2013 10 23_dna_for_dummies_v_presented
DESCRIPTION
DNA, an introductionTRANSCRIPT
Wim Van Criekinge
Antwerpen24 oktober 2013
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Overview
• Who ? Where ?• Bioinformatics• (Epi)genetics• Technology: Next Gen
Sequencing• Personal Genomics
^[now][transl comput]ational⎮ [epi]genomic$
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All organisms: 1 or more cells
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Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Cell Theory• All organisms are
composed of one or more cells.
• Cells are the smallest living units of all living organisms.
• Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell.
Each human cell contains 46 chromosomes (except sperm or egg cells)
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Genetic codeDNA
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
The human genome comprises the information contained in one set of human chromosomes which themselves contain about 3 billion base pairs (bp) of DNA in 46 chromosomes (22 autosome pairs + 2 sex chromosomes). The total length of DNA present in one adult human is calculated by the multiplication of
(length of 1 bp)(number of bp per cell)(number of cells in the body)
DNA: Structure and Function
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
The human genome comprises the information contained in one set of human chromosomes which themselves contain about 3 billion base pairs (bp) of DNA in 46 chromosomes (22 autosome pairs + 2 sex chromosomes). The total length of DNA present in one adult human is calculated by the multiplication of
(length of 1 bp)(number of bp per cell)(number of cells in the body)
(0.34 × 10-9 m)(6 × 109)(1013)2.0 × 1013 meters
DNA: Structure and Function
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
The human genome comprises the information contained in one set of human chromosomes which themselves contain about 3 billion base pairs (bp) of DNA in 46 chromosomes (22 autosome pairs + 2 sex chromosomes). The total length of DNA present in one adult human is calculated by the multiplication of
(length of 1 bp)(number of bp per cell)(number of cells in the body)
(0.34 × 10-9 m)(6 × 109)(1013)2.0 × 1013 meters
That is the equivalent of nearly 70 trips from the earth to the sun and back.
DNA: Structure and Function
Genetic information is stored in the DNA
DNA encodes proteins
“Genes” encode proteins
DNA replication
DNA synthesis and proofreading
Mutations:possible cause of diseases and disfunctionalities
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Overview
• Who ? Where ?• Bioinformatics• (Epi)genetics• Technology: Next Gen
Sequencing• Personal Genomics
^[now][transl comput]ational⎮ [epi]genomic$
Microbes are all over us
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachershttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Man_shadow_-_upper.png
Thousands of different species on the skin aloneSome thrive on dry patches of the elbow, others thrive in moist environment of armpit
There are millions of microbes per square inch on your body
It is estimated that there are more microbes in your intestine than there are human cells in your body!
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Defining Epigenetics
• Reversible changes in gene expression/function
• Without changes in DNA sequence
• Can be inherited from precursor cells
• Epigenetic information is included in the epigenome
• Allows to integrate intrinsic with environmental signals (including diet)
GenomeDNA
Gene Expression
Epigenome
Chromatin
Phenotype
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Chromatin is a Key Component of Epigenetic Mechanisms
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Chromatin is a Key Component of Epigenetic Mechanisms
• Chromatin organizes genes to be accessible for transcription, replication, and repair
nucleosomehistone
DNA
chromatin
Cellular DNA is packaged into a structure called chromatin
The unit of chromatin is the nucleosome, a complex of a histone tetramer with approx. 125 bp of DNA wound around it
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Basic Epigenetic Mechanisms: Post Translational Modifications to Histones and Base Changes in DNA
• Epigenetic modifications of histones and DNA include:– Histone acetylation and methylation, and DNA methylation
HistoneAcetylation
HistoneMethylation
DNA Methylation
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Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Geneexpression
• Gene expression (transcription) requires DNA to be physically accessible to transcription factors (TF)
• Epigenetic changes alter the structure of the chromatin, which determines whether DNA is accessible– Open chromatin allows gene expression – Closed chromatin prevents gene expression
Epigenetic Changes can Alter Chromatin Structure and Regulate Gene Expression
Geneexpression
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Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
ActionableEpigenome
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Epigenetics
• Epigenetics is essentially the study of how our environment impacts traits acquired within our lifetimes, altering certain gene expressions which may then be passed on to future generations
• That is, what we do to our own bodies may affect our children & grandchildren more than we thought.
