2014 in 2014_india_urban_side_friction_bus_stops (1).pdfdia urban side friction bus stops (1)

Journal of Society for Transportation and Traffic Studies (JSTS) Vol.5 No.2

57

IMPACT OF BUS STOP ON URBAN TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS

A REVIEW OF RECENT FINDINGS

Sai CHAND Satish CHANDRA

Postgraduate Student Professor

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Roorkee 247667 Roorkee 247667

Uttarakhand, India Uttarakhand, India

Phone: 918266802262 Phone: 918266802262

E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: Traffic characteristics of a roadway are influenced by various factors like surface type, shoulder and

roadway width, terrain, driver skills, side friction or side activities, road maintenance, etc. However for

urban roads, the impact of side frictions i.e. bus stops, encroachments, on-street parking, etc. is much

significant than any other factor. The extent of on-street parking and encroachment is generally high in

developing countries where many activities often take place at the edge of urban roads. Their impact on

traffic characteristics can be minimized by imposing few restrictions. Conversely bus stops are to be

constructed by the authorities at different locations near or at the edge of urban roads. Bus stops are the

designated places where passengers board and alight public transport buses. Different types of bus stops

like curbside stops, bus bays, queue jumpers and nubs have significant effect on traffic flow. This paper

reviews the literature on the effect of curbside and bus bay stop on urban traffic characteristics. It has

been observed that presence of a bus stop ominously reduces the stream speed and capacity of an urban

road. The present paper also suggests few areas where further work can be taken up by the researchers.

KEYWORDS: Bus Stop, Side Frictions, Traffic, Urban Road.

1. INTRODUCTION

Traffic congestion significantly affects

economic performance of the nation and living

standards of the people. In majority of urban

areas, travel demand exceeds highway capacity

occasionally during peak periods. In addition,

events such as crashes, vehicle breakdowns,

work zones, adverse weather, suboptimal signal

timing, etc. cause temporary losses in capacity,

often deteriorating the situations on already

congested road networks. These temporary

capacity losses have significant impact on delay,

reduced mobility, and reduced reliability of the

roadway network. They may also cause the

drivers to change their routes or reschedule their

trips. The traffic characteristics of a road section

can be influenced by various factors such as

surface type, shoulder and roadway width,

terrain, driver skills, side friction or side

activities, road maintenance, etc. However

among all the factors, side frictions like bus

stops, on-street parking, encroachments and

Impact of Bus Stop on Urban Traffic Characteristics A Review of Recent Findings

58

frontage access significantly reduce the

performance of an urban road. Table 1

summarizes the various elements affecting the

traffic characteristics such as speed of the

vehicle and roadway capacity. The Highway

Capacity Manual (HCM 2010) of USA provides

a methodology for urban streets analysis, which

may be used to evaluate mobility in terms of

travel speed for through traffic stream. The

methodology however does not directly account

for capacity constraints such as on-street

parking, narrow bridge, bus stop, bottlenecks,

etc.

This article presents comprehensive review of

literature regarding effect of side friction factors

on urban roads with due attention to effect of bus

stop. The gaps identified in the literature and

guidelines for future research are also elaborately

discussed.

2.SIDE FRICTIONS AND TRAFFIC

CHARACTERISTICS

n densely populated developing countries, there

is often a great deal of activity at the edge of the

road, both on the carriageway and on shoulders

and sidewalks, which interacts with the ongoing

traffic flow. It results in more turbulence to

traffic flow and adversely effects the

performance of roadway as well as capacity. This

effect occurs on both urban and rural roads,

although the extent of activity and its severity is

much noteworthy on urban roads. These

activities which usually include bus stops, on-

street parking, encroachments etc. are often

treated as detrimental to the capacity of roads.

Bang (1995) stated that the side friction like on-

street parking reduces the capacity of the road

due to temporary reduction of carriageway width.

It further changes the traffic flow from un-

interrupted to partially interrupted conditions.

This effect is illustrated in Figure 1 by a

reduction in capacity from CO to C, and a

corresponding drop of the speed at capacity from

Vo cap to Vcap.

