants are motor vehicles, industrial plants and area sourcessuch as burning and construction work. The continuing increase in motor vehicles and population,the inadequate mass transit system, worsening traffic conditions, the establishment of pollutiveindustries, the widespread practice of open burning, and inadequate enforcement, if not adequatelyaddressed, are bound to contribute to increasing air pollution in the surrounding areas.

Based on self-monitoring reports, power plant emissions comprised a small to significantportion of stationary source emissions nationwide in 2001: 10,917 tons (23%) out of 467,102 tonsof PM; 145,664 tons (17.6%) out of 830,100 tons of SO

x; 25,854 tons (22.8%) out of 113,503 tons

of CO; and, 182,396 tons (35.3%) out of 517,212 tons of NOx.

The most effective approach in improving air quality is to stop the generation of pollutants attheir source. This usually involves replacing a highly pollutive technology or energy source with anon-polluting or a less polluting one, including shifting to cleaner fuels. These technology and fueloptions are available. The world’s best practices in preventing air pollution and maintaining airquality reflect the creative use of these options, which range from clean fuels to bicycles andelectric cars, from solar and wind energy to mass transport systems, and from appropriatetechnologies to innovative urban planning that incorporates walkways and bike lanes.

The legal framework that currently governs air quality management in the Philippines is theClean Air Act of 1999. The Act envisions to maintain ambient air quality that is within the guidelinevalues conducive to public health, safety, and welfare, and the reduction of air pollutants by minimizingthe emissions from area, stationary, and mobile sources as well as improving fuel quality. Underthis law, the following have been undertaken:

An Air Quality Management System has been put in place. The Integrated Air QualityImprovement Framework and the Air Quality Control Action Plan have been issued as part ofDENR Administrative Order (DAO) No. 2000-82

An airshed is a contiguous area with common sources of air pollution and weather ormeteorological conditions which affect the interchange and diffusion of pollution in the surroundingatmosphere. Nine interim airsheds have been designated: the Metro Manila Airshed includes NCR,Region III except Nueva Ecija, and Region IVA except Quezon; Metro Cebu Airshed; the Cagayande Oro City, Geothermal Airshed; Davao Airshed; Naga City Airshed; Baguio City, and theMunicipalities of La Trinidad, Itogon, Sablan and Tuba -- collectively known as the BLIST Airshed;Agusan del Norte Airshed; and the Zamboanga City Airshed. The Interim Governing Boards ofthese airsheds have also been constituted. Airsheds for Regions 1, 6, 8, and 12 are currently beingevaluated. The criteria on the interim designation of attainment/non-attainment area for airshedsare also being finalized.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The inventory of mobile and stationary sources of air pollution in the Metro Manila Airshed isongoing. In the National Capital Region, 11 manual stations and one automatic station, monitoringmainly TSP, are operating; nine automatic and one mobile stations are being rehabilitated. A smoke-free EDSA program is being spearheaded by the DENR, to improve the air quality along EDSA byeliminating smoke belchers and reducing TSP by as much as 20% by the end of 2003. This is partof a continuing program to improve air quality within the Metro Manila Airshed. Outside Metro Manila,52 TSP monitoring stations are now operational, as well as one automatic station, each in Cagayande Oro CIty and Cebu City.

One hundred and twenty seven private emission testing centers (equivalent to 291 lanes)have been accredited. Hydrocarbon standards for motorcycles and tricycles have been establishedthru DAO 2003-25: 7,800 parts per million for urban areas and 10,000 ppm for rural areas.Researches on alternative fuels for cement kilns; bio-diesel for sulfur reduction; and compressednatural gas and liquified petroleum gas as alternative fuels for motor vehicles are ongoing.

Multi-sectoral public awareness programs are a continuing effort and include: developmentand printing of information and education materials; seminars, workshops and trainings; integrationof clean air act messages in environmental events and in the school curriculum at all levels ; audio-visual materials and travelling exhibits.

However, much more need to be done to fully implement the Clean Air Act. This is thechallenge in improving Philippine air quality.


2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITYSTATUS REPORT

Clean air is essential not only tohuman life, but to flora and fauna as well.When human activities change the air’scomposition and release into the airsubstances that may interfere with naturalprocesses in living systems and in theenvironment, the resulting air pollutionbecomes a threat to human and other livingcommunities.

Air pollution is becoming a majorproblem in urban centers as well as ruralareas near industrial sites, commercialcenters or transportation hubs. Air pollutantsknow no boundaries; some can travelhundreds of kilometers or more to do theirdamage elsewhere. It is, therefore,important not only to monitor the quality ofthe air in these threatened areas, but alsoto identify the sources of various substancesthat pollute our air so that appropriatemeasures be implemented to eliminate orreduce them significantly at their source.

2 2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT

The most common air pollutants in the Philippines areclassified under the following categories: solids and metals, sulfurcompounds, nitrogen compounds, volatile organic compounds(VOC), oxygen compounds, halogen compounds, radioactivecompounds, odors, and others.

The Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) of theDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)currently monitors only what are called “criteria pollutants”- airpollutants for which National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Values have been established- for theprotection of public health, safety, and general welfare. These include total suspended particulates(TSP), particulate matter with a diameter of 10 microns and smaller (PM

10), sulfur dioxide (SO

2),

nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), and ozone (O

3).

Table 1. Philippine Emission Inventory, 2001 (tons)

Area Stationary Mobile Total

PM 226,727 467,102 177,928 871,75726% 54% 20% 100%

SOX 16,612 830,100 15,692 862,4042% 96% 2% 100%

NOX 2,797,102 517,212 328,800 3,643,11477% 14% 9% 100%

CO 1,431,294 113,503 2,512,228 4,057,02535% 3% 62% 100%

VOC 148,548 78,764 - 227,31265% 35% 0% 100%

TOG - - 707,057 707,057- - 100% 100%

Source: EMB-AQMS

The 2001 Philippine Emission Inventory (Table 1) covers the following air pollutants: particulatematter (PM, also total suspended particulates or TSP), sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx),carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC), and total organic gases (TOG, formobile sources). There is no emission inventory for the criteria pollutants lead and ozone.

AIR POLLUTANTS


In terms of quantity, carbon monoxide heads the list, with 4.06 million tons emitted in 2001,nearly two-thirds (62%) coming from mobile sources, mostly gasoline-fuelled vehicles. It is followedby nitrogen oxides, with 3.64 million tons emitted, more than three-fourths (77%) coming from areasources. In third place is TSP with 871,757 tons, more than half (54%) coming from stationarysources. Coming in closely in fourth place is sulfur oxides with 862,404 tons, mostly (96%) comingfrom stationary sources. It is followed by TOG from mobile sources with 707,057 tons. VOCemissions reached 227,312 tons, two-thirds (65%) coming from area sources.

Given the threat posed to human health by such large volumes of air pollutants, it is importantto complete and regularly update a nationwide inventory of emission sources, so that these may beclosely monitored and emission standards are properly enforced.

Criteria Pollutant 1:TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATES

These small solid and liquid particulates suspended in the air include primarily dust, smoke,metallic and mineral particulates, soot, mist, and acid fumes. These airborne particulates are usuallyproduced by motor vehicles and fuel-burning facilities.

The smaller the particulate, the more deeply it can be inhaledinto the lungs, and therefore the greater its potential to affect health.Separate air quality standards are often set for coarse particulates(PM10) and for fine particulates (2.5 microns and lesser in diameteror PM2.5). Around one-third of TSP is composed of PM10 and 55-60% of PM10 is PM2.5. There is a special need to focus on PM2.5,which can be more dangerous because it can penetrate more deeplyinto the lungs. PM2.5 comes mostly from diesel exhaust, which contain30-100% more particulates than gasoline exhaust.

EMB considers TSP, which includes PM10, as the pollutant which should receive the highestmonitoring priority. EMB-NCR collects TSP samples every six days for 24-hour continuousmonitoring, equivalent to 12 samples per quarter, or 48 samples per year per station.

The national guideline values for TSP are 230 µg/Ncm maximum for a 24-hour exposureand 90 µg/Ncm maximum for a one-year exposure. The two-tiered guidelines are premised on theassumption that one can tolerate higher levels of exposure to an air pollutant if the exposure is fora shorter period only.

In fact, the guidelines have even been relaxed. In 1983, the guideline for 24-hour exposurewas 180 µg/Ncm (now 230 µg/Ncm), while the guideline for a one-hour exposure was 250 µg/Ncm.There was previously no guideline value for a one-year exposure. Current guidelines have droppedthe guideline for a one-hour exposure. On the other hand, PM2.5 has no threshold that is consideredsafe.

CRITERIA POLLUTANTS


Table 2 presents TSP levels for the period 1996-2002 in various sampling stations in MetroManila:

Table 2. NCR Total Suspended Particulates Levels, 1996-2002 (µg/Ncm)

Station 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Valenzuela Minimum 47 109 104 141 118 115 108 Mun. Hall Average 250 299 266 258 214 222 200

Maximum 458 849 409 285 295 391 761

PAGASA Minimum 56 55 45 32 30 - - Average 116 148 128 152 89 - -

Maximum 355 264 343 283 237 - -

EDSA Minimum - 140 127 83 119 70 70 DPWH Average - 313 212 205 215 133 134 Q.C. Maximum - 856 528 510 398 284 197

East Avenue Minimum 33 55 54 107 92 100 93 BFD Compound Average 218 234 190 220 169 205 167

Maximum 390 654 335 590 277 428 346

Quezon Avenue Minimum 65 97 171 152 - - - Average 282 246 248 239 - - -

Maximum 434 511 403 699 - - - Araneta Avenue Minimum - 94 98 107 - - -

Average - 254 187 344 - - - Maximum - 463 302 528 - - -

Ateneo Katipunan Minimum - 53 60 26 45 47 - Road Average - 122 148 65 86 94 -

Maximum - 214 265 - 167 149 -

Guadalupe Viejo Minimum 118 109 33 106 73 79 42 Makati Average 279 302 218 188 129 157 148

Maximum 591 474 417 324 229 318 399

Pedro Gil Minimum 45 - - - - - - Average 140 - - - - - -

Maximum 217 - - - - - -

Pasig City Hall Minimum 139 77 - 75 85 57 37 Average 191 201 - 151 129 110 95 Maximum 219 390 - 226 158 190 190

TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATES


Station 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Las Pinas City Minimum 38 46 72 40 25 22 33 Hall Average 121 131 113 93 91 73 81

Maximum 591 328 189 184 199 123 170

Pulang Lupa Minimum - 87 41 - - - - Belisario Average - 99 104 - - - - Las Pinas Maximum - 113 186 - - - - Congressional Minimum - - - - 187 158 106 Plaza, Proj. 8 Average - - - - 359 227 211

Maximum - - - - 921 374 374

Mandaluyong Minimum - - - - 123 96 81 City Hall Average - - - - 147 132 143

Maximum - - - - 203 199 228

DOH, Manila Minimum - - - - - 79 54 Average - - - - - 171 151 Maximum - - - - - 286 269

Pasay City Hall Minimum - - - - - 78 49 Average - - - - - 136 156 Maximum - - - - - 205 270

Note: Guideline values: 90 µg/Ncm for one-year average exposure; 230 µg/Ncm for 24-hour exposure.One-year averages below 90 and 24-hour exposures below 230 have been highlighted.

Source: EMB

While the general trend in individual sampling stations seems to be a decreasing level ofTSP, with twelve stations showing a net decrease and three stations showing a net increase, anew sampling station (Congressional) showed average and maximum pollution levels higher thananything previously recorded (359 µg/Ncm average, 921 µg/Ncm maximum) in Metro Manila.However, the average levels of all but two stations (PAGASA and Ateneo/Katipunan Rd.) exceededthe guideline value considered safe (90 µg/Ncm), and the maximum values of all but two stationsalso exceeded the safe guideline level of 230 µg/Ncm. Boldface values (also colored green) inTable 2 represent those within allowable guideline values.

Table 3, which covers the longer time period 1975-2002, shows the Metro Manila locationswhich registered the highest annual average of 24-hour readings. Each row on the table is thelocation with the highest average TSP level in Metro Manila for that year.



Table 3. Air Quality Monitoring Stations with Maximum TSPReadings in Metro Manila, 1975-2002 (µg/Ncm)

Year Maximum TSP Readings Station

As can be seen from Table 3, the most polluted Metro Manila air has been exceeding themaximum guideline value for TSP of 90 µg/Ncm since 1980. In 2000, TSP levels (359 µg/Ncm)were more than four times higher than they were 27 years ago although they decreased somewhatin 2001 and 2002. Figure 1 shows the increasing trend of maximum TSP levels in Metro Manila.


1975 86 Ermita1976 80 Ermita1977 83 Quiapo1978 83 QC-Araneta1979 74 Pasay1980 104 Pasay1981 95 QC-Araneta1982 100 Ermita/Quiapo1983 115 Ermita1984 no data available1985 no data available1986 205 Las Piñas1987 286 Valenzuela1988 207 Ermita1989 253 Valenzuela1990 253 Valenzuela

1991 257 Valenzuela1992 256 Valenzuela1993 179 Makati1994 322 Valenzuela1995 296 Valenzuela1996 282 QC-Quezon Ave.1997 313 QC-DPWH1998 266 Valenzuela1999 344 QC-Araneta2000 359 QC-Congressional2001 227 QC-Congressional2002 211 QC-Congressional

Note: Guideline value for one-year average exposure: 90 µg/NcmAverages below the guideline value have been highlighted.

Source: EMB (and the former National Pollution Control Commission)

72002 N

AT

ION

AL

AIR

QU

AL

ITY

STA

TU

S R

EP

OR

T

QC-CongressionalQC-Congressional

QC-CongressionalQC-Araneta

ValenzuelaQC=DPWH

QC-Quezon AveValenzuela

ValenzuelaMakati

ValenzuelaValenzuela

Valenzuela

Valenzuela

Valenzuela

Las Pinas

ErmitaErmita/QuiapoQC-Araneta

PasayPasay

QC-AranetaQuiapoErmita

Ermita

Ermita

0 50

100

150

200

250

300

350

4001976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

Ye

ar

Annual average g/Ncm

Station w

ith highest annual averageG

uideline Value

TOTA

L S

US

PE

ND

ED

PAR

TIC

UL

AT

ES

Fig

ure 1. M

aximu

m T

SP

Levels in

Metro

Man

ila (1975-2002)


This worst-case situation, with the highest reading increasing over time and shifting inlocation, suggests mobile sources as the most probable cause, possibly reflecting the shifts inareas of most intense vehicular traffic concentrations. As traffic regulations and policies as well asthe deployment of mass rail transport ease traffic in a particular area, the concentration of mobilesources shifts elsewhere, leading to local improvements in the context of increasing numbers ofvehicles, causing a general deterioration in worst case situations.

If the above analysis is correct, the maximum TSP location can be expected to continueshifting, as the area of most intense traffic concentration is decongested through various trafficimprovement measures, while the number of vehicles within the metropolis continues to increase.If this area of maximum TSP is far from a monitoring station, it will not be captured in EMB data.