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Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Epigenetic (meta)information = stem cells
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Translational Research towards Personalised Medicine
• DNA diagnostic tests can be used to identify in advance which patients are likely to respond well to a therapy
• The benefits of this approach are to:
– avoid adverse drug reactions
– improve efficacy– adjust the dose to suit the
patient– differentiate a product in a
competitive market– meet future legal or
regulatory requirements
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Example: Replication errors
GENETIC
Altered DNA/mRNA/proteins
Altered DNA sequence
Historically, Cancer Was Considered to be Driven Mostly by Genetic Changes
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Oncogenesis
Tumor
• Mutations in p53 • Activating mutations in RAS• Mutations or amplifications of the HER-2 gene• Chromosomal translocations in myeloid cells and the
generation of the BCR-ABL fusion protein
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Example: Replication errors
GENETIC EPIGENETIC
Example: Chromatin modification errors
Altered DNA/mRNA/proteins
Altered DNA sequence
Altered levels ofmRNA/proteins
Alteredchromatin structure
Recent Evidence Shows that Epigenetic Changes are Also Important in Causing Cancer
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Oncogenesis
Tumor
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Schuebel et al 2007
Biology uses methylation extensivelyas a “regulatory checkpoint” in (cancer) development
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Methylation of MGMT in GBM
Kaplan-Meier Estimates of Overall Survival in GBM, According to MGMT Promoter Methylation Status
Hegi et al. NEJM 2005, 352(10):997-1003
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Cancer Stem Cell Theory: the ‘Root’ of Cancer Growth
Tumor
Epigenetically altered, self-renewing cancer stem cells
Tumor Development and Growth
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Gene-specificEpigeneticreprogramming
Personalized Medicine
• The use of diagnostic tests (aka biomarkers) to identify in advance which patients are likely to respond well to a therapy
• The benefits of this approach are to– avoid adverse drug reactions– improve efficacy– adjust the dose to suit the patient– differentiate a product in a competitive market– meet future legal or regulatory requirements
• Potential uses of biomarkers– Risk assessment– Initial/early detection– Prognosis– Prediction/therapy selection– Response assessment– Monitoring for recurrence
Biomarker
First used in 1971 … An objective and « predictive » measure … at the molecular level … of normal and pathogenic processes and responses to therapeutic interventions
Characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biologic or pathogenic processes or pharmacologic response to a drug
A biomarker is valid if:– It can be measured in a test system with well
established performance characteristics – Evidence for its clinical significance has been
established
Rationale 1:Why now ? Regulatory path becoming more clear
There is more at stake than efficient drug development. FDA « critical path initiative » Pharmacogenomics guideline
Biomarkers are the foundation of « evidence based medicine » - who should be treated, how and with what.
Without Biomarkers advances in targeted therapy will be limited and treatment remain largely emperical. It is imperative that Biomarker development be accelarated along with therapeutics
Why now ?
First and maturing second generation molecular profiling methodologies allow to stratify clinical trial participants to include those most likely to benefit from the drug candidate—and exclude those who likely will not—pharmacogenomics-based
Clinical trials should attain more specific results with smaller numbers of patients. Smaller numbers mean fewer costs (factor 2-10)
An additional benefit for trial participants and internal review boards (IRBs) is that stratification, given the correct biomarker, may reduce or eliminate adverse events.
Molecular Profiling
The study of specific patterns (fingerprints) of proteins, DNA, and/or mRNA and how these patterns correlate with an individual's physical characteristics or symptoms of disease.