Speed-flow-density regressions using a single

regime model were applied by Indonesian

Highway Capacity Manual (IHCM 1996) for

analysis of the impact of side friction on capacity

and the resulting side friction adjustment factors

for different side friction classes are found. For

urban roads the capacity reduction factor was

generally found to be 0.87.

For urban and suburban arterials, the HCM 2000

recognizes that roadside development may be

intense and can produce frictions which limit

choice of speed of the drivers. Parking,

pedestrian movement and city population are

specifically identified as affecting performance.

Chiguma (2007) adopted an empirical method to

determine the effect of side friction factors such

as pedestrians walking along or crossing the

roadway, bicycles, non-motorized vehicles,

parked and stopped vehicles on traffic

performance on urban roads in Dar-es-salaam,

Tanzania. He then combined the individual

friction factors into a single unit of measure

called FRIC. The results showed that side frictions can have considerable effect on speed

and capacity. Hidayati et al. (2012) quantified the

effects of roadside activities and the School

Safety Zone (ZoSS) facility on speed behaviour

in Indonesia. ZoSS is a time-dependent speed

control zone consisting of traffic signs, road

markings, optional traffic signals and rumble

strips. The roadside activities like vehicles in and

outside the side area, vehicles parking on the

street, vendors, pedestrians, and buses stopped in

and around the area are considered in the study.


59

Table 1: Factors Influencing Traffic Characteristics

S.No. Factors Elements

1 Baseway Conditions

Good Weather

Good pavement conditions

Familiarity of users with facility

No impendent to traffic flow

Appropriate Lane widths

Proper Clearances

Level Terrain

No curb parking on approaches( for intersection

approaches)

2 Roadway Conditions

Number of Lanes

Type of facility and its development environment

Lane widths

Shoulder widths and lateral clearances

Design speed

Horizontal and vertical clearances

3 Traffic Conditions

Vehicle Type or Traffic composition

Lane or directional distribution

Pedestrian activity

4 Operating conditions

Parking characteristics

Bus stop operations

Traffic Signals

Stop signs and yield signs

5 Technology Intelligent Transportation Systems


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Figure 1: Impact of Side Friction on Capacity (Bang, 1995)

Table 2: Effect of Parked Vehicles on Capacity (Ministry of Transport, U.S.A., 1965)

Parked vehicles per km (both

sides together), Vehicles

3 6 31 63 125 312

Effective loss of carriageway

width, m

0.9 1.2 2.1 2.55 3.0 3.6

Loss of Capacity at 25 kmph,

(pcu/hr)

200 275 475 575 675 800


61

The effect that parked vehicles have on capacity

is demonstrated in Table 2 (U.S. Ministry of

Transport, 1965). It can be seen that small

numbers of parked vehicles have relatively large

effects in reducing capacity, and that the effect of

a given increase in parking diminishes as the

intensity increases. This suggests that waiting

restrictions have a limited effect on the capacity

of a road.

Various studies conducted by Weant and

Levinson (1990) indicated that the prohibition of

parking on a four-lane road doubles street

capacity. Similarly, prohibiting parking on a six-

lane road achieves a 67 percent capacity

increase. The American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials

(AASHTO, 1994) also confirmed that on-street

parking reduces street capacity and also the free

flow of adjacent traffic. AASHTO further stated

that eliminating curb parking can increase the

capacity of urban arterials by 50 to 80 percent

depending on number of lanes.

Reddy et al. (2008) studied the effect of on-street

parked vehicle on traffic mobility in urban area

and found that parking facility with a width of

2.5 m and a length of 30 to 40 m, would reduce

speed by 10 to 12 percent in case of motor

cycles, autos and cars, and 12 to 15 percent in

case of heavy vehicles. Rudjanakanoknad (2009)

used oblique cumulative plots to study the effect

of various factors such as illegal parking,

interrupted U-turns from the opposing direction

and interrupted crossover right turns from an

access road on urban street bottleneck capacity.

The average capacity reduction due to the

parking blockage was estimated as 460 veh/hr.

