2010 manual-ch07 anatomy

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Anatomy (our structure) is a result of the forces of gravity. One of our first experiences to resistanceexercise is lifting our head.


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CHAPTER 7

ANATOMY


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ANATOMY: THE SCIENCE OF STRUCTURE

The Musculoskeletal System

The three major components of the musculoskeletal system are bone, skeletal muscle and connective tissue.

Bone provides the structural support, muscle contains the contractile units that change chemical energy to

mechanical energy and connective tissue helps transmit the forces generated by the muscles to the bony levers

to evoke the desired movement. The skeletal system is made up of two major parts. The axial portion, which

includes the head, neck and trunk accounts for more than 50% of a persons weight, (1) and the appendicular

portion which includes the upper and lower extremities.

The concept of Axis

An axis is a fulcrum or center of motion or rotation. The path created as an object rotates around an axis is called

an arc. The arc created is always within the plane of motion created by the axis. The plane of motion is always

perpendicular to the axis. Imagine an axle being perpendicular to the wheel in the plane in which it spins. (25)

Force

As personal trainers we are stressors and apply force to our clients. A force is a push or pull of one object

on another. As weve mentioned previously in the definition of a personal trainer, there are internal and externalforces that we need to concern ourselves with. Internal forces are created from sources within the body. External

forces arise outside of the body which we manipulate to affect the internal forces on our clients bodies. Its the

internal forces that are more important. These are the forces that affect our clients health. The amount of force

the surface area it affects and the direction of the force are the three main factors to consider when

applying force to a client. (1)

This is why it is imperative that you can visualize the internal contact surfaces of the anatomy. Forces are hard

to visualize sometimes. Gravity is invisible, but it is always creating a force on the body.

Types of force.

Compression is when two contact surfaces press together.

Tensile is a force that pulls or distracts two contact surfaces apart.Shear is when two parallel contact surfaces slide or glide against each other.

Concurrent Force Systems

Two or more forces acting at a common focal point is called a Concurrent Force

System. Think of a rope commonly used for triceps extension. The actions lines of

the two are in different directions but their forces are applied through the axis or

focal point. The net effect of both forces will be in line that lies in between the two

forces or ropes. This is called a resultant. (26)

Two of the most important functions of the skeletal system are leverage (as inlevers) and support. Other functions of the skeletal system include storage and blood

cell formation as well as protection for the internal organs.

To better understand how the musculoskeletal system works requires a

rudimentary understanding of levers. Here are some basic definitions:

Levera rigid or semi-rigid bar resting on or tending to rotate around a fixed point, the fulcrum, when

force is applied at one end. (2)

Lever armthe distance from the axis or fulcrum to the point at which a force is applied to the lever. (3)

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Effort arma term that refers specifically to the lever arm of effort force. (4)

Resistance arma specific term relating to the lever arm of resistance force. (5)

FulcrumThe pivot point of a lever. (6)

The bones of the skeletal system provide the levers and the joints provide the axis of rotation or fulcrum

about which the muscles generate force. It is the structural arrangement and the manner in which the bones

articulate that determine which portion of the body will contribute to the motion. For example, when abductingthe humerus, the greater tubercle will bump into the acromion. One must externally rotate the humerus in order

to abduct to 180.

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There are three types of lever systems:

First-class leverwhen the effort force (E) and the resistive force (R) act on opposite sides of the

fulcrum. (seesaw) An example would be a triceps extension with the fulcrum being the elbow.

Second-class leverwhen the resistive force (R) lies between the axis or fulcrum and the effort force

(E). (wheelbarrow) This lever system is very seldom found in the human body. An example would be a

standing calve raise with the fulcrum being the Metatarsal-phalangeal (MTP) joint.

Third-class leverwhen the effort force (E) lies between the axis and the resistance force (R). (shovel)

An example would be a biceps curl with the fulcrum being the elbow.

Moment Arm

When lifting weights, the actual

weight you lift sometimes can be

deceiving. For example, if you

were to hold a bag of groceries to

your chest, they would feel lighter

than if you were to hold them

directly out in front of you. In a

front deltoid raise, the dumbbell

feels lighter at the bottom; will

feel heavier as you lift the weight; feel heaviest when it is at a 90 angle and will get lighter as you raise it over

your head. What changed is the moment arm. The moment arm is the perpendicular distance between axis

and the line of force. Think of it as the distance of the force from the axis at that particular moment. In the case

of the front deltoid raise the axis is the shoulder.