Generic Health advice
•Exercise (Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy)
•Drink your milk (MCM6 Lactose intolarance)
•Eat your green beans (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase Deficiency)
•& your grains (HLA-DQ2 – Celiac disease)
•& your iron (HFE - Hemochromatosis)
•Get more rest (HLA-DR2 - Narcolepsy)
Generic Health advice (UNLESS)
•Exercise (Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy)
•Drink your milk (MCM6 Lactose intolarance)
•Eat your green beans (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase Deficiency)
•& your grains (HLA-DQ2 – Celiac disease)
•& your iron (HFE - Hemochromatosis)
•Get more rest (HLA-DR2 - Narcolepsy)
Generic Health advice (UNLESS)
•Exercise (Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy)
•Drink your milk (MCM6 Lactose intolerance)
•Eat your green beans (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase Deficiency)
•& your grains (HLA-DQ2 – Celiac disease)
•& your iron (HFE - Hemochromatosis)
•Get more rest (HLA-DR2 - Narcolepsy)
Generic Health advice (UNLESS)
•Exercise (Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy)
•Drink your milk (MCM6 Lactose intolerance)
•Eat your green beans (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase Deficiency)
•& your grains (HLA-DQ2 – Celiac disease)
•& your iron (HFE - Hemochromatosis)
•Get more rest (HLA-DR2 - Narcolepsy)
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Overview
• Who ? Where ?• Bioinformatics• (Epi)genetics• Technology: Next Gen
Sequencing• Personal Genomics
^[now][transl comput]ational⎮ [epi]genomic$
Confidential Information | ©2013 MDxHealth Inc. All rights reserved.
Genetics
107 106 105 104 103 102 101 1108109
Full genome bp
GENETIC
Whole-genomesequencing
Enrichment seq(Exome)
PCREnrichment
Targeted Panels
Instrument and Assay providers
CLIA Lab service providers
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
Overview
• Who ? Where ?• Bioinformatics• (Epi)genetics• Technology: Next Gen
Sequencing• Personal Genomics
^[now][transl comput]ational⎮ [epi]genomic$
Wobblebase Mission
provide tools to both specialists (researchers, bioinformaticians, health care providers) and individual consumers that unlock the power of genomic data to the USER
enable personalized genomics today by simplifying the way we organize, visualize and manage genomic data.
PGM: Personal Genomics Manifesto
Everybody who wants to get his genome sequenced has the human right to do so. No third party can own your genetic data, your genetic data is exclusively yours.
Nobody can be forced to get his genome analyzed or to reveal his genome to a third party.
Your genome should allways be treated as confidential, private information.
People should be advised not to share their identity AND their entire genome on a public forum.
People should be advised to use secure technologies that allow to maximally protect phenotypic and/or genotype data.
People should be able to actively explore, manage and get updated interpretation on their genomic data.
• change the diagnostic/healthcare industry forever by setting a new standard and empowering the user
Wobblebase Mission
Choosing the Red Pill
The Technical Feasibility Argument
The Quality Argument
The Price Argument
The Logistics around the sample on howto manage the data Argument
The Ethical debate
The Privacy/Security concern
Updates are the single moste important feature of
Wobblebase
Notifications
#Rs1805007
Wobblebase
Socialnetworktwitter
Comparison
BioinformaticsAnalysispipelines
UpdatesNotifications
eHealth(fixed
vocabulary)
The Human MicrobiomeChristine Rodriguez, Ph.D.
Harvard Outreach 2012
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Microbes are all over us
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachershttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Man_shadow_-_upper.png
Thousands of different species on the skin aloneSome thrive on dry patches of the elbow, others thrive in moist environment of armpit
There are millions of microbes per square inch on your body
It is estimated that there are more microbes in your intestine than there are human cells in your body!
What is the Human Microbiome?
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Microbe: tiny living organism, such as bacterium, fungus, protozoan, or virus
Microbiome: collectively all the microbes in the human body; a community of microbes
Biofilm: a community of microbes that live together on a surface
Microbes in the Human Microbiome include species from each major domain
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SalmonellaNIAID.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aspergillus_niger_01.jpg
Bacteria
“Extremophile”Archaebacteria
Fungi
What features distinguish the microbial domains?
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
http://biodidac.bio.uottawa.ca/thumbnails/filedet.htm?File_name=BACT003B&File_type=GIF
http://biodidac.bio.uottawa.ca/thumbnails/filedet.htm?File_name=CELL006B&File_type=GIF
Generalized bacteria and archaebacteria cell
Generalized eukaryotic cell
Bacteria•Have no nucleus or membrane bound organelles•Often sphere (cocci) or rod (bacillus) shape, but others as well
Archeabacteria •Have no nucleus or membrane bound organelles •Can look similar to bacteria or drastically different shapes, such as flat and square•Have some metabolic similarities to eukaryotes
Eukaryotes•Have a true nucleus and membrane bound organelles•Wide variety of shapes. For this presentation, we will focus on fungi•Fungi are unique since they have a cell wall and form spores during reproduction
Microbes are normally found in and on the human body
The following sites are “hotspots” for microbial life
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
http://nihroadmap.nih.gov/hmp/
Let’s explore these five
regions
Some microbes are native, normally found in the body
Some microbes are introduced, suddenly arriving at a new residence in the body
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
What’s Happeningin the Nose?