Although it was stated that presence of a law

enforcement personnel would substantially

increase the street bottleneck capacity, it was not

quantified in the study. Guo et al. (2012)

developed a cellular automata model to evaluate

the interaction between the on-street parking

maneuvers and traffic flow. On a single lane

unidirectional urban street with on-street parking

spaces, they estimated the capacity reduction to

be about 35 percent.

Dhamaniya and Chandra (2014) studied the

influence of undesignated pedestrian crossings

on midblock capacity of urban roads in India.

They estimated the capacity by plotting

fundamental diagrams at the sections and then

comparing it with the capacity of a section

without any side friction. They developed a

mathematical relation between pedestrian cross-

flow and reduction in capacity which is shown in

Equation 1. They found no influence on capacity

when pedestrian cross-flow is less than 200

peds/hr. The capacity however reduces by 30

percent when pedestrian cross-flow is increased

to 1360 peds/hr. The variation of capacity

reduction with pedestrian cross-flow is shown in

Figure 2.

Percent Reduction in Capacity = 11.09 + 0.025*Qped 8x10-6

* Q2ped (1)

where

Qped = Pedestrian cross-flow (peds/hr).


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Figure 2: Variation of capacity reduction with pedestrian cross flow

(Dhamaniya and Chandra, 2014)

Figure 3: Effect of bus dwell time at

a curbside stop on 7.5 m wide road Figure 4: Effect of bus dwell time

at a bus bay on 7.5 m wide road


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Chin et al. (2002) studied the effect of various

factors such as work zones, crashes, breakdowns,

weather and traffic controls on capacity and

delay of principal arterials in USA. Haijun et al.

(2011) considered temporary bottleneck created

by accident and proposed a new two-lane traffic

model based on the KKW (Kerner-Klenov-Wolf)

model. They presented asymmetric lane-

changing rules and the model of grabbing the

entrance of a bottleneck based on the differences

in driver behaviour and vehicle type. They

observed that with the proposed lane-changing

rules, although travel time of few drivers

increases, the outflow of the road increases and

thus resulting fluctuations to the traffic flow. The

result of this study may be extended for the

analysis of a bus stop and on-street parking, as

they create temporary bottleneck on the roadway.

3. EFFECT OF BUS STOP ON TRAFFIC

CHARACTERISTICS

Fitzpatrick and Nowlin (1997) analyzed the

influence of bus stop design on the operation of

suburban arterial roads using simulation. The

results indicated that the bus bay design provide

the greatest benefit when compared to curbside

stops at traffic volumes of approximately 350

vehicles per hour per lane (vphpl) and above.

Silva (2000) developed a simulation software to

represent buses and their interactions with other

traffic flow on urban roads.

Koshy and Arasan (2005) developed a

microscopic simulation model to analyze the

influence of bus stops on heterogeneous traffic

flow with great attention to reduction in traffic

stream speed. They validated the model using

traffic data collected at curbside bus stops and

bus bays. The results of the simulation model at

curbside stop and bus bay on a 7.5 m wide road

are shown in Figures 3 and 4 respectively. The

figures show reduction of average speed with

increasing flow at various bus dwell times.

Influence of bus bays on other vehicular traffic is

observed to be less when compared to curbside

stops. The authors opined that curbside stops be

replaced by bus bays when traffic speed reduces

by 25 percent. However, they did not come up

with a formula for calculating capacity of roads

on which bus stops have influence on the traffic

flow.

Yuan et al. (2007) studied traffic characteristics

on a two-lane road consisting of a mixture of

buses and cars. They developed a model in which

buses can only drive on the right lane and

investigated dynamic behavior of the traffic at

different densities. They also presented the

fundamental diagrams and showed that the

capacity of a road depends on the number of bus

stops. They further stated that due to the presence

of bus stops, the right lane reaches maximum

flow rate early, and then at large densities the

flow rates and average velocities of the vehicles

on the two lanes become unequal to each other.