Table 4. Air Quality Monitoring StationsExceeding the 90 µg/Ncm Annual TSP Level

Year TSP Level City/Province Station

2001 227 Iloilo City Jaro Police Station2001 227 Metro Manila QC-Congressional2001 218 Iloilo City Jaro Police Station2001 190 Iloilo City La Paz Plaza2001 181 Iloilo City La Paz Plaza2001 174 Batangas City Alangilan2001 134 Cavite Trece Martires

2000 359 Metro Manila QC-Congressional2000 296 Leyte Isabel Municipal Hall2000 258 Iloilo City Jaro Police Station2000 217 Leyte LIDE, Tolingon2000 184 Iloilo City Molo Plaza2000 184 Leyte LIDE, Matlang Bgy. Hall2000 173 Iloilo City Plazoleta Gay2000 166 Davao City Lanang2000 146 Iloilo City La Paz Plaza2000 107 Naga City Panganiban Drive, Diversion Rd.2000 94 Cebu City DENR Region VII Office 1999 512 Davao City Lanang1999 344 Metro Manila QC-Araneta1999 276 Cebu Talisay Municipal Hall1999 261 Cebu City Bgy. Pardo Barangay Hall1999 238 Cebu Minglanilla Municipal Hall1999 233 Iloilo City Plazoleta Gay1999 211 Iloilo City Molo Plaza1999 179 Iloilo City La Paz Plaza1999 175 Cavite Aguinaldo Highway1999 168 Iloilo City Jaro Police Station



Year TSP Level City/Province Station

1998 266 Metro Manila Valenzuela1998 246 Davao City Ilang1998 231 Iloilo City Plazoleta Gay1998 227 Iloilo City Jaro Police Station1998 200 Iloilo City UP-Visayas, Diversion Rd.1998 189 Iloilo City La Paz Plaza1998 181 Iloilo City Molo Plaza1998 168 Iloilo City Mandurriao Plaza1998 148 Cebu City DENR Region VII Office1998 141 Leyte Isabel Municipal Hall1998 133 Iloilo City BFD Compound1998 125 Iloilo City Plaza Libertad1998 104 Leyte LIDE, Matlang Bgy. Hall1998 103 Leyte LIDE, Tolingon1998 93 Iloilo City Arevalo, Molo 1997 313 Metro Manila QC-DPWH1997 163 Leyte LIDE, Matlang Bgy. Hall1997 149 Leyte LIDE, Tolingon1997 131 Leyte Isabel Municipal Hall 1996 563 Negros Or. Front of Bacong Central School1996 411 Davao City San Pedro1996 399 Tagum City Apokon Station 91996 341 Davao City Lanang1996 282 Metro Manila QC-Quezon Ave1996 281 Tagum City Apokon Station 91996 276 Bohol Talibon CENRO Office1996 218 Tagum City Apokon Station 51996 212 Cebu City DENR Region VII Office1996 198 Tagum City Apokon Station 111996 158 Tagum City Apokon Station 31996 152 Tagum City Apokon Station 131996 143 Tagum City Apokon Station 21996 134 Tagum City Apokon Station 121996 132 Tagum City Apokon Station 141996 91 Tagbilaran City PENRO Office

1995 296 Metro Manila Valenzuela1995 169 Mandaue City DA Experimental Station1995 143 Cebu City DENR Region VII Office1995 127 Cebu City CENRO N. Bacalso Ave.

Note: Guideline values for one-year average exposure: 90 µg/Ncm for one-year average exposure. Averages higherthan maximum in Metro Manila have been highlighted. All entries on this table exceed the guideline value.

Source: EMB



This further suggests that TSP monitoring stations should be located at major intersectionsshowing the worst traffic congestion, to track the areas of highest TSP pollution. If pollution levelsin these congested areas can be brought within safe guideline levels, we can be more confident ofeven lower levels in areas with less traffic congestion. However, locating stations this way is not inaccordance with the current requirements for siting air quality monitoring stations.

Heavy annual average TSP concentrations, however, are also occuring not only in MetroManila but also in other cities including small towns. Table 4 lists the stations where the annualaverage TSP concentration has exceeded the national guideline value of 90 µg/Ncm.

In at least four locations outside Metro Manila, the annual average TSP readings exceededor equalled the highest ever reached in Metro Manila: 563 µg/Ncm in Negros Or. (Bacong CentralSchool station, 1996); 411 µg/Ncm in Davao City (San Pedro station, 1996); 399 µg/Ncm in Tagum(Apokon Station 9, 1996); and 227 µg/Ncm in Iloilo City (Jaro Police Station, 2001).

In two of the seven previous years, location(s) outside MetroManila exceeded or equalled the highest Metro Manila annual averagereadings: Negros Oriental, Davao City and Tagum in 1996; and IloiloCity in 2001. There were also locations where the average annual ormaximum readings far exceeded those of Metro Manila, but due toinsufficient data sampling, the figures are not included here.

In most of these locations, the motor vehicle density is not as bad as Metro Manila’s, andneither could the high TSP count be attributed to a specific, identifiable stationary or area source.

The most probable cause of the problem is the tricycle. A common mode of public transport.In small towns and cities, the tricycle is often the main and in the some central business districtsthe only form of public transport. Due to its fuel mix and inefficient burning, the tricycle exhaust ishigh in TSP and unburnt hydrocarbons. In addition to air pollution, the tricycle is also a source ofnoise pollution.

Nationwide, a total of 871,757 tons of particulate matter were emitted in 2001. Of the total,54% came from stationary sources, 26% from area sources and 20% from mobile sources. Thehighest TSP emissions occurred in Region 4 (346,214 tons), Region 1 (109,832 tons) and Region11 (109,097 tons). The lowest were in Caraga (2,525 tons), Region 2 (11,237 tons) and Region 9(14,989 tons). No ARMM figures were available.


112002 N

AT

ION

AL

AIR

QU

AL

ITY

STA

TU

S R

EP

OR

T

TOTA

L S

US

PE

ND

ED

PA

RT

ICU

LA

TE

S

Figure 2. Maximum TSP Levels Nationwide (1995 - 2001)

Negros O r./563

Iloilo/227

MM/359

MM/266

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 20

Year

An

nu

al a

vera

ge,

g/N

cm

Tagum /689

MM/296

Mandaue/169

D avao/411

Tagum /399

D avao/341

D avao/649

MM/344

Leyte/296D avao /341MM/313

Source: EMB

Annual A

verage, µg/Ncm



Assuming that real-time daily air pollution levels are available, the following precautionaryactions must be taken by the public corresponding to the level of TSP measured :

Table 5. Precautionary Actions to Take when TSP Pollution is High

Statement Precautionary Action

Good (0-80) None

Fair (81-230) None

Unhealthy for sensitive People with respiratory disease, such as asthma, groups (231-349) should limit outdoor exertion.

Very unhealthy (350-599) Pedestrians should avoid heavy traffic areas. Peoplewith heart or respiratory disease, such as asthma,should stay indoors and rest as much as possible.Unnecessary trips should be postponed. Peopleshould voluntarily restrict the use of vehicles.

Acutely unhealthy (600-899) People should limit outdoor exertion. People with heartor respiratory disease, such as asthma, should stayindoors and rest as much as possible. Unnecessarytrips should be postponed. Motor vehicle use may berestricted. Industrial activities may be curtailed.

Emergency (900-above) Everyone should remain indoors (keeping windows anddoors closed) unless heat stress is possible. Motor ve-hicle use should be prohibited except for emergency situ-ations. Industrial activities, except that which is vital forpublic safety and health, should be curtailed.

Note: TSP (24-hour guideline value: 230 µg/Ncm)


Table 6. Particulate Matter (PM) from Area, Stationary and Mobile Sources, 2001 (tons)

PM from PM from PM from Region Area Source Stationary Source Mobile Source Total

4 20,706 299,148 26,360 346,2141 8,975 89,899 10,958 109,83211 24,998 3,571 7,692 109,097NCR 21,836 880 48,465 71,1813 15,777 12,424 24,397 52,5987 18,828 15,761 12,291 46,8808 19,330 21,040 3,889 44,2595 33,899 613 5,564 40,0756 14,644 3,689 12,296 30,62912 19,729 413 3,372 23,51410 10,821 4,973 5,053 20,847CAR 3,573 14,248 2,895 20,7169 9,987 28 4,974 14,9892 3,609 223 7,405 11,237Caraga 15 193 2,317 2,525

Total 226,727 467,102 177,928 871,757 26% 54% 20% 100%

Source: EMB-AQMS

PM10. Separate data on particulate matter PM10 were submitted by EMB-NCR in 2001 (42µg/Nm3 arithmetic mean for the year, measured at the Manila Memorial Park in Parañaque, wherethe air may not be as highly polluted as other sites). Between March 2002 and August 2002, theManila Observatory (MO) also monitored three sites within Metro Manila: MO, the National PrintingOffice (NPO), and the Philippine General Hospital (PGH). Their data showed minimal exceedanceof the 24-hour ambient guideline value for PM10. NPO showed the most percentage of samples inthe 75-100 µg/Ncm range (the higher end of the readings). If a lower 24-hour guideline value of 65instead of 150 µg/Ncm were adopted, PM2.5 would show more exceedances, with 46% of samplesexceeding the guideline value. Most of these are probably due to the higher traffic volume at theNPO. MO data showed that PM2.5 makes up 45-75% of PM10.

The Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI) has collected PM10 and PM2.5 using aGent–type dichotomous sampler since 1996. Long term data have been generated for varyinglengths of time for five sites in Metro Manila: MO; La Mesa Dam; Vista Verde Homes, Cainta;University of Sto. Tomas (UST); and Poveda Learning Center. A summary of the data is given inTables 7 and 8. The data generally indicate compliance with the short-term 24-hour PM10

PM10


guideline value of 150 µg/Nm3 in all of the sites. There are no PM

2.5 guideline values in the Philippines.

PM2.5

levels were generally below the short-term PM2.5

guideline value of 65 µg/m3 set by the UnitedStates Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). While PM

10 levels are within long-term national

guideline value of 60 µg/m3, the PM2.5

is seen to exceed the USEPA long term guideline value of 15µg/m3.

Table 7. Summary of PM10 Concentration Data for PNRI Metro Manila Stations

Monitoring site Mean PM10 Range N Period of Sampling µg/m3 µg/m3

Ateneo de Manila 59 18 - 190 71 Jun-96 to Oct-97 University Ateneo de Manila 37.5 7.4 - 115 140 Oct-98 to Dec-00 University Ateneo de Manila 52 23 - 101 67 2001 University University of Sto. 34 3.6 - 84 98 Mar to Sep 99 Tomas Jun to Sep 02 Poveda Learning 38 5.2 - 142 79 Oct 01 to Sep 02 Center Vista Verde Homes, 57 17-110 51 Feb – Jul 99 Cainta La Mesa Dam 45 16-128 61 Nov-96 to Mar- 98

Table 8. Summary of PM2.5 Concentration for PNRI Metro Manila Stations

Monitoring site Mean PM2.5 Range N Period of Sampling µg/m3 µg/m3

Ateneo de Manila 27 5.6 - 128 71 Jun-96 to Oct-97 University Ateneo de Manila 16.1 4.2 - 34 140 Oct-98 to Dec-00 University Ateneo de Manila 27.3 10 - 41 67 2001 University University of Sto. 15.5 1.5 - 49.3 98 Mar to Sep 99 Tomas Jun to Sep 02 Poveda Learning 15.8 1.1 - 34.8 79 Oct 01 to Sep 02 Center Vista Verde Homes, 23.9 9.2 - 41.4 51 Feb – Jul 99 Cainta La Mesa Dam 20.1 6.9 - 56 61 Nov-96 to Mar- 98

Note: The Philippines, however, has no PM2.5 guideline value to date Source: PNRI

Note: Philippine 24-hr ambient guideline value for PM10 is 150 µg/m3 and long term value is 60 µg/m3

Source: Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI).

PM10


Figure 3 gives the time series plot for the station in Ateneo. A decrease in concentration ofparticulate mass from 1996 to 2000 is observed, followed by an increase in 2001 and 2002. Roadwidening and repair undertaken in 1996 -1997 may have contributed to higher particulate loadingsduring the period. Increased particulate loading in 2001 could have been influenced by theconstruction of mobile phone transmission towers adjacent to the station. The construction of theMRT along Katipunan which was started in 2001, could also have contributed to higher particulateloadings. In addition, contributions from other anthropogenic sources such as vehicular emissions,oil burning, industry, etc. are also expected. These are presently being estimated at the PNRIusing Receptor Modeling Techniques.

Figure 3. Time Series Plot of Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10) Concentrations for thePNRI Station at the Ateneo de Manila Campus (November 1996 to June 2002)

Seasonal variation is seen with higher particulate mass levels during the dry months andlower levels during the wet season. Spikes in values are observed for the New Year’s Eve andChinese New Year samples. It is seen from time series plot for Ateneo that PM

2.5 and PM

10 levels

do not exceed the short term reference guideline values set respectively by the USEPA and thenational government.

Comparison of monthly means of particulate mass concentration

Figure 4 gives the monthly means for the Ateneo de Manila University Campus datingfrom 1996. It is seen that monthly means for PM10 are generally within the long term guidelinevalue of 60 µg/m3 annual average. The chart, however, shows that even when the PM10 guidelinevalue is not exceeded, the PM2.5 exceeds the USEPA guideline value, which was introduced becauseof adverse health impacts of PM2.5.

P art ic ula te c o nc ent ra t io n ( g/ cu m )A teneo de M anila C am pus , N o ve m be r 19 96 -J une 2 00 2

0

50

100

150

200

250

10/1

2/96

4/12

/97

7/19

/97

10/9

/98

1/16

/99

4/21

/99

8/10

/99

1/28

/00

4/24

/00

8/4/

00

1/30

/01

6/20

/01

9/16

/01

12/9

/01

2/20

/02

5/19

/02

Sam pling date

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

ug

/cu

m) PM10

Phil. 24 hr std.for PM10

PM2.5

USEPA 24 hrstd. for PM2.5

PM10

PM10

Phil. 24 hourstd. for PM10

PM2.5

USEPA 24 hourstd. for PM2.5

Source: PNRI


Figure 4. Monthly means for PM10 and PM2.5 for the PNRI stationat the Ateneo de Manila University

Comparison of particulate composition of PM10 from different stations

Figures 5-8 gives the correlation plot of PM2.5

against PM10

for three monitoring stations inMetro Manila. It is seen that the different stations have varying compositions as indicated by varyingslopes and correlation coefficients. These indicate that for Ateneo and UST, the PM

2.5 has significant

contribution to PM10

. For Poveda, where the station is closest to the main road, correlation withPM

2.5 is not as good, indicating possible more significant contribution of the coarse fraction to the

mass. Figure 6 gives the correlation between PM2.5-10

and PM10

.

Figure 5. Correlation of PM2.5 with PM10 for Ateneo de Manila University Campus

C o r r e la t io n o f P M 2 . 5 a n d P M 1 0 A D M U ( 1 9 9 6 -2 0 0 2 )

y = 1 . 5 2 4 6 x + 1 2 . 8 3 8

R 2 = 0 . 7 8 5 8

0 . 0 0

5 0 . 0 0

1 0 0 . 0 0

1 5 0 . 0 0

2 0 0 . 0 0

2 5 0 . 0 0

3 0 0 . 0 0

3 5 0 . 0 0

4 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 5 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 5 0 . 0 2 0 0 . 0 2 5 0 . 0

P M 2 . 5

PM

10

Monthly Means for PM10 and PM2.5

PNRI station at the ADMU

-102030405060708090

100

Sampling date

Mo

nth

ly m

ean

(g

/cu

m)

PM2.5

PM10

Local Long-termPM10-standard

US-EPA Long-term PM2.5standard

PM10

Source: PNRI

Source: PNRI

PM2.5

PM10

Local Long-term PM10-standard

US-EPA LocalL o n g - t e r mPM2.5-standard


Figure 6. Correlation of PM2.5 with PM10 for UST

Figure 7. Correlation of PM2.5 with PM10 for Poveda Learning Center

Figure 8. Correlation of PM2.5-10 and PM10 for Poveda Learning Center

Correlation of P M 2.5 and PM 1 0

Poveda Learning Center (Septem ber 2001 - Septem ber 2002)

y = 1.8373x + 8.0869R 2 = 0.6723

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

PM 2.5

C orrelation of P M 2.5 and P M 1 0

P oveda Learning C enter (Septem ber 2001 - Septem ber 2002)

y = 1.8373x + 8.0869R 2 = 0.6723

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

P M 2.5

Correlation of PM 2.5-10 and PM 10

Poveda Learning Cente r (Septem ber 2001 - Septem ber 2002)

y = 1.3568x + 8.0631R2 = 0.8603

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

PM2.5-10

PM

10

PM10

Source: PNRI

Source: PNRI

Source: PNRI


The national guideline values for PM10 are minimum of 150 µg/Ncm for a 24-hour exposureand maximum of 60 µg/Ncm for a one-year exposure, maximum. However, without data fromprevious years, it is not possible to make comparisons or establish trends. In 2001, EMB estimatesthat 25,439 tons of PM10 were emitted into the atmosphere by mobile sources (mostly motorvehicles).

Criteria Pollutant 2:SULFUR DIOXIDE

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is usually emitted from the burning of coal and oil in electrical energygeneration or heating or from internal combustion engines. The higher the sulfur content of thefuel, the more of this pollutant is produced. It is also released in the industrial production of sulfuricacid. SO2 is toxic. The gas is colorless and very irritating to the respiratory system. When releasedin massive amounts, it may increase the atmosphere’s acidity. The greatest threat occurs whenSO2 combines with water vapor in the air to form sulfuric acid and sulfates.