When the dumbbells are on the rack or hanging straight down from your shoulder there is little or no lever

created. However, when we move, resistance torque is created. Torque is force created around an axis and is the

product of the force times the moment arm. Speed affects the force as well. The quicker the motion the greater

the force (torque) created.This is important when assessing an exercise. Where the resistance is the heaviest in relationship to the position

of the joint is of utmost importance when considering how much weight, the speed and the range of motion your

client should perform. See the examples of a moment arm above.

Close-chain vs. Open-chain (also referred to as close-linked or open-linked):

There is a problem with this concept because kinematic chains is an engineering concept with a strict set of

parameters and not a human movement nor an exercise concept. In engineering, a close kinematic chain is

defined as an assemblage of links and joints interconnected in a way to provide controlled output motion in

response to a supplied input motion.(27) However, only a four linkage system of four joints offer control via

one input. (28) Unfortunately, the human body doesnt often fall into this strict engineering definition. (29)

Since the body is rarely so restricted by four joints and one motor or muscle, we need to use these words as a

conceptand not a strict definition.

Kinematic chains in the engineering sense are composed of a series of rigid links that are interconnected and

interdependent of each other. These links will act together in a predictable manner as opposed to an open chain

(which really isnt a chain at all). A close chain exercise is when the end of the chain is fixed, such as in the case

of the foot or hand on the floor or attached to a bar or platform. An example would be a Leg Press where the feet

are fixed to the foot plate or a barbell bench press when the hands are fixed to a bar. An open-chain exercise is


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when the limb is free to move without causing motion at another joint where the foot or hand is not fixed, such

as a knee extension machine or a biceps curl.

Characteristics of Open Kinetic Chain:

Limb not fixed, force is across the limb, one moving link is not affected by the position of the other joints.

Characteristics of Close Kinetic Chain:

Limb is fixed, force is through the limb, the extremity has been loaded secondary to weight bearing with

frictional and ground reaction forces to affect joint movement. All links are affected by each other.

Bones

Bone is the most rigid connective tissue found in the human body. The cellular component consists of

fibroblasts, fibrocytes, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts and osteoprogenitor cells. (7) Fibroblasts and

fibrocytes are essential for the production of collagen. The osteoblasts lay down the new bone while the

osteoclasts help with the reabsorbtion of previously laid-down bone in order to meet the changing dimensions of

a growing body. Different types of bones are categorized according to shape, function and the proportion of

spongy and compact bone tissue. Spongy bone is a porous high energy absorber. Its innermost layer is made upof thin plates of calcified tissue called trabeculae. Trabeculae are laid down in response to stresses placed upon

the bone. Compact or cortical bone is dense and appears to be solid. This bone which offers strength and stiffness

to the skeleton is covered by a strong fibrous membrane called periosteum. The periosteum is well vascularized

and contains many capillaries that provide nutrients to the bones. The inner surface of the periosteum is formed

of osteoblasts, which are essential for growth and repair.

The five different types of bones are:

Long Bones: Their length is longer than they are wide and include the clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna

femur (the strongest, heaviest and longest bone in the body), fibula, tibia, metatarsals, metacarpals andthe phalanges. The long part or shaft is made up of the diaphysis. The bone widens towards the end of

the segment called the metaphysis and ends with the epiphysis. In an immature skeleton the end of the

bone is separated from the shaft by a cartilaginous disc. For this reason it is important to always use sub-

maximal loads when incorporating resistance training with children. The length of bone is usually formed

by compressive forces while the bony protuberances and attachment sites are formed by tensile

forces.(18)

Short Bones: Short bones play an important part in shock absorption and include the carpals and tarsals

Short bones are primarily spongy bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone.

Flat Bones: Flat bones consist of two layers of compact bone with spongy bone and marrow in betweenThe ribs, ilium, sternum and scapula make up the flat bones.

Irregular bones: The bones found in the skull, pelvis and vertebrae consist of spongy bone with thin

compact bone on the exterior.