Reddy et al. (2008) opined that under moderate

to heavy traffic conditions, on-street bus stops

can cause substantial delay to vehicular traffic on

urban roads. They observed that free flow speed

of various vehicles on a stretch with bus stops is

about 30 percent less than that on stretch without

bus stops on all working days. Arasan and

Vedagiri (2008) used a simulation model to study

the influence of exclusive bus lanes introduced

on urban arterial roads. At all volume levels, they

observed increase in the speed of bus because of

providing an exclusive bus lane. However they

collected video data of the study location for

only one hour which may not replicate the real

scenario. Moreover as they provided bus lane in

the middle of a road, passenger access to bus

stops is a serious problem which they did not

address.

Kwami et al. (2009) developed a statistical

relationship between average bus impact times

and average bus arrival frequencies. They


64

calibrated a model and concluded that with the

increase in bus arrival frequency, the actual curb

lane traffic capacity decreases. The authors did

not consider the situation when there is a queue

of buses waiting to take berth at bus bay stop.

Zhao et al. (2009) analyzed traffic interactions

between motorized and non-motorized vehicles

near curbside bus stop in China. They presented

a simulation model for mixed traffic flow by

using Burgers Cellular Automation (BCA) model

for non-motorized vehicles. They found that flow

rates of both motorized and non-motorized flows

undergo phase transition from free flow to

congested flow at the critical point. It is observed

that the increase in stopped time of bus causes

congestion in non-motorized vehicles flow. Yang

et al. (2009) presented a road capacity model

based on gap acceptance theory and queuing

theory for mixed traffic flow at the curbside stop

in China.

Tang et al. (2009) observed that bus density and

the arrival rate of passengers are important

factors contributing to the traffic interruption

probability resulted by bus stop. They also

showed that with higher bus density, the

boarding/alighting activity is more frequent and

thus leads to a greater traffic interruption. Xu et

al. (2009) analyzed the effect of bus bay on

capacity of adjacent lane using traffic flow

theory and queuing theory. They derived separate

capacity reduction models using simulation for

two conditions i.e. during bus overflow and bus

non-overflow. Then they tested the model and

found that capacity of adjacent lane depends on

both bus arrivals and vehicles on adjacent traffic

lane.

The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM, 2010)

includes some discussion on the influence of bus

bay stops on capacity when buses pull in and out

of the stops. The parameters needed are the

number of bus arrivals per hour at each bus stop

and the average bus stopping time. The

deceleration and acceleration times of the buses

are not considered.

Xia and Xue (2010) used a modified 1-D pipe-

flow model to stimulate the effect of bus bay stop

on city traffic of Beijing. They proposed a source

function to describe the path changing by

vehicles. They proposed the stochastic bus-into

stop probability to obtain the optimum length of

a bus bay stop. Although they claimed to have

solved the traffic problems of Beijing, the results

are not discussed in the paper. Shi et al. (2011)

proposed an extended optimal velocity traffic

flow model on two lanes including a bus stop and

a bus deceleration area. They classified

fundamental diagram into seven different traffic

states by varying traffic density. They observed

two new traffic states in which one of them

shows frequent occurrence of lane changing in

front of and behind the stopped bus. The other

traffic state showed the simultaneous appearance

of stop-and-go wave on both lanes. They

concluded that with increasing traffic density, the

lane changing region alters around the bus. The

major drawback of the study is they assumed bus

to always stop in the exterior lane which may not

be possible always.

Arasan and Vedagiri (2010) used simulation

model for heterogeneous traffic to study the

impact of provision of an exclusive bus lane on

the performance of the urban arterial. They

observed average dwell time for buses as 17 s,

and the average distance between bus stops as

1.02 km in Chennai, India. Then they calculated

time and distance required for acceleration and

deceleration using the basic equations of motion

and the same is depicted in Figure 5. They

estimated that mean running speed of buses can

be up to 65 km/h, when an exclusive bus lane is

provided. After due consideration to the dwell

time and acceleration and deceleration of buses

at each bus stop, the journey speed of buses

while using the exclusive bus lane was estimated

to be about 39.5 km/h.