The national guideline values for SO2 are 180 µg/Ncm (0.07 ppm) maximum for a 24-hourexposure and 80 µg/Ncm (0.03 ppm) maximum for a one-year exposure. The latter was lastexceeded in 1983.

Table 9. Location of Maximum SO2 Level in Metro Manila1975-1993 (ppm)

Year Maximum Station

1975 0.066 Pasay1976 0.038 Grace Park1977 0.033 Grace Park1978 0.050 Grace Park1979 0.037 Ermita1980 0.032 Ermita1981 0.026 QC-Cubao1982 0.028 Quiapo1983 0.038 QC-Cubao1984 no data available1985 no data available1986 0.018 Ermita1987 0.010 Ermita1988 0.023 Ermita1989 0.018 Ermita1990 0.023 Pasig1991 0.016 Ermita1992 0.013 Ermita1993 0.021 Ermita

Note: Guideline value for one-year average exposure: 0.03 ppmAverages below the guideline value have been highlighted.

Source: EMB

SULFUR DIOXIDE


The EMB-NCR 1996-2001 report only gives 2001 data, and only at a single monitoringstation (Manila Memorial Park in Parañaque), which had not figured as a highly polluted area in thepast years. It is therefore difficult to give any new insight about ambient levels of SO

2 in recent

years. The implementation of the Clean Air Act (CAA) provisions for low-sulfur automotive andindustrial diesel fuels is bound to reduce SO

x emissions but the expected reduction of ambient

SOx remains to be verifed through reliable and regular ambient air measurements with well-

maintained equipment. Furthermore, the low-sulfur requirements do not cover bunker fuel, whichis the fuel often used in industrial plants, especially power plants.

EMB-NCR is supposed to collect twelve 24-hour SO2 samples of this pollutant per quarter,

or 48 samples per year, in its pollutant monitoring program.

In Metro Manila, ambient levels of SO2 have been going down,

with the 1993 value (0.021 ppm) about one-third of the 1975 value(0.066 ppm). (See Table 9)

While monitoring of ambient levels is focused on the criteriapollutant sulfur dioxide (SO

2), emission inventories usually cover

all oxides of sulfur (SOx), also called sulfur oxides, which include

SO2 and SO

3.

EMB-NCR estimates that 17,960 tons of SOx were emitted by mobile sources (mostly

motor vehicles) in 2000. But the largest contributor to SOx emissions in Metro Manila was industry

(90%), with transport contributing 9%, and area sources like open burning and roads contributingonly 1%. These emissions were obtained using the methods prescribed by the USEPA Air PollutionManual No. 42.

SOx can be reduced through the use of low-sulfur fuels and flue gas desulfurizers. In mobile

sources, it can be reduced through a shift to more efficient public transport systems and shifts infuel to natural gas-based fuels or low-sulfur fuels.

SULFUR DIOXIDE


Air Quality Monitoring Stations with Maximum SOx readings, Metro Manila (1975-1993)

Pasay

Grace Park

Grace Park

Grace Park

Ermita

Ermita

Cubao

Quiapo

Cubao

Ermita

Pasig

Ermita

Ermita

Ermita

Ermita

Ermita

Ermita

0.000

0.010

0.020

0.030

0.040

0.050

0.060

0.070

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Year

Ave

rage

val

ue (

ppm

)

Station with the Highest Reading Guideline Value

Figure 9. Ambient Sulfur Dioxide in Metro Manila (1975-1993)

SULFUR DIOXIDE

Source: EMB (and the former National Pollution Control Commission)


Table 10 lists the total estimated emission of SOx in 2001 in all regions, in tons, based on

Self-Monitoring Reports (SMRs) submitted, and Emission Inventory of major industries. Thisemission inventory, however, represents only about 40% submission of SMRs from industries.Industry compliance on this matter still leaves much to be desired because of industry hesitation todisclose data to the government.

Table 10. SOx from Area, Stationary and Mobile Sources, 2001 (tons)

SOx from SOx from SOx from Region Area Source Stationary Source Mobile Source Total

3 2,562 471,909 - 474,4717 787 130,203 - 130,9904 3,547 62,730 - 66,2778 696 62,659 - 63,3551 878 54,661 - 55,539CAR 429 13,269 15,692 29,390NCR 3,641 11,080 - 14,720Caraga - 7,390 - 7,3906 915 6,027 - 6,9425 886 6,025 - 6,91110 242 2,093 - 2,3359 312 1,031 - 1,34211 567 646 - 1,21312 439 378 - 8172 712 0 - 712

Total 16,612 830,100 15,692 862,405 2% 96% 2% 100%

Note: No SOx data available for mobile sources except CAR.

Source: EMB-AQMS

Nationwide, a total of 862,405 tons of sulfur oxides were emitted in 2001. Of the total, 96%came from stationary sources, and 2% each came from area and mobile sources. However, theSOx emission data for mobile sources was not available for all the regions outside Metro Manila, sototal SOx emission is presumably much larger, with mobile sources contributing more than what isindicated in the 2001 data. The highest SOx emissions occurred in Region 3 (474,471 tons), Region7 (130,990 tons) and Region 4 (66,277 tons). The lowest were in Region 2 (712 tons), Region 12(817 tons) and Region 11 (1,213 tons). No ARMM figures were available.

SULFUR DIOXIDE


Criteria Pollutant 3:NITROGEN DIOXIDE

Whenever air is heated to high temperatures, such as in automobile cylinders or hightemperature furnaces of power plants and industrial boilers, nitrogen oxides (NO

x) are produced.

Inert atmospheric nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitric oxides and later turns into nitrogendioxide (NO

2). When combined with rain, nitric acid is formed. With hydrocarbons, NO

2 creates

smog. It also combines with SO2 to form acid rain.

Ambient NO2 levels in Metro Manila were last measured in 1986-1987 (0.058 - 0.037 µg/

cm). The national guideline value for NO2 is 150 µg/Ncm (0.08 ppm) maximum for a 24-hour

exposure.

While monitoring of ambient levels is focused on the criteria pollutant nitrogen oxide (NO2),

emission inventories usually cover all oxides of nitrogen (NOx), also called nitrogen oxides, which

include NO, NO2, N

2O, and NO

3.

NOx from motor vehicles can be controlled through regular maintenance and the use of

catalytic converters. However, high-sulfur diesel reduces considerably the life of catalytic converters,while the use of these converters in gasoline-fueled vehicles is not yet mandated by law.

Table 11 lists the total estimated emission of NOx in all regions, in tons for 2001.

Table 11. NOx from Area, Stationary and Mobile Sources, 2001 (tons)

NCR 684,816 4,999 109,760 799,5744 668,367 72,283 40,818 781,4683 479,860 83,559 43,786 607,205CAR 78,021 199,355 5,569 282,9457 112,109 101,545 14,939 228,5921 156,229 39,023 16,321 211,5736 148,539 6,906 25,573 181,0192 135,271 68 12,524 147,8635 93,059 601 8,914 102,5738 91,729 337 7,434 99,50011 51,347 493 16,961 68,80112 38,606 5,791 3,865 48,2629 37,714 636 7,025 45,37510 21,432 983 11,269 33,683Caraga 4 635 4,042 4,680

Total 2,797,102 517,212 328,800 3,643,114 77% 14% 9% 100%

Source: EMB-AQMS

NITROGEN DIOXIDE

Region NOx from NOx from NOx from TotalArea Source Stationary Source Mobile Source


Nationwide, a total of 3.64 million tons of nitrogen oxides were emitted in 2001. Of the total,77% came from area sources, 14% from stationary sources and 9% from mobile sources. Thehighest NOx emissions occurred in Metro Manila (799,574 tons), Region 4 (781,468 tons) andRegion 3 (607,205 tons). The lowest were in Caraga (4,680 tons), Region 10 (33,683 tons) andRegion 9 (45,375 tons). No ARMM figures were available.

Criteria Pollutant 4:CARBON MONOXIDE

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, poisonousgas, which is slightly lighter than air. It is produced primarily bymotor vehicles, and is formed when fossil fuels do not burncompletely. The primary source of CO is the gasoline engine. Thenational guideline values for CO are 35 µg/Ncm (30 ppm) maximumfor a one-hour exposure and 10 µg/Ncm (9 ppm) maximum for an8-hour exposure.

Table 12 lists the total estimated emission of CO in all regions, in tons per year.

Table 12. CO from Area, Stationary and Mobile Sources, 2001 (tons)

CO from CO from CO from Region Area Source Stationary Source Mobile Source Total

NCR 137,224 967 948,192 1,086,3833 102,566 10,529 308,874 421,9697 136,663 41,514 227,684 405,8604 30,180 10,212 334,126 374,5185 252,463 76 55,625 308,1646 104,959 2,197 135,802 242,95812 4,065 1,253 32,669 217,98711 85,469 429 127,004 212,9038 142,826 183 46,356 189,3651 62,309 2,103 117,739 182,1519 73,991 23 58,998 133,013CAR 24,363 43,356 27,937 95,6562 22,825 38 65,424 88,28710 71,230 612 5,760 77,602Caraga 160 11 20,038 20,209

Total 1,431,294 113,503 2,512,228 4,057,025 35% 3% 62% 100%

Source: EMB-AQMS

CARBON MONOXIDE


Nationwide, a total of 4.06 million tons of carbon monoxide were emitted in 2001. Of thetotal, 62% came from mobile sources, mostly gasoline-fuelled vehicles, 35% from area sourcesand 3% from stationary sources. The highest carbon monoxide emissions occurred in Metro Manila(1.1 million tons), Region 3 (421,969 tons) and Region 7 (405,860 tons). The lowest were in Caraga(20,209 tons), Region 10 (77,602 tons) and Region 2 (88,287 tons). No ARMM figures were available.

Criteria Pollutant 5:LEAD

Lead (Pb) is known to cause various ailments, both in adults and in children.

The national guideline values for lead are 1.5 µg/Ncm maximum for a three-month exposureand 1.0 µg/Ncm maximum for a one-year exposure.

Lead is monitored by measuring the lead content of TSP samples. In 2000, EMB estimatesthat 135 tons of lead were emitted into the atmosphere by mobile sources (mostly motor vehicles)in Metro Manila.

Ambient levels of lead in the air were taken in 1987 (0.25-4.35 µg/Ncm; average: 1.282 µg/Ncm), 1993 (0.6-1.3 µg/Ncm; average: 0.712 µg/Ncm), 1994 (0.3-0.5 µg/Ncm; average: 0.32 µg/Ncm), and 1997 (average: 0.483 µg/Ncm). In 1990, some 407 tons of lead were emitted into theair of Metro Manila by motor vehicles using leaded gasoline. For the period 1998-2001, ambientfigures from the EMB are available only for the year 2000 (0.0394 µg/Ncm before April 2000; 0.043µg/Ncm after April 2000). Metro Manila ambient lead levels are summarized in Table 13.

Table 13. Ambient Lead Levels in Metro Manila, 1987-2000 (µg/Ncm)

Year Ambient Lead Levels

1987 1.282 1993 0.712 1994 0.320 1997 0.483 2000a 0.039 2000b 0.043

a – Before April 2000 b – After April 2000

Note: Guideline value for average annual exposure: 1.0 µg/Ncm.Average higher than the guideline value has been highlighted.

Source: EMB

LEAD


Source: PNRI

As a reaction to the high lead content of Metro Manila ambient air in the early 1990s, thelead content in gasoline was reduced from 0.6 g/L to 0.15 g/L in April 1993. Unleaded gasoline wasintroduced in the Philippines in February 1994. In January 1995, the tax on unleaded gas waslowered by the Oil Deregulation Law, making it cheaper than leaded gas and increasing its marketshare. Leaded gasoline was phased out in Metro Manila in April 2000 and nationwide in December31, 2000.

The PNRI performs X-ray Fluorescence analysis on its air filter samples. It has thus generateda multi-element database of particulate composition for its samples. Lead measurements for filtersfrom the Ateneo de Manila University indicate a drastic decrease of Pb levels in both PM

2.5 and

PM2.5-10

with the mandatory use of unleaded gasoline in 2000.

With the phaseout of leaded gasoline, lower lead levels in the air can be expected, withinitial data apparently confirming this.

The drop in ambient lead levels as a result of the phaseout of leaded gasoline is a goodexample of removing an air pollutant by stopping it at its source, instead of controlling emissionlevels at the exhaust end of the pipe.

Figure 10. Ambient Lead Levels in Metro Manila, 1987 - 2000

LEAD

1.187

1.092

0.997

0.902

0.807

0.712

0.3200.374

0.4290.483

0.335

0.187

0.0430.039

1.282

0.000

0.200

0.400

0.600

0.800

1.000

1.200

1.400

Year

Am

bien

t lev

el, p

pm

Ambient Lead Levels 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Ambient Lead Levels)

Ambient Lead Levels 1.282 1.187 1.092 0.997 0.902 0.807 0.712 0.320 0.374 0.429 0.483 0.335 0.187 0.039 0.043

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000a 2000b


OZONE AND RELATED OXIDANTS

Figure 11. Pb Concentration in the Fine Fraction for the Ateneo de ManilaUniversity Campus (October 1998 - June 2002)

Figure 12. Pb Concentration in the Coarse Fraction for the Ateneo de ManilaUniversity Campus (October 1998 - June 2002)

Criteria Pollutant 6:OZONE AND RELATED OXIDANTS

Ozone is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms. It is formed when powerful ultraviolet(UV) rays from the sun cause oxygen (O) molecules to break apart. Within the earth’s surface ,high ozone levels are associated with urban smog. Inhaling this ozone can irritate or damage thelungs. On the stratosphere, which is between 15 and 65 kilometers above the earth’s surfacehowever, ozone acts as a beneficial gas. There it forms a protective shield, referred to as theozone layer, which filters and prevents the harmful UV radiation from reaching the earth.

��

��

��

��

Fine Pb - ADMU (Oct 98 - June 02)

Year

Con

c (u

g/cu

m)

98 99 100

101

102

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

��

��

Coarse Pb - ADMU (Oct ’98 - Jun ’02)

Year

Con

c (u

g/cu

m)

98 99 100 101 1020

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Fine Pb - ADMU (October 1998 - June 2002)

Coarse Pb - ADMU (October 1998 - June 2002)

Year

Year

Con

c (

µ/c

u m

)C

onc

( µ

/cu

m)

Source: PNRI

Source: PNRI

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002


In the 1970’s, scientists discovered that the released Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)damage the ozone layer. ODS are chemical substances that have the potential to react withozone molecules in the stratosphere. ODS are basically chlorinated, fluorinated, or brominatedhydrocarbons and include chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, halons,hydrobromofluorocarbons, bromochloromethane, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, andmethyl bromide.

High ozone levels on the earth’s surface are associated with urban smog. Ozone is asecondary pollutant that builds up near the ground through a series of chemical reactions triggeredby UV rays from the sun and involving human-made emissions of VOCs and NO

x. NO

x are produced

by motor vehicles, off-road engines and fuel-burning facilities such as power plants. VOCs comefrom solvents and fuels that readily evaporate.

This pollutant is not currently monitored by EMB.

Non-Criteria Pollutants:SOLIDS AND METALS

Asbestos. Asbestos is an incombustible, chemical-resistant, fibrousmaterial used for fireproofing materials as well as insulation, buildingmaterials, and brake linings. Asbestos fibers in the ambient air poserisks to human health in the form of cancer and other diseases. In 1999,the EMB-NCR 2001 report shows that 90 tons of asbestos were emittedby Metro Manila vehicles. In 1990, the total Metro Manila asbestosemission from vehicles was 45 tons.

Mercury. Mercury is released to the atmosphere from various sources and then depositedon the earth’s surface. Some of the deposited mercury ends up in swamps, lakes, and streamswhere bacteria turn it to methyl mercury, a toxic form that bioaccumulates in the food chain,particularly in animal tissues. Mercury may accumulate in fish to levels that would be toxic if eatenover a long period by humans or by wildlife.

The Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of the CAA set maximum permissible limitsfor this pollutant at the point of emission. The ambient level of this pollutant is not currently monitored.

Laboratory tests conducted by the PNRI and EMB Research and Development Division, oncoal-fired power plants show “relatively low concentrations of Mercury, Lead, Arsenic, and othertrace elements when compared with European-established values” such as the Dutch InterventionValues (DIVs).