Sesamoid bones: This bone is a short bone embedded within a tendon or joint capsule. Example: the

patella and the bones found at the base of the first metatarsal in the foot where the bones are embedded

in the distal tendon of the flexor hallucis brevis muscle and at the thumb, where the bones are embedded

in the tendon of the flexor pollicis brevis. The sesamoid bones change the angle of insertion of the muscle

acting as an anatomical pulley.(7)

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Bone formation

Wolffs Law states: Every change in the form and function of a bone or of their function alone is followed

by certain definitive changes in their internal architecture and equally definite secondary alteration in their

external conformation, in accordance with mathematical laws.(8) In life, bones are subjected to externally

applied loads and muscular forces that the bone will react to. Bone tissue is self-repairing and can alter its

properties, the process by which this happens is not always the same in all bones. For example, the distal part of

the femur is replaced every 5 to 6 months, whereas the bone in the shaft is replaced much slower.(9) Bones must

undergo daily stimulus to remain healthy. One of the benefits of exercise is that it can help increase bone mass.However, there is a condition called Myositis ossificans in which bone deposits are laid down in response to

repeated trauma to an area.(10) Just observe the knuckles of any martial artist. Bones are more efficient accepting

loads through the bone (compression force) but fail rapidly when exposed to forces crossing the bone (shear

force).

Joint Categories

There are two traditional categories of joints called synarthroses (non synovial joints) and diarthroses

(synovial joints). The synarthroses are divided into two other categories based on the type of connective tissue

bringing the two bones together: fibrous joints and cartilaginous joints. Examples of a fibrous joints would be

the coronal suture in the skull called a synostosis, the joint between the tooth and the mandible or maxilla calleda gomphosis or the interosseous membrane between the ulna and radius or fibula and tibia called a syndesmosis

joint. (14) The cartilaginous joints are either fibrocartilage or hyaline growth cartilage. A symphysis joint is

united directly by fibrocartilage in the form of discs or plates (pubic symphysis). During pregnancy the

connective tissue softens and some slight separation of the joint surfaces occur to ease the passage of the baby

through the birth canal. (15)

In diarthrodial or synovial joints the ends of the bones are free to move in relation to one or another. The ends

of the bones are indirectly connected to one another by a loose joint capsule that encloses and lubricates the joint

Synovial joints which are the most common joints in the body consist of:

1. a joint capsule

2. a joint cavity enclosed by the joint capsule

3. a synovial membrane that lines the inner surface of the capsule

4. synovial fluid that forms a film over the joint surfaces

5. hyaline cartilage that covers the joint surfaces. (16)

Hyaline cartilage forms a thin covering on the ends of bones and provides a low-friction surface for the bones

to articulate with each other. It is primarily made up of water, collagen and a stiff gel. (17)

Hyaline cartialge receives its nutrition from a process called Imbibition. Imbibition is the absorbtion ofliquid by a solid or gel, which in the body, occurs from the compression and release of pressure.

Joints

Muscles function is to move the skeletal system. The skeletal system has 206 bones that interact with each

other. A joint or articulation is the point of contact between bones, cartilages, ligament or other soft tissues.

The seven types of diarthrodial, or free-moving joints are:

1. Hinge: elbow and knee, this movement is limited to extension and flexion.

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2. Pivot: head of humerus and radius, this movement is limited to rotation.

3. Saddle: trapezium and first metacarpal joint, this has all movements including rotation.

4. Ellipsoidal: wrist joint (radius and carpals), this movement includes circumduction which is a

combination of flexion, abduction extension, and adduction.

5. Plane or Gliding: intercarpal joints.

6. Condyloid: allows primary movement in one plane (flexion and extension) with small amounts of

movement in another plane. It is found in the knee joint and the temporo-mandibular joint.

7. Ball and socket: shoulder and hip, this movement provides the widest range of motion in all planes.

Structure and Function

The joints in the human body are not unlike the joints used in the construction of buildings and machines.

Both of these joints, human or non-human, must follow the same principles in design. The structure of a joint is

determined by its function and the function of a joint will determine its structure. Which came first is akin to the

chicken or the egg tale.

Joints that are designed for human movement are called synovial joints. These synovial joints are alsocategorized in three groups. These groups will be important when loading a joint by adding stress or force when

exercising or training a client.