65

Yong-Sheng et al. (2010) studied the interaction

of buses with other vehicles on urban traffic

using cellular automata theory. They found that

bus parking time is an important factor that

affects the traffic flow near a bus stop. Ibeas et

al. (2010) developed a bi-level optimization

model to represent bus congestion, effect of bus

stop location on modal split, road congestion,

total social cost and required fleet size. Ben-

Edigbe and Mashros (2011) observed significant

differences in roadway capacities for the on and

off street bus stops. They estimated a roadway

capacity loss of 23.4 per cent and -25km/h

propagation velocity of shock wave for curbside

bus stops on a single lane highway. However,

they did not conduct the traffic study during peak

hour. Sun (2011) proposed a simulation model to

evaluate the traffic flow characteristics on the

road section and presented a discrete-time

simulation method to determine the impact of

bus stopping.

Yang et al. (2011) extended additive-conflict-

flows (ACF) procedure from homogeneous

traffic flow to mixed traffic flow to determine car

capacity at bus stops with mixed traffic. They

opined that car capacity near a bus stop is

influenced by conflicting streams and dwell time

of buses. They also analyzed that pedestrian

effects and bicyclists limited priority have negative effects on car capacity near bus stops

with mixed traffic flow. Figures 6 and 7 show the

capacity drop of car stream with increase in the

bus arrivals and bicycle flow rate.

Figure 5: Acceleration and deceleration of buses at bus stops on exclusive bus lanes

(Arasan and Vedagiri, 2010)


66

Figure 6: Variation of car capacity with bus flow at different bicycle flow rate

(Yang et. al. 2011)

Figure 7: Variation of car capacity with bicycle flow at different bus flow rate

(Yang et. al. 2011)


67

Yang et al. (2012) further developed a theoretical

method using additive conflict flows (ACF)

procedure to determine the influence of bus stop

design on mixed traffic flow at Chinese bus

stops. They proposed car capacity and speed

models for three types of bus stops including

curbside, bus bay and bicycle detour. Traffic

volume, bus dwell time and berth number are

found to have negative effects on traffic

operations at any type of bus stops. For different

types of bus stops, at car volumes above 200

vehicles per hour, the bus bay and bicycle detour

designs are more beneficial than the curbside

design. Yang et al. (2013) used probability

theory and queuing theory to estimate car delays

at bus stops in mixed traffic conditions of

Beijing. They observed that both bicycle stream

and bus stream have considerable effects on car

delay. Finally they suggested to replace curbside

bus stops with bus bays if bus frequency is

greater than 200 veh/hr. They calibrated and

validated the developed model by collecting

traffic data from only one site in Beijing.

Lee et al. (2014) conducted a study on undivided

three-lane roadways in Virginia and found that

the probability of lane-changing violation at

curbside bus stops is higher where a bicycle lane

is present or where opposing traffic is lower.

Yang and Huan (2013) proposed car capacity

model at a bus stop with mixed traffic flow based

on queuing theory. They found that the conflict

between different streams at the bus stop is

similar to the conflict between two movements at

First-In-First-Out (FIFO) un-signalized

intersections, which can be represented by an

M/G/1 queue. They obtained car capacity by

iteratively computing the service time of each

approach and showed that both bus stream and

bicycle stream have significant effects on car

capacity. Figure 8 shows the mixed traffic

streams at a typical curbside stop in many

Chinese cities.

Figure 8: Conflict among cars, buses and bicycles at the curbside stop

(Yang and Huan, 2013)


68

4. DISCUSSION

Research studies reviewed above indicate the

following areas where further work can be taken

up by the researchers, particularly in countries

with poor lane discipline and with loose traffic

regulatory system.

1) Buses do not many times stop at their intended

stops because of numerous side activities like

passengers waiting for the bus on the

carriageway instead of waiting inside the bus

shelter, presence of auto rickshaws, vendors, etc.

These fringe conditions force the bus drivers to

not stop the buses at their designated stops. The

current research considers lateral bus stopping

position of a bus stop as same in all cases

irrespective of other constraints. Future work can

be done on the effect of improper stopping of

buses at the bus stops on capacity of the road.