Examination of data for elements Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), and Sulfur (S) (Figures 13-16)show increase in levels in 2001 and 2002 for the fine (PM

2.5) fraction. One of the possible sources

of Zn is emissions from two-stroke engines. Zn originating from tires is expected to be measured inthe coarse fraction. S concentration in the fine fraction is much higher than for the coarse. Themain source of S is diesel burning and coal-fired power plants. Receptor modeling is presentlybeing performed by the PNRI to determine the sources of these elements.

NON-CRITERIA POLLUTANTS


Figure 13. Zn concentration in the fine fraction for the Ateneo de Manila Universitycampus (October 1998 - June 2002)

SOLIDS AND METALS

Figure 14. Zn concentration in the coarse fraction for the Ateneo de ManilaUniversity campus (October 1998 - June 2002)

Figure 15. Cu concentration in the fine fraction for the Ateneo de ManilaUniversity campus (October 1998 - June 2002)

��

��

Fine Zn- ADMU (Oct 98 - June 02)

Year

Con

c (u

g/cu

m)

98 99 100

101

102

0

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16

0.2

0.24

Con

c (

µ/c

u m

)

Fine Zn - ADMU (October 1998 - June 2002)

Year

��

��

��

Coarse Zn - ADMU (Oct ’98 - Jun ’02)

Year

Con

c (u

g/cu

m)

98 99 100 101 1020

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

Con

c (

µ/c

u m

)

Coarse Zn - ADMU (October 1998 - June 2002)

Year

��

��

Fine Cu - ADMU (Oct 98 - Jun 02)

Year

Con

c (u

g/cu

m)

98 99 100 101 1020

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

Con

c (

µ/c

u m

)

Fine Cu - ADMU (October 1998 - June 2002)

Year

Source: PNRI

Source: PNRI

Source: PNRI

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002


Figure 16. Cu concentration in the coarse fraction for the Ateneo de ManilaUniversity campus (October 1998 - June 2002)

Copper. Ambient copper levels in Metro Manila air were last measured in 1987 by EMB,when measurements showed levels of 0.05-0.54 µg/Ncm. From October 1998 to June 2002, ambientlevels were measured at the AdMU campus.

The CAA IRR sets maximum permissible limits for this pollutant at the point of emission.This pollutant is not currently monitored by EMB.

Zinc. Ambient zinc levels in Metro Manila air were last measured in 1987 (0.80-6.29 µg/Ncm). From October 1998 to June 2002, ambient levels were measured at the AdMU campus.


Cadmium. Ambient cadmium levels in Metro Manila air were last measured in 1987 (nil-0.28 µg/Ncm).


Antimony. The CAA IRR sets maximum permissible limits for this pollutant at the point ofemission. This pollutant is not currently monitored by EMB.

Arsenic. The CAA IRR sets maximum permissible limits for this pollutant at the point ofemission. This pollutant is not currently monitored by EMB.

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Total hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons (HCs) are usually unburned fumes that evaporatefrom gas tanks and are emitted from exhausts of vehicles. They can also be the evaporatingsolvents of asphalts, gaseous emissions of rotting vegetation, or the product of any reaction thatinvolves an organic material. There are two major types: 1) straight chain HCs, and 2) polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). While they are not considered toxic under normal concentrations,they have been implicated as causative agents to some forms of cancer. No data on ambientHCs levels is available for 1996-2001.

SOLIDS AND METALS

��

��

Coarse Cu- ADMU (Oct ’98 - Jun ’02)

Year

Con

c (u

g/cu

m)

98 99 100 101 1020

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

Year

CoarseCu - ADMU (October 1998 - June 2002)C

onc

( µ

/cu

m)

Source: PNRI

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002


Aromatics like benzene. Benzene is one of the VOC emitted byinternal combustion engines and is carcinogenic. Benzene results fromthe processing of oil to gasoline. In 1999, Metro Manila vehicles emitted atotal of 6,690 tons of benzene, 42% higher than the Metro Manila vehiclesemission of 4,713 tons in 1990.

With the elimination of lead in gasoline, the emissions of aromaticsin air, particularly benzene, may increase. As of June 2003, the pollutants BTX (benzene, toluene,xylene) are not currently monitored. These may soon be monitored with the rehabilitation andautomation of air quality monitoring stations in Metro Manila and the nearby provinces.

Gasoline-fueled vehicles contributed 96% of the 1999 benzene emissions by vehiclesregistered in Metro Manila. Benzene in unleaded gasoline is limited by the CAA IRR to 4% maximumeffective January 1, 2000, and, to 2% maximum effective January 1, 2003.

Table 14. VOC from Area and Stationary Sources, 2001 (tons)

VOC from VOC from Region Area Sources Stationary Sources Total

7 10,787 54,437 65,2244 18,759 3,534 22,293NCR 19,476 343 19,8193 14,078 4,066 18,1445 17,559 61 17,620CAR 2,811 12,609 15,42011 13,150 178 13,3288 10,882 156 11,03812 10,389 475 10,8646 9,223 1,383 10,6061 6,674 899 7,57310 5,684 585 6,2699 5,489 4 5,4932 3,565 31 3,596Caraga 21 1 22

Total 148,548 78,764 227,312 65% 35% 100%

Source: EMB-AQMS

Nationwide, a total of 227,312 tons of volatile organic compounds (VOC) were emitted in2001. Of the total, 65% came from area sources and 35% from stationary sources. The highestVOC occurred in Region 7 (65,224 tons), Region 4 (22,293 tons) and Metro Manila (19,819 tons).The lowest were in Caraga (22 tons), Region 2 (3,596 tons) and Region 9 (5,493 tons). No ARMMfigures were available.

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS


HALOGEN COMPOUNDS

Persistent organic pollutants. The IRR of the CAA provides for the establishment of aninventory list of all sources of persistent organic polllutants (POPs) within one year of the IRR’seffectivity date. The POPs currently raising concerns worldwide include: aldrin, chlordane, DDT,dieldrin, endrin heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, toxaphane, dioxins, furans, andpolychlorinated biphenyls. One year after the list is drawn up, a national program for reducing andeliminating such POPs will be designed and implemented. These air pollutants are not currentlymonitored by EMB.

Ethylene dibromide (EDB). No recent figures are available on this pollutant. In 1990, MetroManila vehicles emitted 56 tons of EDB. This substance is considered highly carcinogenic. Its useas a fumigant has been banned in the U.S. since 1984. It is also used as an additive to leadedgasoline. EDB and ethylene dichloride (EDC), together with benzene, are also examples of TOGemitted by mobile sources.

Ethylene dichloride (EDC). In 1990, Metro Manila vehicles emitted 2.5 tons of EDC. Norecent figures are available on this pollutant.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). See Ozone-Depleting Substances.

HALOGEN COMPOUNDS

Table 15. Annual CFC Consumption in the Philippines, 1994-2002(metric tons)

Year Consumption Montreal Protocol Commitment

1994 3,929 - 1995 3,425 -1996 3,029 -1997 2,638 -1998 2,037 -1999 2,091 3,0182000 2,906 3,0182001 2,051 3,0182002 1,263 3,0182003 - 3,0182004 - 3,0182005 - 1,5092006 - 1,5092007 - 4532008 - 4532009 - 4532010 - 0

Source: EMB


OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). In the stratosphere, a natural layer of ozone surrounds theearth and protects it from harmful UV solar radiation. In its proper place, ozone is therefore notonly a useful gas, but even essential to the survival of life on earth. Manufactured ODS like CFCshave attacked this protective ozone layer, depleting it and exposing life on earth to the adversehealth effects of excess UV radiation (e.g., increased skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immunesystems).

CFCs are various compounds used as aerosol propellants, solvents, and refrigerants.Such compounds when released into the atmosphere contribute to the breakdown of thestratospheric ozone layer, which shields the earth’s surface from dangerous solar UV radiation.The Government is currently bound to a Philippine ODS Phaseout Schedule, as part of itsinternational commitment to eliminate these pollutants by 2010.

In compliance with the Montreal Protocol, the Philippines agreed to freeze its CFCconsumption at 3,018 MT maximum starting 1999. In fact, CFC consumption starting 1997 hadfallen below the freeze level. However, the country nearly exceeded the freeze level in 2000, whenimportations increased to 2,906.31 as a result of a controversial decision which allowed importersto bring in 1,500 MT of CFC-12.

In 2001, DENR disallowed the increased importation of CFC-12, putting the Philippinesback on track as far as its commitment to phaseout CFCs was concerned. The estimated 2002consumption stood at 1,263 MT, well below its Montreal commitment, as shown in Table 15.

OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES

CFC Consumption (1994-2002)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

Year

Met

ric to

ns

CFC Consumption 3,929 3,425 3,029 2,6382,037 2,091 2,906 2,051 1,263

Montreal Protocol Commitment 3,018 3,018 3,018 3,018 3,018 3,0181,509 1,509 453 453 453 0

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Figure 17. CFC Consumption in the Philippines

Source: PNRI


GREENHOUSE GASES

Carbon dioxide (CO2). While not strictly a pollutant, CO2 emissions have become a major

issue in recent years because of its effect as a greenhouse gas. The accumulation of CO2 in the

atmosphere helps the atmosphere retain more heat than usual, contributing to global warmingand climate change. Table 14 gives the various sources of CO

2 emissions in the Philippines, as

estimated in the Philippines’ initial national communication on climate change.

Methane (CH4). Methane is another greenhouse gas, whose warming effect is 21 timesthat of CO

2. Table 14 shows its contribution to Philippine greenhouse gas emissions.

Nitrous Oxide (N2O). Nitrous oxide is the third and last greenhouse gas accounted for inthe Philippine greenhouse gas inventory, with a warming effect 310 times that of CO

2. Table 14

likewise shows its contribution to Philippine greenhouse gas emissions.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).These greenhouse gases are not included in the Philippine greenhouse gas inventory.

RADIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS

These are usually emitted from nuclear energy facilities or by projects that involve the useof nuclear energy. The regulation of this type of pollutants is under the PNRI. The presence ofradioactive materials released into the environment either as naturally-occurring radionuclides orradionuclides from human-made activities is a concern of the PNRI. The PNRI undertakesenvironmental radioactivity surveillance throughout the country to estimate the possible radiationdoses received by the general public for radiation protection purposes.

The PNRI outdoor air gamma radiation database (1982-2002) comprises radioactive dis-charges into the environment from cosmic, terrestrial, and anthropogenic sources. From 1952 to1962, atmospheric nuclear testing in the Pacific Ocean resulted in global increase of man-maderadioactive materials in the environment including the Philippines. Because most of the majorradionuclides released from nuclear tests are long-lived, residual anthropogenic radioactivity per-sists in our environment. The Philippines does not have a nuclear power plant, where most ofradioactive releases could come from. However, discharges from growing industrial processingusing raw materials containing naturally-occurring radioactive substances known as TENORM ortechnologically-enhanced naturally-occurring radioactive material may result in increased level ofradiation in the environment. Human-made radionuclides may be discharged into the environmentfrom wastes from hospitals and educational and research establishments.

The PNRI database on gamma radiation absorbed dose rates in outdoor air was gener-ated from measurements of dose rates in 1967 sampling sites in 16 regions including NCR, CAR,and ARMM from 1982 to 2002. Gamma radiation dose rates were measured using either of thethree portable gamma ray detectors at PNRI, namely, gammameter (STUDSVIK), high pressureionization chamber (HPIC, Reuter Stokes), and Surveillance and Measurements Systems (SAM935, BNC). The mean dose rate serves as background gamma radiation for the country, whichrepresents radiation from both cosmic and terrestrial radiation sources.

Table 15 is the distribution of mean gamma dose rates measured in 16 regions includingNCR, CAR and ARMM from 1982 to 2002 using portable gamma detectors. The mean dose rateis calculated at 44± 6 nGy/h with n at 1,683 sampling sites and with dose rates ranging from 21 to124 nGy/h.



Tab

le 1

6.P

hili

pp

ine

Gre

enh

ou

se G

as E

mis

sio

ns

Inve

nto

ry, 1

994

(gig

agra

ms/

year

)

C

O2

CH

4N

2O

NO

xC

OV

OC

SO

2

I. E

ner

gy

A. F

uel C

ombu

stio

n A

ctiv

ities

433.

36

1. E

nerg

y in

dust

ries

15,4

580.

510.

1338

.47

2.83

0.91

2. M

anuf

actu

ring

indu

strie

s8,

980

8.08

1.12

60.9

398

6.71

13.8

1

3. T

rans

port

15,8

012.

150.

1416

7.37

719.

4413

6.77

4. C

omm

erci

al/in

stitu

tiona

l3,

368

0.06

0.00

0.63

0.13

0.03

5. R

esid

entia

l2,

544

72.8

30.

9229

.22

1,35

6.21

133.

02

6. A

gric

ultu

re1,

185

0.11

0.01

1.08

0.22

0.05

B. F

ugiti

ve E

mis

sion

s fr

om F

uels

1. C

oal M

inin

g

10.3

2

2. O

il

0.47

0.

6216

.83

7.61

8.94

C.

Bio

mas

s E

mis

sion

s48

,490

Tota

l Em

issi

on fr

om E

nerg

y47

,336

94.5

32.

3129

8.00

3,08

2.00

292.

0044

2.00

CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

47,3

361,

985.

2271

7.16

Tota

l CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

50,0

38

II. In

du

stry

A.

Cem

ent

4,77

1

2.87

B.

Che

mic

als

0.

33

0.01

0.22

1.46

9.81

C. A

spha

lt

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

D.

Foo

d an

d B

ever

ages

16

.35

E. P

ulp

and

pape

r

0.12

0.44

0.29

0.56

F. M

etal

s4,

318

0.11

0.00

0.08

2.99

G.

Hal

ocar

bons

1,50

7

Tota

l Em

issi

on fr

om In

dust

ry10

,595

0.33

0.00

0.24

0.66

18.1

816

.22

CO

2 E

quiv

alen

t10

,595

6.95

0.00

Tota

l CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

10,6

02


III. A

gri

cult

ure

A.

Dom

estic

Liv

esto

ck

333.

4711

.27

B. R

ice

Cul

tivat

ion

63

6.40

C. G

rass

land

Bur

ning

0.

300.

000.

147.

94

D. A

gric

ultu

ral R

esid

ues

Bur

ning

20

.30

0.50

18.1

042

7.30

E. A

gric

ultu

ral S

oils

28.0

0

Tota

l Em

issi

on fr

om A

gric

ultu

re

990.

4739

.77

18.2

443

5.24

CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

20

,799

.89

12,3

29.6

3

Tota

l CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

33,1

30

IV. W

aste

A. S

olid

Was

tes

20

2.53

B.

Dom

estic

/Com

mer

cial

Was

tew

ater

46

.02

C. I

ndus

tria

l Was

te

43.8

3

D.

Hum

an S

ewag

e

3.

08

Tota

l Em

issi

on fr

om W

aste

29

2.38

3.08

CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

6,

140.

0695

3.94

Tota

l CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

7,09

4

V. L

and

Use

Ch

ang

e an

d F

ore

stry

(L

UC

& F

)

A. C

hang

e in

For

est/

W

oody

Bio

mas

s-6

8,32

3

B.

For

est/L

and

Use

Cha

nge

65,5

4911

4.41

0.79

28.4

31,

001.

11

Tota

l Em

issi

on fr

om L

UC

&F

-2,7

7411

4.41

0.79

CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

-2,7

742,

403.

0024

5.00

Tota

l CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

-126

Tota

l Gre

enho

use

Gas

Em

issi

ons

55,1

571,

492.

1245

.95

316.

483,

517.

9031

0.18

458.