Proximal joints are the most proximal and the foundation for the extremities (shoulder/hip). These joints

generally have the greatest freedom of movement and have a great deal of muscular support in fan shaped

arrangements. The position of these joints will affect the function of the other joints. (11)

Middle joints are hinge joints with motion primarily in the sagittal plane. Muscles are situated on either side

in pairings. Lateral musculature doesnt exist because of their hinge-like function. The forces through the

secondary joints will depend on the position of the primary and tertiary joints.(12)

Distal joints are complex in structure (wrist/ankle) with a variety of motions available with intricate control.

The application of force on these joints will affect the forces on the other joints above them.(13)

Close-Packed vs Loose-Packed Positions

As movement occurs throughout the range of motion, the actual contact area varies between the articulating

surfaces. When the two adjacent bones have maximum contact between the two surfaces and all the ligaments

are taut, the joint is considered to be in close-packed position. Examples would be: full extension of the knee,

elbow, or the wrist and maximum dorsi flexion of the ankle.

In this position, the joint is in a position of best fit and is stable, but vulnerable to injury. Since the structures

are taut and the joint surfaces are pressed together, the joint is especially susceptible to injury if hit by an external

force, such as getting hit across the knee when it is fully extended. (23)

All other positions are termed loose-packed positions because there is less contact between the two surfaces.

Although less stable then the close-packed position it is not as vulnerable to injury because of its mobility.

Roles of Muscles

Prime mover or AgonistA muscle that is most effective in causing a certain joint movement

Example: Biceps Brachii in a straight bar curl.

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AntagonistA muscle that causes movement at a joint in a direction opposite to that of the joints

agonist. Example: Latissimus Dorsi in a military press.

Assistant moverThis muscle is less effective at performing a specific motion, but still has some

mechanical advantage. Example: Teres major in a lat pull-down.

SynergistWhen two muscles have a common joint action but also have a joint action that opposes each

other. The synergy occurs during the common joint action. Example: Pectoralis Major and Latissimus

Dorsi in internal rotation of the humerus.

StabilizerA muscle or set of muscles that steady or support a joint so another muscle or sets of muscles

may move a portion of the body. Example: the rotator cuff during a lateral raise.

Multi-joint Muscles

Several muscles in your body cross more than one joint. These muscles can exert force across all the involved

joints. Whether one or more joints move depends on the stabilization imposed and the action chosen. When the

joints move in the same direction as the hamstring does in a squat (the hip and knee flexes and extends at the

same time), these muscles act as belt-like stabilizers (19) of the kinetic chain linking the simultaneous motions

at each of the joints.

When the joints move in opposite directions i.e. one flexing while the other extends (as with the hamstrings

in running) the muscle has the potential to experience its greatest shortening and lengthening. At each extreme

the muscle or muscles become actively insufficient. This is most common when full ROM is attempted at all the

joints crossed by a multi-joint muscle. Because of this, multi-joint muscles are associated with single joint

muscles that are more consistent in force production: Triceps, (1:2) long head:lateral and medial head; Biceps,

(3:1) biceps brachii (long head and short head), Brachioradialis: brachialis; Quads, (1:3) rectus femoris:vastus

lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius; Hamstrings, (3:1) semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps

femoris (long head):biceps femoris (short head). (20)

The Inner Unit

When considering the stability of the pelvic girdle which has a major effect on spinal integrity, there are two

important groups of muscles: the inner unit and the outer unit.

The muscles of the inner unit consist of the multifidus, transversus abdominis, diaphragm and the pelvic

floor. Together the multifidus and the levator ani (pelvic floor) act as a force couple to control the position of the

sacrum. When the sacrum is secured by these two muscles the base of the spine becomes more stable. Research

has shown the inter-relationship of the pelvic floor and the

abdominals along with the four parts of the levator ani muscle are

interconnected. (1) When the abdominal muscles were recruited

strongly, the entire pelvic floor contracted in response. Specific

abdominal muscles selectively produced a specific response.

Contraction of the transversus abdominis increases the tension

in the transverse plane through the thoraco-lumbar fascia which

helps to increase intra-abdominal pressure. Many professionals

have taken this information and recommend a drawing in of the

umbilicus towards the spine. This cue can be overdone or

exaggerated. When contracting all the abdominals the rectus

abdominis must remain a certain distance from the spine. If you

were to draw in drastically, the rectus abdominis would actually

lengthen, therefore shutting off.