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human-nose.jpg
There is a delicate balance of microbes that are maintained to keep that environment healthy. Weakened immune systems can throw off that balance and allow the wrong microbes to grow out of control.
Inflammation from viral infection and allergic reactions
Inhaled medicines and oral antibiotics
Cilia and mucous lining trap inhaled microbes
The nose is a primary defender against inhaled pathogens
Nose
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
The interior lining of the nose contains mucous secreting glands. A wide variety of microbes are normally found there. Here’s a few:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human-nose.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Staphylococcus_epidermidis_01.png
• Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria forms a biofilm that coats the mucosal lining
• Staphylococcus aureus bacteria is fine when kept under control by a protease found in S. epidermidis, but if left to grow out of control, S. aureus can become pathogenic and cause infection
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MRSA7820.jpg
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Nose
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human-nose.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aspergillus_fumigatus_Invasive_Disease_Mechanism_Diagram.jpg
• Aspergillus fungal spores are often inhaled through the nose. If the immune system fails to clear these, mold can grow in the lungs
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aspergillus.jpg
•Corneybacterium accolens bacteria is rarely a pathogen, but if it enters the bloodstream due to a torn blood vessel, it can cause serious infections
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Corynebacterium_ulcerans_01.jpg
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
What’s Happening inthe Oral Cavity?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teeth_by_David_Shankbone.jpg
A wide variety of microbes regularly enter the oral cavity saliva, pH,
temperature, immune system prevent many species from surviving
Oral antibiotics inhibit growth
Brushing and flossing teeth clears some built up biofilm
Symbiosis of the oral microbes that are able to survive these conditions form an elaborate scaffold that lives on the tooth enamel and at the interface with the gums. It forms a barrier for incoming bacteria.
Oral Cavity
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teeth_by_David_Shankbone.jpg
The oral cavity has a wide variety of microbes normally found there. Here’s a few:
Fusobacterium sp. bacteria is a larger bacteria that helps form a scaffold for many other bacteria in the oral biofilm
Streptococcus mitis bacteria typically forms a biofilm on the hard enamel surfaces of the teeth. If gums get inflamed, it can enter the bloodstream and cause infection
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Oral Cavity
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teeth_by_David_Shankbone.jpg
•Prevotella sp. bacteria have natural antibiotic resistance genes. They can attach to epithelial cells or other bacteria and cause larger infections in inflamed areas.
http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/File:P_ruminicola.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Candida_albicans_2.jpg
• Candida albicans fungus can cause oral infection known as thrush
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thrush.JPG
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
What’s Happeningon the Skin?
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anterior_view_of_male_upper_body,_retouched.jpg
There are several skin environments: oily, dry, moist. Some microbes prefer one over another.
The skin has natural defenses including slightly acidic sweat and antimicrobial peptides.
Microbes hide in crevices to recolonize skin after washing with soap
Antibiotic washes and oral antibiotics disturb normal balance of microbes on the skin
There is a normal balance of microbes on the skin that protect introduced microbes from harming us. Damaged skin gives opportunities for microbes to invade the bloodstream and cause serious illness.
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Skin
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anterior_view_of_male_upper_body,_retouched.jpg
http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/File:Lesionsclosed.jpg
http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/File:Lesionsmicro.jpg
• Propionibacterium acnes bacteria colonizes healthy pores, but if pores become clogged, it grows out of control
• Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria normally colonizes on the skin. But when P. acnes clogs pores, S. epidermidis also grows out of control in the infected pores
• Staphylococcus aureus bacteria can also infect clogged pores like Staph epidermidis. Even worse, many antibiotic resistant strains of Staph aureus make it difficult to treat the infection.
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Skin
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anterior_view_of_male_upper_body,_retouched.jpg
Trichophyton and Microsporum fungi feast on keratin in the skin and cause ringworm fungal infections
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yeartinfection.JPG
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
What’s Happeningin the Gut?