22

CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

55,1

5731

,335

.12

14,2

45.7

3

Tota

l CO

2 eq

uiva

lent

100,

738

Sou

rce:

DE

NR

, “T

he P

hilip

pine

s’ I

nitia

l N

atio

nal

Com

mun

icat

ion

on C

limat

e C

hang

e, D

ecem

ber

1999


Table 17. Mean Gamma Dose Rates for 16 Regions including NCR, CAR and ARMM, 1982 - 2002

Region Mean Dose Rate n Population(nGy/h) (X 1000)

as of Y2000

National Capital Region 50 ± 1 318 9,975

Cordillera Administrative 53 ± 2 49 1,191Region

Region I - Ilocos Region 49 ± 15 73 4,198

Region II - Cagayan Valley 59 ± 16 128 2,815

Region III - Central Luzon 49 ± 8 250 8,032

Region IV - Southern Tagalog 59 ± 9 170 11,780

Region V - Bicol Region 58 ± 5 26 4,688

Region VI - Western Visayas 40 ± 14 109 6,066

Region VII - Central Visayas 57 ± 8 177 5,701

Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 59 ± 7 127 3,610

Region IX - Western Mindanao 49 ± 6 8 3,091

Region X - Northern Mindanao 51 ± 6 36 3,240

Region XI - Southern Mindanao 53 ± 7 77 4,798

Region XII - Central Mindanao 48 ± 9 72 1,345

Region XIII - CARAGA 58 ± 9 55 2,095

Autonomous Region 44 ± 8 3 2,089in Muslim Mindanao

Total Mean = 44 ± 6 nGy/hTotal n = 1683Range = 21 - 124 nGy/h

Source: PNRI

Figure 18 is a graphic presentation of mean gamma radiation dose rate for each provincemonitored from 1982 to 2002 using portable gamma detectors. Except for a few slightly elevatedmean dose rates in certain provinces (Batanes Island, Laguna, and Agusan del Sur), most of theprovinces have radiation levels within background level.



Table 18 indicates the radiation level in NCR (Metro Manila) with mean dose rate of 50 ± 6nGy/h with n at 607 sampling sites and ranges from 30 - 118 nGy/h, with 607 sampling sites spreadevenly in four districts of the metropolis.

Table 18. Mean Gamma Dose Rates from Districts of National Capital Region, 1982 - 2002

Location n Mean Dose Rate (nGy/h)

TOTAL MEAN = 50 ± 6 nGy/hTOTAL n = 318RANGE = 30-118 nGy/hSource: PNRI

First District (Manila) 64 51 ± 8Sampaloc 8 50 ± 4Sta. Mesa 5 45 ± 7Sta. Cruz 4 52 ± 2Tondo 7 46 ± 4Quiapo 2 50 ± 3Intramuros 6 55 ± 8Port Area 2 43 ± 1Ermita 3 60 ± 2Malate 16 48 ± 7Paco 3 54 ± 4Sta. Ana 3 55 ± 12Pandacan 5 53 ± 7

Second District 120 49 ± 9 Quezon City 368 61 ± 12

Marikina 13 40 ± 3Pasig 14 50 ± 8San Juan 15 51 ± 6

Third District 62 49 ± 3Valenzuela 13 46 ± 4Caloocan City 24 50 ± 8Malabon 13 49 ± 6Navotas 8 52 ± 6

Fourth District 72 51 ± 7Pateros 12 45 ± 6Taguig 22 44 ± 6Muntinlupa 11 61 ± 6Las Piñas 15 59 ± 11Parañaque 15 51 ± 5



Figure 18 is the frequency distribution of mean dose rates in the Philippines indicatingapproximately 48% of dose rates within the range of 50 – 59 nGy/h. The mean dose rate for NCRat 51 ± 6 nGy/h falls within this range. The absence of significantly high dose rates in NCR showsthat in spite of the presence of various industrial technologies potentially classified as TENORM-releasing processes in the NCR, there is no unusual release of radioactive materials into theMetro Manila environment.

Based on the gamma radiation database, the country mean gamma radiation dose ratemeasured 44 ± 6 nGy/h is within background range relative to the global mean absorbed doserate for naturally-occurring gamma radiation reported at 55 nGy/h by the United Nations ScientificCommittee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) of which the Philippines contributesradiation data for inclusion in the Report. The estimated mean country absorbed gamma doserate in outdoor air corresponds to an annual dose equivalent of 0.46 mSv/y. In the context ofradiation protection, the estimated annual dose equivalent is within dose limits set forth in theInternational Basic Safety Standards (IBSS) as recommended by the International Commissionon Radiological Protection (ICRP 60) and the associated risk for radiation exposure by the populationis statistically quite low.

F i g u r e 1 8 . F r e q u e n c y D i s t r i b u t i o n o f G a m m a D o s e R a t e s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ( 1 9 8 2 - 2 0 0 2 )

3

1 2

3 2

1 7

21

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

3 0

3 5

< 4 0 4 0 − 4 9 5 0 − 5 9 6 0 − 6 9 7 0 − 7 9 ≥ 8 0M e a n G a m m a D o s e R a te ( n G y /h )

Fre

qu

ency

RADIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS / ODORS

ODORS

Odors are usually gases from anaerobic decomposition ofputrescible materials. The problem is most common around dumpsitesand landfills, but may also occur around certain chemical plants.

Source: PNRI


Aside from the six criteria pollutants, other air pollutants on the list preceding are monitoredas the need arises.

Very few air pollutants are consistently monitored due to lack of resources and budget tobuy, build, repair, maintain or calibrate monitoring equipment, train technical people, and maintaina regular monitoring program. Therefore, no complete picture is clearly portrayed of the air qualitysituation in urban centers and industrial sites, where pollution might be reaching serious levels.

Sources of Air PollutionMOBILE SOURCES

The mobile sources of air pollution are mostly the internalcombustion engines that power vehicles (Table 20). These enginesare either gasoline or diesel-powered, each contributing a characteristicset of pollutants into the air. These mobile sources are furthercategorized into cars, utility vehicles (UVs), trucks, buses, andmotorcycles/tricycles (MC/TC).

Note that the fastest average annual increase has been with MC/TC (13.7%), most of whichhave two-stroke engines, followed by jeepneys (8.7%) and trucks (7.3%). Cars increased by 6.8%annually on the average. In terms of percentage share, jeepneys comprised the largest group(37.1%), followed by MC/TC (32.4%), cars (21.9%), trucks (6.9%), buses (0.9%), and trailers (0.8%).

Most of these vehicles have been concentrated in Metro Manila, although its share of thetotal number of vehicles has gradually decreased from 41.5% of the total in 1991 to 36.0% in 1999,due to a faster rate of increase outside Metro Manila. The average annual increase in the NCR is5.4%, from 277,677 registered vehicles in 1971 to 1,286,176 registered vehicles in 2000.

In terms of amount (see Table 19), the greatest pollution from mobile sources is carbonmonoxide (CO), followed by total organic gases (TOG), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulatematter (PM).

Table 19. Emissions from Mobile Sourcesin NCR, 2001 (tons)

Pollutant NCR National Total

TOG 190,531.34 707,057CO 948,192 2,512.228NOx 109,760 328,800SOx no dataLead 0 0PM 48,465 177,928

ODORS / SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

402002 N

AT

ION

AL

AIR

QU

AL

ITY

STA

TU

S R

EP

OR

T

M

OB

ILE

SO

UR

CE

S

Table 20. Motor Vehicle Registration in the Philippines, 1991-2001

Year Cars Jeepneys Buses Trucks Trailers MC/TC Total NCR NCR as % of Total

1991 456,606 670,848 20,690 138,138 18,957 410,127 1,715,366 712,264 41.5%1992 483,622 744,190 25,827 146,689 20,297 458,938 1,879,563 789,156 42.0%1993 531,240 834,168 24,603 165,280 22,169 547,655 2,125,115 889,169 41.8%1994 572,766 912,675 27,595 179,793 24,348 624,292 2,341,469 959,505 41.0%1995 626,571 998,331 28,192 192,792 27,409 708,059 2,581,354 1,055,692 40.9%1996 702,578 1,101,077 29,330 220,388 29,515 821,599 2,904,487 1,188,724 40.9%1997 743,299 1,191,392 31,950 242,842 32,022 952,044 3,193,549 1,253,669 39.3%1998 749,204 1,244,019 31,806 231,342 27,852 1,032,594 3,316,817 1,234,372 37.2%1999 773,835 1,310,865 33,193 243,443 27,730 1,144,666 3,533,732 1,271,227 36.0%2000 767,968 1,382,119 39,886 244,319 1,264,173 1,268,4802001 713,610 1,481,630 31,672 229,614 1,337,356 1,243,788

% of 21.9% 37.1% 0.9% 6.9% 0.8% 32.4% 100.0% 36.0%

Annual 6.8% 8.7% 6.1% 7.3% 4.9% 13.7% 9.5% 7.5%

Source: Philippine Yearbook, 1997, 2001.

total for1999

Increase


STATIONARY SOURCES

Stationary sources of air pollution are mostly industrial plants, such as electricity generatingplants, processing plants, manufacturing plants, mills, chemical industries, and other industrialplants. Specifically, these include:

manufacturing of food and related productstobacco manufacturingtextile mill productslumber and wood productspaper and allied productsprinting and publishingchemical and allied productspetroleum and coal productsrubber and miscellaneous plastic productsstone, clay, and glass productsprimary metal industriesfabricated metal productsmachinery except electricalelectric and electronic equipmentmiscellaneous manufacturing industriestransportation equipment

Table 20 shows the contribution of some of these industries to the total air pollution load inMetro Manila in decreasing order.

Table 21. Emission Estimates in the Industrial Sector, Metro Manila, 1997(metric tons)

Industry Fuel consumption VOC CO SOx

NOx

PM PM10

(x 1,000 liters)

Food products 78,370 2.89 49 5,184 528 681 610 Textile 56,348 2.08 35 3,727 380 489 439 Iron and steel 45,784 1.69 9 3,028 308 398 356 Paper mills 24,173 0.89 15 1,599 163 210 188 Chemicals 11,675 0.43 7 772 78 101 91 Other chemicals 10,338 0.38 6 683 69 89 80 Total 226,688 8.36 121 14,993 1,526 1,968 1,764

Source: Philippine Environment Monitor 2002, World Bank.

STATIONARY SOURCES


Yet many of these firms are operating without the necessary permits to operate, as shownin Table 22.

Table 22. Number of Metro Manila Polluting Firms

No. of firms that pollute air only 620 With permit to operate (PO) 329 Without PO 291 No. of firms that pollute both air/water 402 With PO for air 222 Without PO for air 180 No. of non-air-polluting firms 339 Total number of firms monitored 1,361

Source: EMB

It is significant that 75% or three-fourths of all Metro Manila firms monitored (1,022 out of1,361) were polluting the air, and that 46% (471 out of 1,022) of these air polluting firms in MetroManila had no permit to operate. A major source of air pollution nationwide is the network of powerplants that generate electricity for our power requirements. They account for a significant portionof the country’s fuel consumption, and contribute a small to significant portion of air pollution fromfossil-fuel burning.

Table 23 shows the estimated emission of air pollutants from power plants in the country.Based on self-monitoring reports, power plant emissions comprised a small to significant portionof stationary source emissions nationwide in 2001: 10,917 tons (23%) out of 467,102 tons of PM;145,664 tons (17.6%) out of 830,100 tons of SO

x; 25,854 tons (22.8%) out of 113,503 tons of CO;

and, 182,396 tons (35.3%) out of 517,212 tons of NOx.

STATIONARY SOURCES


Table 23 . Power Plant Emissions, 2001(based on Self-Monitoring Reports)

Region PM CO NOx SOx VOC

1 2,760.4 1,829.5 37,342.9 41,072.9 503.42 3.2 13.0 60.3 3.9 4.93 1,286.6 1,469.9 14,632.5 29,749.7 528.34a 210.44 3,312.44 39,016.01 45,291.83 748.824b 33.6 81.1 403.3 423.0 30.25 3.2 9.7 45.0 2.9 3.76 26.9 82.5 383.0 24.9 31.37 211.0 89.6 2,824.0 9,634.7 0.08 0.2 0.7 3.2 0.2 0.39 10 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.011 0.6 1.8 55.9 0.7 0.712 0.5 1.6 7.6 0.5 0.613 CAR 4,984.3 15,174.4 69,773.2 4,641.6 3,740.5NCR 1,396.5 3,787.7 17,848.9 14,817.3 424.3

Total 10,917.44 25,854.04 182,396.21 145,664.13 6,017.02

Source: EMB-AQMS

AREA SOURCES

Area sources are relatively large areas of specific activities thatgenerate significant amounts of air pollutants. These include busy roadsand hubs, construction sites, aircraft operations, forest fires or the burningof wastes, residential sites, and similar dispersed sources. Often, thesearea sources consist of many small-scale mobile or stationary sources,which may emit relatively small amounts of pollutants when taken

individually, but whose combined emissions add significantly to the air pollution in the area. Examplesof these area sources of air pollution include:

• The open burning of solid wastes widely practiced in most urban centers including Metro Manila.

• About 11,000 hectares of forests that were destroyed by fire in 2000, as estimated by the Forest Management Bureau of the DENR.

• The burning of agricultural biomass after harvest, including rice, corn, and sugarcane stalks.

AREA SOURCES


HEALTH IMPACTS

While it is known from experiences that air pollution damages our health and causes orworsens respiratory and other problems, little scientific data have been collected locally on theactual effects of current levels of air pollution and of specific pollutants. With the very limitedgovernment resources, primarily the Department of Health, on this matter, below is just a summaryof what have been collected so far:

TSP. Exposure to unhealthy levels of particulate matter less than 10 microns (PM10

) maycause a decrease in lung function, chronic bronchitis, or exacerbate asthma symptoms.

PM10. Short-term exposure to PM10

can trigger or worsen respiratoryor cardiovascular conditions; it can also increase mortality from thesediseases. A World Health Organization (WHO) study of PM

10 exposure in

eight Asian cities indicates that every additional exposure to 10 µg of PM10

increases the daily mortality by 0.5%.

PM2.5. This pollutant is considered even more harmful than PM10

because the smallerparticles can lodge deeply inside the lungs.

Sulfur Oxides. SO2 is one of the leading causes of respiratory problems in humans.

Nitrogen Oxides. Nitrogen Dioxide is reddish-brown and is irritating to the lungs even inlow concentrations.

Carbon Monoxide. Carbon Monoxide depletes the supply of oxygen to vital organs. It canreduce a person’s ability to think clearly, and can cause visual impairment and headaches. Exposureto high concentrations for several hours can be lethal, especially for people with weak hearts.

Lead. Child exposure to lead can cause damaging effects on the brain and the centralnervous system, affecting their intellectual and physcal development. Every 10 microgram perdeciliter (µg/dl) increase in blood levels is associated with a one to five point decrease in theIntelligence Quotient (IQ) of exposed children (Goyer, R., 1996). Lead in the mother’s blood hasbeen capable of crossing the placenta and eventually exposing the growing fetus to lead. In adults,lead exposure may cause increased blood pressure.

A 1993 study of the University of the Philippines - College of Public Health (Subida andTorres) found that the average level of lead in the blood of Metro Manila children reached 14.0 µg/dL, and 10.4% had lead levels exceeding WHO biological limit of 20 µg/dL for children. In 2000, asubsequent study of 207 Metro Manila children showed a higher mean lead level of 16.3 µg/dL, and24.6% had lead levels exceeding WHO standard of 20 µg/dl. Lead in air, like PM

2.5, has no threshold.

Other local studies on the health impact of air pollution include the following:

1. Cross-sectional Study on the Respiratory Health of Jeepney Drivers, Air-conditionedBus Drivers and Commuters and their exposure to air pollution in Metro Manila, 1991.

2. Impact of Vehicular Emissions on Vulnerable Populations in Metro Manila. 1994

HEALTH IMPACTS


3. Environmental Health Surveillance in the Surrounding Communities of an Industrial Estatein Leyte, Philippines, 1994

4. Health Profile of Child Scavengers in Smokey Mountain Dumpsite, Balut, Tondo, Manila,1993

5. Philippine Environmental Health Assessment, World Bank, 1995

6. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia, URBAIR, Metro Manila Report, MEIP,World Bank, October 1996

7. Philippines Environment Monitor 2000, World Bank.

8. Baseline Health Profile of Communities located in the Metro Manila Air Shed, Departmentof Health, 2000

9. Environmental Health Risk Assessment of Particulate Pollution and Chronic Mortality inMetro Manila, Philippines, 2002

HEALTH IMPACTS


TRENDS

The following trends emerge from the available data:

1. The only air pollutant that has been consistently monitored over the past several decades isTSP.

2. The Metro Manila ambient air sampling station giving the worst TSP reading has been shiftingover the years, from Ermita (1975-76), Quiapo (1977), Q.C.-Araneta Ave. (1978), Pasay (1979-80), Q.C.-Araneta (1981), back to Ermita (1982-83), Las Pinas (1986), Valenzuela (1987), back toErmita (1988), back to Valenzuela (1989-92), Makati (1993), back to Valenzuela (1994-95), Q.C.Quezon Ave. (1996), Q.C.-DPWH (1997), back to Valenzuela (1998), Q.C. Araneta Ave. (1999),Q.C.-Congressional Ave. (2000-2002).