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The Outer Unit

There are four systems which comprise the outer unit: the posterior oblique, the anterior oblique, the deep

longitudinal and the lateral. The anterior and posterior systems enable us to give extra power and precision to

movements of the limbs by linking them across the body to the opposite side. Thus, the weight of the arms can

help in a kick or the movement of the pelvis and add additional

momentum in a throw.

The upper extremity and the lower extremity communicate ortransmit force through the posterior oblique system. The posterior

oblique system consists of the latissimus dorsi, gluteus maximus and

the intervening thoraco-lumbar fascia. During rotational activities

and gait, forces are transferred through the thoraco-lumbar fascia

mechanism via the gluteus maximus and the contra lateral latissimus

dorsi.

The reason we tell clients to bend their knees when lifting heavy

objects is because when the knee is bent, it puts tension on the

iliotibial band which gives the gluteus maximus a secure place toanchor itself. The gluteus maximus helps stabilize the spine by

exerting a downward pull on the thoraco-lumbar fascia (which

connects to the spinous processees and the TVA). The upper

extremity now has a stable spine with which the latissimus dorsi can

move the humerus while the spine is supported through its

attachment via the posterior oblique system.

This posterior oblique system and the transference of force from

one side to the other should be considered when creating exercises

for your clients, especially if there is a history of back pain.

The anterior oblique system includes the oblique abdominals

and the contra lateral adductor muscles of the thigh and the

intervening abdominal fascia. The oblique abdominals are thought to

be primarily phasic muscles which initiate movement.

The deep longitudinal system includes the

erector spinae muscle, the deep lamina of the

thoraco-lumbar fascia, the sacrotuberus ligament

and the biceps femoris muscle. This system helps

stabilize the pelvis in gait. As the foot approaches

heel strike, there is a downward movement of the

fibula and posterior rotation of the innominate

which increases the tension on the sacrotuberous

ligament via the deep longitudinal system while the

tibialis anticus fires in order to dorsiflex the foot in

preparation for heel strike. The tibialis anticus

attaches to the first metatarsal bone and links via the

fascia of the peroneus longus under the foot which

is sometimes referred to as a sling mechanism. (2)

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The lateral system includes the gluteus medius, minimus,

adductors and contralateral quadratus lumborum. These muscles are

significant for the function and stabilization of the pelvic girdle

while standing, walking and can be reflexively inhibited when the

sacroiliac joint is unstable. (3)

Its important when creating or performing exercise that you

consider these systems and how they relate to each other.

1. Lee, Diane, 1999, The Pelvic Girdle pg.592. Myers, Thomas M., Anatomy Trains, Foreword by Leon Chaitow pg. x3. Lee, Diane, 1999, the Pelvic Girdle pg. 60

Muscle Anatomy

For the anatomy of a muscle fiber, see your exercise physiology chapter. For the anatomical names of the

bones and muscles see the illustrations and tables that follow:

The anatomical names given to skeletal muscles are frequently related to location, size, shape, action, points

of origin/insertion, or muscle fiber direction. The origin of a muscle is the attachment nearest the midline of the

body and the insertion is the furthest from the midline. However, when both attachments are in the same line

(see rectus abdominis) then the origin becomes the least movable bone.

Skeletal muscle is composed mainly of water (75%). The remainder consists of about 20% protein and about

5% enzymes, fats, carbohydrates, pigments and inorganic salts. Approximately 4050% of the total body weight

is composed of muscle tissue, functioning to move both internal and external body parts.

Muscles are divided into three categories:

A. Visceral muscles (also known as smooth muscles) are found in the walls of the internal organs such

as the stomach, bladder and intestines. The diaphragm, which contracts and relaxes during breathing,

is included in this group. Visceral muscles act involuntarily, without a conscious act of the mind. They

are smooth rather than striated in appearance.

B. Cardiac Muscles are found only in the heart. Like visceral (smooth) muscles, their action is

involuntary. Their appearance however, is striated.

C. Skeletal Muscles are joined to the skeletal bones by tendons and are striated in appearance. The

primary function is external body movement. Skeletal muscles are considered voluntary and are

consciously controlled.

Tendons attach muscle to bone and ligaments attach bone to bone. The muscle end attached to the least

movable bone, nearest to the midline of the body, is referred to as the point of origin. The other end, attached to

the most movable bone, furthest from the midline of the body, is called the point of insertion. (21)

Fiber Arrangement

The shape and arrangement of the fibers in the muscle will determine whether the muscle is capable of

generating large amounts of force or its ability to shorten.