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Intestine_and_stomach_-_transparent_-_cut.png
Major barriers for microbes entering the gut:•low pH•Saliva and Bile•Immune system•Finding a place to attach to intestinal wall•Surviving a widely varied diet
For those microbes that manage to colonize the gut:•gut flora perform regular tasks of digestion, vitamin production, many others • Gene transfer between the myriad of species in the gut can generate new
combinations of drug resistant “superbugs”
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Gut
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Intestine_and_stomach_-_transparent_-_cut.png
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron bacteria ferments simple carbohydrates in the gut, releasing hydrogen and CO2.
+ carbohydrates
CO2 and H2
Methanobrevibacter smithii archeabacteria consumes hydrogen gas from Bacteroides and produces methane, which is lost from gut as “gas”
CH4 Methane Gas
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Gut
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Intestine_and_stomach_-_transparent_-_cut.png
http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/File:G_reaction1.jpg
Ruminococcus sp. bacteria can be found in significantly high numbers in the gut flora. They break down cellulose in the gut, helping with digestion.
Helicobacter pylori bacteria has a helical shape and colonizes the stomach and upper G.I. tract. It is known to be a major cause of stomach ulcers, although many with H. pylori do not get ulcers.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Helicobacter_pylori_diagram.png
What’s Happening in the Urogenital Tract?
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Female_Genital_Organs.svg
Urinary system almost sterile due to urea and other chemicals
Urine often flushes out microbes that find their way in
Introducing a catheter into the urethra can introduce microbes directly into the bladder, where a biofilm can grow and cause bladder infection
The vagina has a low pH due to Lactobacillus secreting lactic acid and hydrogen peroxide. Let’s explore the microbiome of this region further.
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Urogenital
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Female_Genital_Organs.svg
Lactobacillus and vaginal epithelial cell
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lactobacillus_sp_01.png
Lactobacillus normally maintain low pH while other species are kept in small numbers in the vagina If Lactobacillus
decreases from antibiotics…
Candida albicans can take over and cause a yeast infection
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Candida_albicans_2.jpg
G. vaginalis and vaginal epithelial cell
Gardnerella vaginalis can grow too much and cause bacterial vaginosis.
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Urogenital
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Female_Genital_Organs.svg
The urinary tract is normally sterile due to urine flushing out the tract.
But, Escherichia coli from GI tract can infect urinary tract due to poor hygiene and contamination from nearby GI tract opening.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pyuria2011.JPG
Urine sample infected with E. coli Urine sample infected with E. coli
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:E_choli_Gram.JPG
Interplay Between Medicine and Microbes
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Antibiotics
Kills infectious bacteria but also disrupts natural flora. Can result in yeast infections, digestive problems, etc.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NOVAMOXIN_antibiotic.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chemotherapy_bottles_NCI.jpg
Chemotherapy drugs
Gut flora has been shown to modify some drugs during metabolism. This causes many side effects, including upset stomach.
Use of Antimicrobial ProductsHow many do we really need?
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hands-Clapping.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Toothpaste.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Refill_soap.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tissue.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Afwasmiddel.jpg
Products kill germs to reduce infection
But do we need some natural exposure to germs to keep our normal flora around?
Will this allow “superbugs” that can barely survive these treatments to grow and become more prevalent…causing problems for the future?
Is My Gut Microbiome the Same as Yours?
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
The number and amount of the many different microbes can vary greatly from person to person.
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
Relative amounts of species
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Skin_Microbiome20169-300.jpg
The Microbiome of one person can be different than others in species and relative amounts
Research in the Human Microbiome Project is starting to identify the relative amount of each microbe present at different locations in the body.
So many new questions to answer about the Human Microbiome…
Summer 2012 Workshop in Biology and Multimedia for High School Teachers
How does the gut flora modify drugs, and how can we minimize side effects?
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chemotherapy_bottles_NCI.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Intestine_and_stomach_-_transparent_-_cut.png
Why does my gut flora look different than yours? How does that affect obesity, food allergies, and ability to fight disease?
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hands-Clapping.jpg
Are we making germs more resistant to anitmicrobials? What happens when the germs are resistant to all of the drugs in our arsenal?
What do you want to know?
Lab for Bioinformatics and computational genomics
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