3. Despite some major fluctuations, the worst TSP level among sampling stations has beengenerally increasing since 1975, when annual average TSP levels were first monitored and recorded.

4. By 1980, the worst polluted sampling station in Metro Manila (Pasay station that year), whichhad been shifting as noted above, had exceeded the safe guideline value of 90 µg/Ncm for averageannual exposure.

5. By 1986, the annual average TSP level of the worst polluted sampling station in Metro Manila(Las Piñas station) had exceeded twice the safe guideline value.

6. By 1989, the average TSP exposure over the whole year in the worst polluted sampling station(Valenzuela station) was exceeding the safe guideline value of 230 µg/Ncm for 24-hour exposure.That is, the residents around the area were being exposed long-term (one year) to average TSPlevels that were considered unsafe even for a short-term ( 24 hours) exposure.

7. By 1994, the worst polluted location in Metro Manila (Valenzuela station) had exceeded threetimes the safe guideline value.

8. By 2000, it had reached nearly four (3.99) times the safe guideline value (Congressional Ave.station in Quezon City).

9. The worst annual reading (still at the Congressional Ave. station) dropped somewhat to 2.52times the safe guideline value in 2001 and 2.34 times in 2002, but it is too early to tell if this indicatesa reversal of the trend or if it is simply a fluctuation within a still generally increasing trend. Thenumber of motor vehicles in Metro Manila after all continues to increase.

10. Based on a shorter (five to eight years) window of data, however, and looking at specificsampling stations, annual average TSP levels decreased in many stations (Valenzuela, PAGASA,EDSA-DPWH, Q.C.-East Ave., Q.C.-Quezon Ave., Ateneo-Katipunan Rd., Makati, Pasig, Las Piñas-Belisario Subd., Congressional Ave., and Mandaluyong), while they increased in a few stations(Q.C.-Araneta Ave., Las Pinas-City Hall). This implies both a short-term trend of local improvementswithin a long-term deterioration in terms of the worst cases.

11. This worst case situation, increasing over time and shifting in location, suggests mobilesources as the most probable cause, possibly reflecting the shifts in areas of most intense vehiculartraffic concentrations. With traffic regulations and policies, as well as the deployment of mass railtransport, to ease traffic in a particular area, the concentration of mobile sources shifts elsewhere,

TRENDS


leading to local improvements in the context of increasing numbers of vehicles causing a generalincrease in worst case situations.

12. In five of the seven previous years, location(s) outside Metro Manila exceeded or equalled thehighest Metro Manila annual average readings: Negros Oriental, Davao City and Tagum in 1996;Tagum, Davao City and Mandaue in 1997; Davao City in 1999; and Iloilo City in 2001.

13. Monitoring of other criteria pollutants aside from TSP is spotty at best, dismal at worst. AmbientSOx levels were last reported in 1993 and then in 2001, but only from a single sampling station(Manila Memorial Park, Parañaque), NOx levels in 1987, CO levels in 1987, lead levels in 1997 and2000, and ozone levels in 1997.

14. The establishment of new power plants, industrial factories, chemical processing plants, andother potentially pollutive projects must be accompanied by preventive measures to minimizeemissions or they are bound to contribute to increasing air pollution in the surrounding areas. InMetro Manila, three-fourths of industrial plants surveyed were polluting the air, and nearly half (46%)of these polluting firms have no permit to operate.

ISSUES

As a result of modernization, urbanization, and industrialization, problems associated withpollution, including air pollution, are bound to get worse. More than 50% of the people are now livingin urban areas. In 15 years, this figure will increase to around 60-65%. Very often, local governmentsare unable to cope with this fast pace of urbanization.

The following major issues have emerged in the past few years which challenge thegovernment’s capacity to manage air quality and minimize the impact of air pollution. These are theissues that require our attention the most:

ISSUE #1. Health impacts

Poor air quality has a major adverse impact on public health andparticularly affects the children, the elderly, and persons with pre-existingliving and cardiovascular diseases. While the number of combined studiesin the Philippines relating health to air quality is limited, those that havebeen conducted have demonstrated a correlation between the incidenceof morbidity and poor air quality, particularly for those groups living withinand adjacent to road environments. This covers the bulk of the urbanized

population. Studies elsewhere confirm that air pollutants are extremely harmful to the human body,are a major cause of premature death and illness, and are the primary reason for a wide range ofrespiratory and heart ailments.

The Department of Health (DOH), under the Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement SectorDevelopment Program (MMQISDP), is currently monitoring the impact of changing ambient airpollution levels resulting from the implementation of various air pollution control measures designed,directly or indirectly to improve the quality of air by carrying out a series of specific studies. However,vital data of daily air pollution outcome related to air pollution and establishing exposure-responserelationship coefficient, are needed.

ISSUES


ISSUE #2. Problems with current transport modes

Many remote rural barangays and towns rely on walking, animal-drawn carts, and occasional jeepneys from the town center fortheir transport requirements. As their population grows and theyurbanize, barangays and small towns reach an important and oftenunnoticed milestone in their development: how to cope with theincreased requirements for transport. In the past, this meant horse-drawn caritelas, pedal-powered tricycles, perhaps bicycles for the youth and the able, and morefrequent jeepney trips from the town centers. Today, the more common trend is the motorizedtricycle, and perhaps private jeepneys and cars.

This fork in transport development of an urbanizing rural barangay or small town is a majormilestone that must be approached with social deliberation and ecological wisdom. The mostlivable towns and villages are those who have given priority to walkways, bicycle lanes, and othernon-motorized transport modes, while future public terminals are reserved to ensure the plannedintroduction of efficient public transport such as jeepneys and buses.

On the other hand, where unplanned development has led to the proliferation of motorizedtricycles, private cars, and the corresponding demand for paved roads for higher speed transport,the quality of life has actually deteriorated from air and noise pollution, the exclusion of pedestriansand non-motorized transport users, as well as of other public and social functions from roads,and the clogging of roads with motorized transports which create an ever bigger demand forroad space.

The maintenance and even manufacture of bicycles, pedal-powered tricycles, and animal-drawn carts can provide as much job opportunities as motorized tricycles and car repair. In fact,they require a basic semi-industrial infrastructure that can provide a solid foundation for furtherrural industries to emerge in the future.

Special effort must be given to an analysis of this decisive fork in the transport developmentof an urbanizing barangay or small town, to ensure that through deliberate planning and strategicmoves, they can take the ecological road of walkways, bicycle, and pedal-powered tricyclelanes, and other pedestrian amenities supplemented by strategically located public terminalswhere these ecological transport modes can interface with the more efficient jeepneys andbuses for longer distance travel.

Where towns have already been locked into the more unecological modes where motorizedtricycles and private cars predominate, a gradual transition mode must be worked out,emphasizing a shift to more efficient public transport as well as to non-motorized approachesfor short-distance trips.

ISSUE #3. Open burning of agricultural and municipal wastes

The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act (ESWMA) prohibits the open burning ofmunicipal and agricultural wastes. Burning biomass is a big waste of resources, becausefarmers on the other hand are complaining of the lack of organic fertilizers to hasten theirconversion to sustainable agriculture and organic farming.

ISSUES


The prohibition by ESWMA of open burning and the attraction of composting to makecommercial organic fertilizers, together with intensive public education at the local levels,among LGU officials and farmers groups, should gradually put an end to the burning ofagricultural wastes.

In municipalities, the urgency of segregation at source, composting,and recycling is undermined by the proliferation of illegal dumpsites,which are easily identified because they often practice the open burningof municipal wastes.

A determined campaign to minimize and eventually end open burningwill go a long way in cleaning our air and providing our farmers with sufficient compost to hastentheir conversion to sustainable and organic methods of farming.

ISSUE #4. Land-use planning

Beyond air quality monitoring is the more challenging work of pollution prevention throughthe elimination of the worst causes of air pollution and through proper land-use planning andmanagement. Only the elimination of the sources of air pollutants, through replacement bytechnologies and fuels which are preferably non-polluting, can lead to the kind of clean andhealthy air that earlier generations of Filipinos had enjoyed but had taken for granted. Anecologically-rational land-use plan would ensure clean air by locating residential areas besideworkplaces to shorten trips, by setting aside walkways and bicycle lanes to encourage non-motorized transport, and by requiring mass transits for high-volume corridors.

ISSUE #5: Sufficient budget for air quality management

It takes sophisticated equipment, skilled technical personnel, and sufficient operatingbudget to monitor ambient air quality and the emission of air pollution sources. Equipment mustbe maintained and calibrated regularly. Technical people need regular training and upgradingof skills and knowledge. Laboratories must be properly stocked with supplies and materialsneeded for testing and monitoring.

Enough budget must be allotted for these things, to give flesh to our commitment toclean air and to ensure our people healthy environment. In the past, the air quality managementprograms of the government have been woefully underfunded. This situation must be correctedas soon as possible, if we want clean air soon.

ISSUES


GOVERNMENT RESPONSES

Programs and Projects

The most important program for improving air quality in Metro Manila, where such a programis clearly urgently needed, is the Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement Sector Development Program(MMAQISDP).

The primary objective of the program is to improve air quality in Metro Manila and thesurrounding provinces within its airshed, through the abatement of the main mobile and stationarysources of air pollution using integrated medium to long-term control measures. The airshed coversthe whole of Metro Manila and parts of the provinces of Bulacan, Rizal, Pampanga, Cavite, Laguna,Batangas, and Quezon.

The specific objectives of the program include: mitigating air pollution from mobile andstationary sources; improving fuel quality; reducing vehicular emissions; reducing traffic congestionand improving traffic flow; strengthening ambient air quality monitoring, reporting and management;and intensifying public awareness.

MMAQISDP is coordinated by DENR. Participating institutions include EMB, regional officesof DENR (NCR, R-III and R-IV), MMDA, LLDA, DOTC, LTO, DTI, DOE, DPWH, DOH, and a numberof LGUs and NGOs.

The program is financed by a loan from the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The overallprogram cost is shown in Table 24.

Table 24. Cost Estimates for the MMAQISDP ($ million)

Item Foreign Exchange Local Currency Total

Road Rehabilitation 19.52 19.52 39.04 Traffic Engineering Mgmt 9.01 11.64 20.65 Ambient Air Quality Mgmt 10.59 1.96 12.55 Public Health Monitoring 0.15 0.01 0.16 Anti-Smoke Belching 0.50 0.05 0.55 Capacity Building 7.46 5.36 12.82 Consulting Services 6.06 5.06 11.12 Program Administration 4.61 4.61 Contingencies 6.43 6.52 12.95 Interest and Other Charges 7.86 7.86

TOTAL 67.58 54.73 122.31

Source: The Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement Sector Development Program, Mid-Term Report: December 1998-June

2002



The ADB loan for financing the MMAQISDP came with the following set of conditionalities:

- Enact the Clean Air Act and establish ancillary regulations- Commence the phased introduction of the Motor Vehicle Inspection System (MVIS)- Cease sale of leaded gasoline in Metro Manila- Strengthen the capacity of Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB)- Cease normal operations of Sucat and Manila oil-fired power plants as base load facilities, or renovate the same to satisfy set emission standards- Demonstrate effectiveness of updated ambient air quality monitoring system- Implement an intensified public awareness program- Provide adequate budgetary resources and take ancillary measures in implementing the program.

The DOE implements its own initiatives to improve air quality. These initiatives include: FuelQuality Improvement, Alternative Fuel Program, promotion and commercialization of New andRenewable Energy, and the Fuel Efficiency and Conservation on Road Transport (FECRTP)program.

MONITORING AND ENFORCEMENT

The Clean Air Act of 1999 envisions the reduction of air pollutants by minimizing the emissionsfrom area, stationary and mobile sources and improving fuel quality.

An Air Quality Management System (AQMS) has been put in place. The Integrated Air QualityImprovement Framework and the Air Quality Control Action Plan have been issued as part ofDENR Administrative Order No. (DAO) 2000-82.

Air Sheds

The CAA divides the entire country into airsheds to facilitate monitoring. DENR has issuedMemorandum Circular 2002-01 initially designating the provinces of Region III (Central Luzon exceptNueva Ecija), Region IV-A (Mainland Southern Tagalog except Quezon), and the 17 cities andmunicipalities of NCR as the Metro Manila Airshed.

An airshed is a contiguous area with common sources of airpollution and weather or meteorological conditions which affect theinterchange and diffusion of pollution in the surrounding atmosphere.Nine interim airsheds have been designated: the Metro Manila Airshed;Metro Cebu Airshed; the Geothermal Airshed; Davao Airshed; BLISTAirshed; Agusan del Norte Airshed; Naga City Airshed; Metro Cagayande Oro City Airshed; and Zamboanga City Airshed. The InterimGoverning Boards of these airsheds have also been constituted.

Airsheds for Regions 1, 5, 8-12 are currently being evaluated. The criteria on the Interim Designationof Attainment/Non-Attainment Area for airsheds are also being finalized.

Region XI has likewise initially designated Panacan-Bunawan Section of Davao City as itsfirst sub-airshed.

Some regional EMB offices have started to establish Airshed Governing Boards, pursuantto R.A. 8749.



Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations

The inventory of mobile and stationary sources of air pollutionin the Metro Manila Airshed is ongoing. In the National Capital Region,11 manual stations and one automatic station, monitoring mainly TSP,are operating; 9 automatic and one mobile stations are beingrehabilitated. A smoke-free EDSA program is being spearheaded bythe DENR, to improve the air quality along EDSA by eliminating smokebelchers and reducing TSP by as much as 20% by the end of 2003.This is part of a continuing program to improve air quality within the Metro Manila Airshed. OutsideMetro Manila, 52 TSP monitoring stations are now operational, as well as one automatic stationeach in Cagayan de Oro and Cebu City. Aside from the regular monitoring done with EMB facilities,special studies sometimes collect additional monitoring information which supplements dataavailable from EMB monitoring stations.

In April 2002, the Manila Observatory started monitoring ambient PM10

and PM2.5

levels atthree sites in Metro Manila, representing residential, traffic, and commercial areas. Preliminaryresults show that PM

2.5 particles, which can penetrate deeper into the lungs and cause serious

health problems, comprise 55-60% of all PM10

particles.

EMB-DENR also expanded in 2001 the number of its air quality sampling stations from 40 to63 stations.

An Ambient Air Quality Monitoring with Telemetry System is currently operating as a jointundertaking of EMB Region X office with Xavier University in Cagayan de Oro City, as the first eversuch system in Mindanao. This monitoring system continuously measures air pollutants such assulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, PM

10, ozone, benzene, toluene, and P-xylene on a real-time basis.

The system also has the capability to measure meteorological conditions such as wind speed anddirection, weather temperatures, barometer pressure, and humidity.

Real time information on air quality will now be accessible to the public through Air QualityMonitoring Display Boards (AIRBoards). The first AIRBoard in Metro Manila was launched inNovember 2003 along Katipunan Avenue in Quezon City. AIRBoards are advertising billboards witha LED (light emitting diode) display that features real time air quality reading from EMB’s air qualitymonitoring stations. Similar AIRBoards will be set up in other parts of Metro Manila, Cebu, Cagayande Oro, Davao, Naga, and Baguio.

Mobile Sources

EMB-DENR started its evaluation of newly manufactured, assembled or imported vehiclesfor conformity with emission standards. As of 2002, it has already issued 300 Certificates ofConformity (COC) to manufacturers, assemblers, or importers of new motor vehicles.

Annually, as vehicles are registered, they are also now required to undergo emission testingto monitor compliance with emission standards. EMB-DENR also issues certificates to emissiontest equipment that private emission testing centers can use. Beginning October 1, 2002 for privatevehicles and January 2, 2003 for public utility vehicles, DOTC will now require a valid certificate ofemission compliance with emission standards before the registration of a vehicle can be renewed.



DENR has certified 43 brands of emission test equipment (20opacimeters and 23 gas analyzers), which confirm that the said testequipment conform with the technical specifications required by CAA.With these certified test equipment, the private sector can set up theirown emission testing centers, after getting accreditation andauthorization from DTI and DOTC.

As of October 2003, a total of 158 PETCs have been accredited nationwide.A total of 59 are in Metro Manila, 64 in other parts of Luzon, 19 in the Visayas, and 16 in Mindanao.