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There are two basic types of fiber arrangements found in the muscle:

Fusiform Muscles run parallel to the line of pull of the muscle. The fiber force is in the same direction as

the musculature. This spindle-shaped fiber has a high potential for high amounts of shortening and high velocity

movements of the body. The biceps brachii, sartorius and brachialis are a good example. A muscle with a greater

ratio of muscle to tendon (rectus abdominis) can move through a greater shortening distance than muscle with

longer tendons (gastrocnemius).

Penniform Muscles have fibers that run diagonally with respect to a tendon running through the muscle. Thegeneral shape is feather shaped as the fascicles are short and run at an angle. Since the fibers of the penniform

muscle run at an angle relative to the line of pull of the muscle, the fiber force is in a different direction than the

muscle force. Because of this the change in the individual fiber length is not equal to the change in the muscle

length.(24) The penniform muscles are a high-force and power-producing muscles of the body. Examples of

unipennate muscles, are flexor pollicis longus, tibialis posterior, semimembranosus and extensor digitorum

longus.

Bipennate muscles are gastrocnemius, soleus, vastus medialis, vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Examples

of multi-pennate muscles are the deltoid and the gluteus maximus.

Somatotype

Somatotyping is a method of classifying body structure into three basic body types:

1. Ectomorph (linear)

2. Mesomorph (muscular)

3. Endomorph (round)

Somatotype depends on body shape not body size. Dr. William Sheldon (1898-1977) was an American

who devoted his life to observing the variety of human bodies and temperaments. In the 1940s he developed a

theory that there are three basic body types (based on the three tissue layers: endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm)

each associated with personality characteristics, representing a correlation between physique and temperament.

Ectomorphs are characterized by a long angular shape with smaller, longer bones, narrow shoulders and hips

and slender upper arms, thighs, forearms and calves. Their temperament is artistic, sensitive, apprehensive and

an introvert.

Mesomorphs are more muscular with wider shoulders in relation to hips, the wrists and ankles are relatively

large with a fairly thick neck. Their temperament is courageous, energetic, active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive

and a risk taker.

Endomorphs are thicker with short thin necks relative to their shoulders. The upper arms and thighs are large

compared to the forearms and calves. The wrists and ankles are small compared to the elbows and knees. Theirtemperament is tolerant, love of comfort, luxury and an extrovert.

Most people do not fall into one specific category. Some people might have ectomorphic characteristics

combined with mesomorphic ones. Training for a particular sport or activity may enhance performance but will

not result in a change of somatotype. A comparison of somatotype of competitive female gymnasts did not reveal

a difference between those who performed well in competition and those who performed poorly. (22) However

the body differed significantly; the gymnasts who performed well were much leaner.

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REFERENCES

1. Hamill, J. and Knutzen, K.M.: Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement p.11.

2. Webster,: The New American Webster Dictionary p.268

3. Norkin, C. C. and Levangie P.K., Joint Structure and Function p.33



6. Baechle, T.R.: Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning p.25


8. Keller, T.S., and Spengler, D.M.: Regulation of Bone Stress and Strain in the Immature and Mature

Rat Femur. Journal of Biomechanics. 22:11151127, 1989

9. Hamill, J. and Knutzen, K.M.: Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement p.40


11. Purvis, T. Resistance Training Speciality, 5th edition, Mastery Course, p.2122










21. NSPA, Advanced Guide for the Personal Trainer, p. 86

22. NSPA, Advanced Guide for the Personal Trainer, p. 97


24. Huijing, P.A.: Mechanical Muscle Models. In Strength and Power in Sport. Edited by P. Komi

Boston, Blackwell Scientific Publication, 1992, p. 130150

25. Purvis, Tom. Resistance Training Specialist Manual, 2007. p.7-3

26. Purvis, Tom. Resistance Training Specialist Manual, 2007. p. 4-3

27, 28. Norton, Robert, Design of Machinery, An introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis of

Mechanisms and Machines 2nd edition, 2001

29. Purvis, Tom. Resistance Training Specialist Manual, 2007. p.18-5

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BicepsBrachii


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Biceps FemorisBicep

Femori


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Peroneus


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2010 manual-ch07 anatomy

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