2) Curbside bus stops create a temporary

bottleneck to the traffic flow and when buses

stop at these type of bus stops, they force the

vehicles following the bus to change their lanes.

Due to this, the speeds of the vehicles following

the bus and also of those travelling in the

adjacent lanes decrease. This aspect needs to be

investigated in detail.

3) In most of the studies, researchers have used

dwell time as one of the key parameters to

evaluate the effect of bus stop. The effect of

traffic volume, irregular stopping of buses and

frequency of buses are not yet studied

extensively.

4) When buses stop suddenly at the bus stop, few

vehicles pass the stopped bus from left side of

the bus. Passengers boarding and alighting the

transport bus may face conflict with these

vehicles. The severity of conflict depends on the

number and speed of the approaching vehicles.

Boarding passengers may at least have a glimpse

of vehicles that pass the bus from left side, but

for alighting passengers it is not the case as they

do not happen to see the vehicles unless stepping

down from the bus or standing at edge of the bus

door. Thus passenger safety is severely

compromised at bus stops. A passenger safety

index can be developed for all the bus stops in a

city and rankings can be given to each bus stop

according to the index. Figures 9 and 10 show

the overtaking by the vehicles through the gap

between the stopped bus and the bus stop.

5) Passengers need to wait for few seconds

observing potential conflicting vehicles and then

need to walk on the road to reach bus in case of

boarding and bus stop while alighting. This

waiting and walking times of the passengers

increase bus dwell time significantly. Although it

happens only when improper stopping of buses is

significant, this aspect needs to be explored and

impact on dwell time should be quantified.

Figure 9: Accident at a bus stop

Figure 10: Car moving through the

gap between bus and the bus stop


69

5. Conclusions

Mixed nature of traffic is the major problem on

the roads of developing countries, where same

road is used by number of vehicles ranging from

high speed modern cars to animal driven carts

and even animals. The presence of such

heterogeneity in the traffic mix increases travel

time, congestion and pollution and also road

accidents.

Bus stops are the selected places where

passengers alight and board a public transport

bus. These are the weakest links in a public

transport network because passengers have direct

contact with ongoing traffic at these stops.

Although many types of bus stops like curbside

stops, bus bays, queue jumper bus bays, open bus

bays, nubs, etc. are present in the cities across the

world, only two types of bus stops namely

curbside bus stops and bus bays are predominant.

Bus bays normally create problems to bus drivers

during re-entering into traffic stream. Moreover

they are expensive to install and difficult to

relocate. On the other hand, curbside bus stops

are generally provided on urban roads when

sufficient land for construction of bus bays is not

available. They cause traffic to queue behind

stopped bus and may also cause drivers to make

unsafe maneuvers when changing lanes in order

to avoid a stopped bus. Many studies reported in

literature describing side friction factors and their

impact on road capacity reveal that bus stops

have a significant impact on reduction in traffic

stream speed and also capacity of the roadway.

Highway Capacity Manual (HCM 2010) of U.S.

does not explicitly emphasize on the reduction of

midblock capacity due to the presence of bus at a

bus stop. It is rather more inclined to determine

the performance of the roadway. Dwell time and

frequency of buses are used in the manual as

parameters to quantify the delay on a roadway

segment. Indian Roads Congress (IRC 70:1977)

provides guidelines for control of mixed traffic in

urban areas but it only suggests that a bus stop

should be located 75 m away from the

intersection on either side with no mention of

their influence on midblock capacity. Indonesian

Highway Capacity Manual (IHCM 1996) also

does not include the effect of bus stop on urban

road capacity. However, the manual considers

the number of stopping vehicles as one of the

side friction factors and suggests a capacity

correction factor based on the number of

stopping vehicles.

The literature review indicates that stopping of

buses at curbside bus stop has more effect on

traffic stream parameters than any other kind of

bus stop. However, most of the studies are

related to the homogeneous traffic flow with

exclusive bus lanes or very little heterogeneity in

the traffic mix. A high quality study relating the

implications of bus stops on urban roads

reflecting heterogeneous traffic conditions needs

to be carried out.

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