In the meantime, DENR has been conducting free emission testing of both diesel and gasoline-fueled private and government vehicles. In the 2002 public awareness campaign in Metro Manila,CAR and Region V, for example, it conducted free emission tests of 169 motor vehicles.

The motor vehicle inspection system is currently being privatized; 127 private emissiontesting centers (291 lanes) have been accredited and the Technical Working Group Bantay Usokhas been established. Hydrocarbon standards for motorcycles and tricycles have been establishedthru DAO 2003-25: 7,800 ppm for urban areas and 10,000 ppm for rural areas. Researches onalternative fuels for cement kilns; bio-diesel for sulfur reduction; and CNG and LPG as alternativefuels are ongoing.

Eventually, MVIS will monitor all emission testing, in cooperation with LTO and the MMDA.This will include roadside testing and apprehensions.

Anti-Smoke Belching Campaign

The anti-smoke belching campaign is being implemented by teams trained by a multi-agencygroup led by MMDA and LTO. For the past five years, the number of apprehensions have beengenerally decreasing, from a high of 32,988 apprehensions in 1998 to 14,631 in 2001, as seen inTable 25.

The Anti-Smoke Belching Task Force provided the following breakdown of the results of on-the-spot checks, indicating by vehicle type, how many passed and how many failed their smoke-belching tests:

Table 25. MMDA Roadside Apprehensions, 1997-2001

Year Apprehensions

1997 23,4041998 32,9881999 25,0302000 16,4322001 14,631

Source: MMDA Anti-Smoke Belching Task Force Accomplishment Report, 2002



In terms of vehicle type, MMDA apprehended mostly utility vehicles (8,470), followed bybuses (4,258), and then jeepneys (1,334). Of these apprehensions, 95.6% of the utility vehicles,91.8 % of the buses, and a whopping 98.1% of the jeepneys failed the smoke-belching tests. Thedetails can be seen in Table 26.

Table 26. MMDA Apprehensions in 2001, by Vehicle Type

Type Passed % passed Failed % Failed Total

PUB 349 8.2% 3,909 91.8% 4,258PUJ 26 1.9% 1,308 98.1% 1,334TRK 46 4.7% 942 95.3% 988TX 10 2.4% 405 97.6% 415UV 370 4.4% 8,100 95.6% 8,470Total 801 5.2% 14,664 94.8% 15,465

Source: MMDA Anti-Smoke Belching Task Force Accomplishment Report, 2002

In 2002, LTO reported the results of its own program of apprehending vehicles for violationsrelated to CAA. Table 28 summarizes the LTO report for that year. Most of the apprehensions weremade in Metro Manila by the Central Office. The second most number of apprehensions weremade in CAR, while a minimal number of apprehensions were made in other regions.

Table 27. Number of Issuances Covering Industrial AirPollutant Sources, 2002

Type of Issuance Number Issued

Authority to Construct 162Permit to Operate 4,258Certificate of Exemption 180

Total 4,600

Source: EMB



Table 28.Statistical Report on Violations Related to the Clean Air Act, 2002

Regions Apprehensions Made Cases Settled Fines and Penalties Collected (pesos)

C.O. 36,616 16,015 21,469,240

I II III 194 17 16,900 IV 153 23 18,000 V 139 33 30,295 VI 138 53 40,611 VII 327 110 58,230 VIII 9 8 1,000 IX X 3 XI XII 14 4 4,350 NCR 45 CAR 12,949 9,730 276,525 Caraga Total 50,587 25,993 21,915,151

Source: LTO

Phase Out or Lowering of Pollutant Contents

Leaded gasoline was phased out nationwide in December 2000, nine months ahead ofschedule set by the CAA.

In September 2001, the Department of Energy (DOE) issued a circular mandating theposting of the octane rating of gasoline on the pumps of retail outlets or gasoline stations.

Lowering of aromatics in unleaded gasoline to 45 percent maximum took effect in January2000 and to 35 percent in January 2003. Lowering of benzene in unleaded gasoline from 4 percentto 2 percent took effect in January 2003.

Lowering of sulfur content of industrial and automotive diesel fuel is scheduled to takeeffect in January 2004. The DOE has forged partnerships with oil companies for the early reductionof sulfur in diesel from 0.2 percent to 0.05 percent starting November 2003.

Introduction of pure diesel (with 0.05 percent S) as the first CAA compliant diesel fuel wasmade available by the five new oil players, i.e., City Oil, Eastern Petroleum, Jetty, Seaoil and Unioil,starting September 2003.

OTHER MONITORING PROGRAMS


STATIONARY SOURCES

EMB-DENR continued issuing permits and other issuances to installations that were potentialsources of air pollution. Table 27 lists the issuances made in 2002. In addition, it also issued in2002, 70 COCs to the manufacturer, local assembler, or importer of new motor vehicles prior totheir being registered for the first time.

EMB has institutionalized the system for submission of self-monitoring reports. The reports monitor compliance to emissionstandards and are submitted quarterly to the regional offices of theEMB. The self-monitoring reports initially covered major industries,particularly power and cement plants.

The Continuous Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS) for particulates, sulfur and nitrogenoxide emissions have been installed in industrial plants in compliance with the IRR (DAO 2000-81).As of September 2003, eight power plants, two petroleum/ petrochemical and two cement planshave installed CEMS.

The ban on incinerators took effect in July 2003. In the health sector, the focus of theDepartment of Health (DOH) is the promotion of alternative (non-burn) technologies such asmicrowave disinfection facilities and autoclave system. The DOH has ordered conversion of DOHincinerators to crematoria, subject to EMB evaluation.


Other government monitoring programs include lead monitoring, POPs monitoring, and acidrain monitoring.

The lead monitoring program was carried out in parallel with the phaseout of leaded gasolinein 2000. The program showed that ambient levels of lead dropped in 2000.

POPs monitoring is being carried out in connection with the Philippine commitments to theStockholm Convention of 2001.

POPs are chemical substances that persist in the environment, bioaccumulate throughthe food web, and pose a risk to human health and the environment. They are classified as pesticides(e.g., aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin), industrial chemicals (e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs)and unintended by-products (e.g., dioxins and furans).

A National Inventory on POPs was started in June 2003 and is due for completion soon.The EMB Project Management Office for POPs has produced various information, education andcommunication (IEC) materials for various publics and has conducted education seminars onPOPs for audiences including farmers, rural electric cooperative leaders and members, customsofficers, academe, among others.

The Philippines is a participant to the Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia(EANET). Acid deposition monitoring covers four environmental items: wet deposition, dry deposition,soil and vegetation, and inland aquatic environment. The first two monitor the land surface, and thelast two assess the adverse impacts on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.



Information and Education

Campaigns to raise public awareness about air quality andair pollution have been launched by government offices (EMB, DENR,DOE, PIA, MMDA, and DOH), NGOs (Partnership for Clean Air, PBSPCenter for Corporate Citizenship, ABS-CBN Foundation/Bantay-Kalikasan, Concerned Citizens Against Pollution, Swiss Contact,Philippine Business for the Environment, and the EnvironmentalBroadcast Circle), the private sector (Chamber of AutomotiveManufacturers of the Philippines, Philippine Institute of Petroleum,Transport Organizations for Clean Air, McCann-Erickson, and BBDOGuerrero), and the academe (Miriam PEACE, Environmental EducationNetwork of the Philippines, Assumption College-Antipolo, and thePhilippine Council for Peace and Global Education).

These campaigns used television, posters, calendars, flyers,stickers, websites and other media for reaching out to the public, withmessages aimed primarily at awareness-raising, particularly aboutmobile sources of air pollution and specifically against smoke-belching.

Information, education, and communication (IEC) activities for clean air include the following:

- With the Philippine Information Agency (PIA), DENR completed a Knowledge, Attitudesand Practices Survey on Air Pollution Prevention for selected audiences in Region IV and NCR.The results of the survey underscored the need to increase awareness and concern on air pollutionissues among public utility drivers and the general public.

- DENR, through the Public Affairs Office (PAO) and theEnvironmental Education and Information Division (EEID) of EMB, andthe Human Resource Management Service, continually undertakesawareness-raising activities on the need for cleaner air amonggovernment employees, vehicle operators and drivers, barangay officials,

academe, civil society, and private sector.

- DENR, through PAO and EEID-EMB, and in partnership with various sectors, continuallydevelops and produces information and education materials for cleaner air.

MMDA, on the other hand, runs an anti-smoke belching public information program named“Kontra Usok”, which includes a primer, seminars, a leaflet for public distribution, a brochure, andpress releases.



Research and Development

Air quality research has centered on local health impacts of air pollution. The following localhealth studies have been implemented:

- Metro Manila Air Pollutant Characterization and Source Identification (1996 to date - PNRI andINEA)

- Environmental Health Risk Assessment of Particulate Pollution and Chronic Mortality in MetroManila, Philippines (2002)

- Baseline Health Profile of Communities Located in the Metro Manila Air Shed (2000-DOH)

- Philippines Environment Monitor (2000 - World Bank)

- Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia, URBAIR, Metro Manila Report, MEIP (October1996 - World Bank)

- Philippine Environmental Health Assessment (1995 - World Bank)

- Health Profile of Child Scavengers in Smokey Mountain Dumpsite, Balut, Tondo, Manila (1993)

- Environmental Health Surveillance in the Surrounding Communities of an Industrial Estate inLeyte, Philippines (1994)

- Impact of Vehicular Emissions on Vulnerable Populations in Metro Manila (1994)

- Cross-Sectional Study on the Respiratory Health of Jeepney Drivers, Air-Conditioned Bus Driversand Commuters and their Exposure to Air Pollution in Metro Manila (1991).

- Public Health Monitoring (Field Survey Component) of the Metro Manila Air Quality ImprovementSector Development Program (2002 to date - DOH)

Most results have underscored the need to reverse the deterioration of air quality in urbancenters like Metro Manila, citing the immense social and economic costs of air pollution.

Research on alternative fuels and moulding compounds is also being conducted by DENR,DOST and Union Cement Corp. PCIERD is funding research, which started in April 2002, on“Standards Development for Local Motorcycle/Tricycle Sector”, which is being implemented by UPNCTS. PCA and TUP are conducting research on coconut methyl esters (CMEs) as alternativeadditive to fuels.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT


NGO AND PRIVATE SECTOR RESPONSES


The non-government organizations (NGO) and private sector have alsoreacted positively to the Government’s call for increasing public awarenessabout air pollution. The following are among some organizations in this regard:

• The Concerned Citizens Against Pollution (COCAP) is an environmental NGO of committedindividuals and groups who, aware of the life threatening effects of pollution and galvanized by thecommon instinct for survival for themselves and for their progeny, have pledged to fight the menacein all its forms, in air, water and soil.

COCAP spearheaded the campaign for the introduction of unleaded gasoline and the phase-out of leaded gasoline, which led to the signing of Executive Order No. 446 on the phase-out of leadby then President Fidel Ramos in September 1997. It also chaired the Lead-Free Coalition whosecampaign led to the phase-out of lead in 2000. As part of its Clean Fuels for Clean Air Campaign,COCAP initiated and co-organized the Forum on Alternative Fuels in partnership with DENR inJune 2001, and the National Conference on Alternative Energies in October 2001, together withMiriam PEACE, Environmental Education Network of the Philippines, and the Partnership for CleanAir (PCA).

• The PCA, launched on June 8, 2001, is an alliance of multi-sectoral organizations, whichaims to increase air quality awareness through a coordinated effort amongst its core member-organizations that are involved in clean air campaigns.

The PCA evolved from the Lead-Free Coalition, to Coalition for Cleaner Fuels. Aftewards,through a series of consultations under the MMAQISDP, the PCA was created, in response to theneed for an integrated and coordinated campaign among all stakeholders, to obtain publicparticipation.

The PCA, together with the SWISS Contact, were the organizers of the Partnership forClean Air Exhibition and Forum (PCAEF) 2002, held at the World Trade Center, Manila in November2002, as part of the Clean Air Month celebration. Exhibits, concerts and several fora on clean airwere held involving the business, civil society, government agencies, and international developmentorganizations.

• Bantay Kalikasan is the environmental protection arm of the ABS-CBN Foundation, currentlyin charge of its anti-smoke belching campaign, Bantay Usok, among its various environmentalprograms.

• The Manila Observatory is a private, non-stock scientific research institute run by the societyof Jesus. It undertakes scientific researches on climate studies. It pursues modeling of air qualitymonitoring data, generated from existing and available instruments, designed/fabricated/manufactured in the Philippines. It maintains the Climate Change Information Center, which producesresource materials also.

• The Miriam Public Education and Awareness Campaign for the Environment (PEACE)leads the “Schools for Clean Air,” a program that aims to raise awareness about air qualitymanagement among schools of Metro Manila. It is also active in the discussions and organizationof the tricycle sector, towards cleaner air.



• The Philippine Association of Tertiary Level Educational Institutions in EnvironmentalProtection and Management (PATLEPAM) is a national network of universities and colleges,committed to enhancing the delivery of environmental education. In the year 2000, PATLEPAM’sBoard of Directors issued a resolution to its 380-member universities and colleges nationwide,urging support to the implementation of the Clean Air Act. Subsequently, PATLEPAM undertook,with the EMB/DENR, national orientation seminars, and several region-focused conferences onthe Clean Air Act, and drew up action plans on what the schools, local government units, transportoperators and industries, among them, can do, to help clean the air.

• The Firefly Brigade sponsors an annual Tour of the Fireflies, usually on Earth Day. The touris a 50-kilometer bicycle ride around seven cities in Metro Manila meant to encourage participationby ordinary citizens. It promotes the bicycle as an alternative transport mode that requires noexpensive imported fuel, gives off no fumes, and is also low-cost, noise-free and an efficient way toexercise the body.

• The Philippine Business for Environment (PBE) is a non-stock, non-profit organizationincorporated in January 1992, to assist Philippine business address environmental issues andconcerns. Specifically, PBE is involved in environmental enhancement projects; education andawareness; promotion of clean technology and sound environmental management; andintermediation between communities, business and government in environmental issues.

The PBE also steered and encouraged industry associations to develop and implementtheir Business Agenda 21, with specific environmental goals and programs to promote sustainabledevelopment.

• The Philippine Business for Social Progress (PBSP) led the setting up of a Center forCorporate Citizenship, which supports the voluntary testing program for smoke belching of theprivate sector. It also launched an IEC campaign called Project Blue Sky to encourage voluntaryaction in curbing smoke-belching.

• The Transport Organizations for Clean Air (TOCA) was organized in March 7, 2000, tocoordinate compliance to the Clean Air Act by various land transport groups. It is composed of thefollowing major transport groups representing more than 2,000,000 transport operators and driversnationwide, collaborating with various agencies, in adopting appropriate technologies and practicesto promote cleaner and low-emission vehicles.

· Association of Taxi Operators of Metro Manila· Confederation of Truckers’ Association of the Philippines· EDSA Central Transport Cooperative· Federation of Rizal-Cubao Drivers’ Alliance· Katipunan ng Kooperatibang Pangsasakyan sa Pilipinas, Inc.· Federation of Jeepney Drivers and Operators of the Philippines· Integrated Metro Bus Operators’ Association· Intercity Bus Operators’ Association· Metro Manila Bus Operators’ Association· Nactodap· Pasang Masda· Philippine Association of Tourist Transport Operators· Provincial Bus Operators of the Philippines· Southern Luzon Bus Operators Association· TODAPIL


• The chain of Robinsons’ malls, through the Galleria, Imus and Novaliches branches of theirChildren’s Library, partnered with the DENR-PAO and EMB-EEID during the November 2001 CleanAir Month celebration, by delivering clean air messages among children. For June 2002 EnvironmentMonth celebration, meanwhile, partnership with the Children’s Library at the various branches ofthe Robinsons chain of malls was also pursued for the holding of a kids’ art contest.

• The fast food chain McDonalds partnered with the DENR in the June 2002 EnvironmentMonth celebration, when it produced two million copies of a traymat on clean air for distribution intheir 287 outlets nationwide.

• The Air and Waste Management Association (AWMA) enhances the knowledge andcompetency of environmental professionals by providing a forum for technology exchange,professional development, networking opportunities, public education and outreach events. AWMAalso promotes global environmental responsibility and increases the effectiveness of organizationsto make critical decisions that benefit society.

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES AND BEST PRACTICES


Marikina

The city will be constructing 66 kilometers of bicycle lanes, a project that is partly fundedby the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) provided through the World Bank.

One-third of all trips in Metro Manila are less than two kilometers long. It is possible tomake such trips using non-motorized transport modes. Encouraging walking, bicycles, pedal-powered tricycles and similar non-motorized modes should significantly contribute to the reductionof fuel consumption by mobile sources and a corresponding reduction in air pollution from fossil-fueled engines.

Bicycles

The advantages of the bicycle were succinctly presented by Kirkpatrick Sale in HumanScale (1980), when he wrote: “Obviously, one desirable means of transportation would be somethingefficient, non-polluting, simple to manufacture and repair, energy-conserving, cheap, and harmless.It just so happens that such a means is available, indeed widely available, and has been here fornearly a century: the bicycle.”

Sale also cites S.S. Wilson of Oxford, who puts the case neatly:“The contrast between the bicycle and the motor car is a very goodillustration of technology of human scale. The bicycle is a supremeexample of ergonomics – the optimum adaptation of a machine to thehuman body, so that it uses this power efficiently. Hence, the worldwidesuccess of the bicycle and its derivations in meeting the real needs of thepeople in both rich and poor countries, with a minimum demand forenergy and raw materials or ill effect on the environment. The motor car,

on the other hand, is a machine of inhuman scale as regards its size, its weight, its power (from 100to 1,000 times that of the driver himself) or its speed.”



Sale concludes: “In terms of translating energy into transportation, there is nothing, neitheranimal nor mechanical, that is superior to a human being on a bicycle.”

Variations of the bicycle have been used for a wide range of applications. Students of thedesigner Victor Papanek came up with an ingenious three-wheeled machine with a seat in theback that could be used for hauling heavy loads, had a gear system so that it coiuld be pushed uphillwith ease even when loaded, could carry stretchers or planks, and could be connected in tandemto make a short train. Three-wheeled bikes are often used to carry loads in China. Oxfam hasdeveloped an extremely efficient model with three speeds, a differential drive, and a cargo spacewith a payload of 336 pounds. Various alternative-technology experimenters in the U.S. – the NewAlchemists, for example, at their Cape Cod headquarters, and the Rodale Press people at their farmin Pennsylvania – have even explored the uses of stationary pedal power, using bicycle pedals anddrives to power grinding machines, corn mills, water pumps, washing machines, lathes, and similarmachines; fixed bicycles, it turns out, can easily be used to generate electricity in short hauls,equivalent to a power output of 75 watts at a steady pace.”

Natural Gas-Powered Vehicles

The Philippine government has launched the use of natural gas in the transport sector throughthe project entitled, “Natural Gas Utilization for Transport (NGUT)”. The project implementers arecomposed of government agencies namely the: Department of Energy (DOE), Department of Scienceand Technology (DOST) and Philippine National Oil Company’s Energy Development Corporationand Exploration Corporation. Funding for the said project was provided by the New ZealandGovernment and DOST’s Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research and Development.Isuzu Philippines Corporation provided the test vehicles during the project duration.

The 15,000-km On-the-Road Performance Testing (OTRPT) wasconducted in the various parts of Luzon covering an average of 1,300kms. traveled distance per trip. With two test vehicles running in convoy,the natural gas vehicle (NGV) and the diesel-fed vehicle (DV), theaverage speed of the test vehicles per day ranged between 50 to 70kph, although parameters were monitored at a constant speed of 80kph. The testing yielded the following results:

Fuel consumption. The average fuel consumption of the diesel-fed vehicle is 11.34 kms per literor 3,237 BTU per km, while the NGV is 12.95 kms, per kg or 3,940 BTU per km. The best fuelconsumption of NGV on a per trip basis is 16.2 kms per kg, recorded during the first trip, where thetest engine had a new set of spark plugs installed. The worst is 9.3 kms per kg, during the 10th trip,where the second set of spark plugs has already been in service for a total distance of almost 8,500kms.

Operating pressure/temperature. The air temperature of NGV is higher than DV. Ideally, higherair temperature means lesser energy is needed to raise the temperature of the air to its combustiontemperature during compression.

Exhaust emission. The readings are relatively lower than the typical exhaust gas compositionfor diesel engine. With the positive results, it can be concluded that the NGV performance is at parwith the performance of the original vehicle with no noticeable power reduction.



The 4JA-1 diesel engine can be converted to run on CNG. Except for the components of the fuelsupply system, which were bought abroad, other components, can be sourced locally. Likewise, allworks particularly machining work can be done locally. Emissions of NGV are cleaner withconsiderably lesser CO(s) and HC(s) compared to emissions of the original diesel engine.

Future prospects. A CNG program could begin in the metropolis, and then slowly reach out toother populated and polluted areas. The estimated potential usage could be 5-10 MMCFPD todisplace diesel and gasoline in buses, jeepneys, and taxis. The year 2002 was the targeted periodfor the commercialization of natural gas in the transport sector, when it is expected to be directlyavailable in gas filling stations. Displacement of diesel and gasoline by 2010 will initially be about5% or about 32.0 BCF of natural gas. Gasoline displacement should gradually increase up to 2025,while displacement for diesel shall be accelerated due to environmental considerations, reachingabout 423.0 BCF or 70.0 MMBFOE of natural gas demand by 2025. (From http://www.savetheair.org/cleantransport/fuels/NGVpaper.htm, “Natural Gas Vehicle Development in the Philippines”, by TomasRizo, Jr., Manager & Cherrie C. Calayan, Analyst, Energy Research & Development Center, PNOC)

Cocobiodiesel

The most promising fuel derived from organic materials is the coconut-based liquid fuel cocomethylester (CME) or cocobiodiesel, an ideal additive or diesel fuel substitute. As a diesel additive, a onepercent blend of CME is enough to comply with the prescribed smoke emission standard of theCAA. The optimum blend without any power losses on the engine is five percent.

The use of CME means less smoke emission and cleaner air to breathe. A one percent blend ofCME on petrodiesel results in almost 65 percent reduction in smoke emission.

The only "limitation" in the use of CME is the additional cost (fifty centavos higher than petrodiesel).

At the forefront of the campaign to use CME is the National Clean Diesel Task Force under thePresidential Adviser on Agricultural Modernization and the Philippine Coconut Authority.Cocobiodiesel refueling pump stations have been set up inside the Philippine Coconut Authority(PCA) central office along Commonwealth Avenue.

Curitiba

Curitiba in South-West Brazil has been lauded as an example of excellentenvironmentally-sustainable transport and city planning. It has achieved anintegrated bus system, induced 25 percent of its car commuters back intobuses, has 75 percent of its commuters travelling by public transport, andhas a per capita fuel consumption 25 percent below that of comparably-sized Brazilian cities. Yet, it coped with population growth exceeding 10percent annually between 1950 and 1980 and car ownership over 0.5 millionamongst a 1996 population of 2.3 million.

Since 1974, Curitiba has developed sequentially an integrated colour-coded bus system.By 1995, this comprised 15 grey “speedy” bus routes between transfer stations, 13 red expressroutes along structural axes, 86 yellow feeder routes linking into the main terminal and secondarytransfer stations, and seven green inter-District routes.



Express and “speedy” buses operate mostly along busways or exclusive segregated tracks.Special bus services provide industrial zone links, night lines, downtown and intra-District circulation;exclusive minibuses serve elites who would otherwise use their cars. Route interconnection isachieved by means of raised perspex tube bus stations along the structural axes and controlledentry transfer bus stations; provided passengers changing routes stay within these stations, a singlefixed fare ticket covering the whole journey. Additionally, roads, segregated bicycle routes andpedestrianised areas have been developed simultaneously.

Curitiba has adopted a strategy of gradually upgrading its transport system using knowntechnology. In 1974, just two trunk express lines 19.8 km long were created from eight conventionalbus lines, and connected to 45 km of feeder lines. Later, busways were introduced and further routeintegration extended incrementally. At first, single and then bi-articulated buses substitutedconventional buses on high density routes. By 1992, 2000 buses handled 1.3 million passengertrips daily or 71 per cent of all bus passenger trips and 709 km of integrated bus routes existed whichequalled just over half the total bus route length. Gradual incremental upgrading and extension ofthe system have been key transferable characteristics. The planning of the integrated bus systemhas been accompanied by deliberate policies to cater for cars, bicycles, and pedestrians. Buswaysare flanked by two local roads and by fast one-way roads. Hence, motorists have been offeredimprovements in return for accepting further busway provision. Bicycles have been promoted bydesignating 150 km of cycleways segregated from vehicular traffic and linking suburbs to thedowntown. Also, 49 blocks of property have been pedestrianised primarily to retain central areavitality. Such catering for non-motorized transport warrants widespread transfer.

(From http://www.unhabitat.org/HD/hdv4n2/region.htm, “Curitiba: A Replicable Best Practice?” byTony Plumbe, Lecturer, Development and Project Planning Centre, University of Bradford, UK,)


RECOMMENDATIONS

As the country proceeds with its modernization and industrialization program, the threat ofair pollution is bound to get worse unless specific moves are taken, not only to arrest the deteriorationof air quality, but also to eliminate the major sources of air pollution. Towards this goal, the followingrecommendations are presented:

1. Continuous and consistent monitoring of the six criteria pollutants identified by the EMBand the regular monitoring of other air pollutants (like PM

2.5,) which are known to be emitted by

specific sources and are considered to pose threats to human health and the environment. Thisrequires substantial budget allocation by the national government, for the purchase of necessaryequipment, training of technical and other personnel, and providing for the requirements ofmaintenance, monitoring, enforcement, and other operational activities. It is further recommendedthat EMB collaborates with appropriate institutions like PNRI for complementary activities such asPM

2.5 and PM

10 monitoring, and pollutant source apportionment in order to generate data useful for

air quality management.

2. More studies on the health and environmental impacts of air pollution. There is also aneed for human resources development of local health executives involved in the implementationof CAA, and those that are related to public health.

3. Continue and strengthen implementation of CAA. Timetables should be fixed for measuressuch as the shift to low-sulfur or cleaner fuels, the use of catalytic converters in all vehicles,moratorium on industrial expansion in urban centers, the implementation of public mass transportsystems, and other measures that will prevent pollution and clean our air.

4. Adoption of full-cost accounting in the cost/benefit analysis of various technology andfuel options in transportation and industry.

5. Review of the country’s transport mix, energy mix, power generation mix, and fuel mixfor closer harmonization with the requirements of clean and healthy air for all.

6. More research on best practices and alternative technologies which can help the countryshift to non-polluting methods of transportation, power generation, and industrial production.

7. Continue and expand information and education programs for cleaner air, focusing onimpact to well-being of the people and the ecosystem, and what each one can do.

RECOMMENDATIONS

66 2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT

Environmental Management Bureau - Department of Environment and Natural Resources 2001to 2002. Regional State of the Brown Environment Reports for 1995-2001. Regions 1-13, Cordillera Autonomous Region and National Capital Region. Unpublished Reports.

Metro Manila Development Authority. 2002. Anti-smoke Belching Task Force Accomplishment Report.

Philippine Environment Monitor 2002. World Bank.

Philippine Yearbook. 2001.

Philippine Yearbook. 1997.

Plumbe, Tony. 1998. “Curitiba: A Replicable Best Practice?” Development and Project Planning Centre, University of Bradford, United Kingdom.

Rizo, Tomas and Cherrie Calayan. Natural Gas Vehicle Development in the Philippines. EnergyResearch and Development Center. Philippine National Oil Company.

Department of Environment and Natural Resources. 1999 (December). The Philippines’ InitialNational Communication on Climate Change.

REFERENCES


The completion of this document would not have been possible without the invaluableassistance of the following who provided data, photographs, and/or reviewed the manuscripts ofthis Report:

Director Jesus Motoomull - Bureau of Product Standards (BPS)-DTICamille Castillo - Bureau of Product Standards (BPS)-DTIEster Perez de Tagle - COCAPRenato Pineda, Jr. - COCAPErnesto Ellis, Jr. - COCAPDr. Susan Gallardo - De La Salle UniversityUndersecretary Rolando Metin - DENRErlyn Ezpeleta - DENR-NCROIC-Director Irma Paulme - DENR-Public Affairs Office (PAO)Asst. Dir. Marissa Cruz - DENR-PAOEdwina Dominguez - DENR Office of the SecretaryLuisa Española - DENR Office of the SecretaryRogelio Limson - Dep EdClarissa Cabacang - DOEUndersecretary Antonio Lopez - DOHDr. Cristina Galang - DOHDr. Desiree Narvaez - DOHArnel Manresa - DOTCDanilo Idos - DPWHGeneroso Crisostomo - DPWHMs. Petra Aguilar - EMBEngr. Ramon Aguilar - EMBEngr. Erlinda Gonzales - EMBEngr. Cesar Siador - EMBEngr. Jean Rosete - EMBEdna Barlis - EMBEngr. Teresita Peralta - EMBPrudencio Calado - EMB - Philippine Ozone DeskDirector Joel Salvador - EMB Region IDirector Allan Leuterio - EMB Region IIDirector Lormelyn Claudio - EMB Region IIIRaldy Pagador - EMB Region IIIDirector Luciano Hornilla - EMB Region IV-AEngr. Jessie Conde - EMB Region IV-AEngr. Jeffrey Rivaca - EMB Region IV-ALilibeth Candolita - EMB Region IV-ADirector Roberto Sheen - EMB Region IV-BWilfredo Riña - EMB Region IV-BDirector Gilbert Gonzales - EMB Region VMa. Clarissa Joana Salazar - EMB Region VRamon Parafina III - EMB Region VGrace Madelar - EMB Region VAllan Arranquez - EMB Region VIIAmancio Dongcoy - EMB Region VIIErnesto Manuel - EMB Region VIIIDacilo Adap - EMB Region IX

ACKNOWLEDGMENT


68 2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT2002 NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT

Director Sabdullah Abubacar,DM - EMB Region XEngr. Jovencio Verdejo, Jr. - EMB Region XAllan Afredo Enteria - EMB Region XEngr. Florencio Dominguez, Jr. - EMB Region XDirector Bienveido Lipayon - EMB Region XIDirector Datu Tungko Saikol - EMB Region XIIReynaldo Villafuerte - EMB Region XIIIDirector Sixto Tolentino, Jr. - EMB NCRDon Juan Cariño - EMB NCRReynaldo Tejada - EMB NCRVilma Calderon - Land Bank of the PhilippinesHeriberta Domingo - Land Transportation OfficeDr. Emmanuel Anglo - Manila Observatory, AdMUFr. Daniel Mc Namara, S.J. - Manila Observatory, AdMUFr. Jose Ramon Villarin, S.J. - Manila Observatory, AdMUAdministrator Diony Ventura - NAMRIADirector Linda SD Papa - NAMRIAAsst. Director John Fabic - NAMRIABobby Crisostomo - NAMRIAVeneracion Reynoso - NAMRIARelina Dolendo - NAMRIAAljerico Alcala - NAMRIAAgnes Radam - NAMRIADirector Victoria Quimbo - NEDAThelma Oliver - PIADirector Alumanda dela Rosa - PNRIJose Dulce - USAIDDirector Ricardo Sigua - UP-NCTS

While we hope the foregoing has completely listed the names of persons we are in-debted to for this Report, we apologize for the rest who may have been inadvertently missed.

The Project Staff

ACKNOWLEDGMENT


PROJECT STAFF

EMB Director Julian AmadorEMB Assistant Director Fernandino Concepcion

Mr. Roberto Verzola - Lead Writer

From the Air Quality Management Section - EMB

Engr. Cesar SiadorEngr. Jean Rosete

Engr. Teresita PeraltaMs. Petra Aguilar

Engr. Jundy del SocorroMs. Edna Barlis

Mr. Francis Neuda

From the Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement Sector DevelopmentProgramme - EMB

Engr. Jean RoseteMs. Teresita Garalde

From the Environmental Education and Information Division - EMB

Ms. Elenida del Rosario-BasugMs. Joyceline Goco

Mr. Noel CasteloMs. Carmelita Passe

Ms. Ritchie Anne GuzmanMr. Josephet Banghulot

Ms. Iva Joy BorjaMr. Virgilio Santos


ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT BUREAUDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources

DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue, Quezon CityTel. Nos. 928-11-85 and 920-2258

2002 national air quality status...

Documents