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ii
DEDICATION
I would like to announce my appreciation to Allah Almighty for his grace, guidance
and protection of me during my Ph.D. study. I dedicate this dissertation with
countless appreciation to my beloved parents, and to all my beloved family members
who had supporting me throughout my study life.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge my committee members for their contribution to this
dissertation. First, I thank my supervisor; Prof Mohd Idrus Bin Mohd Masirin for his
supporting. He is completely devoted entirely to helping me finish this study. He
took valuable time to review my manuscripts, giving constructive advice, correcting
the problems of them. This research would not have been completed in a timely
manner, if their collective efforts were not there. There were so many times that he
put his thoughts into this research that it is impossible to keep track of all, but many
of these mentoring occasions will be deeply impressed in my memory and will be a
source of inspiration for me over my lifetime. Secondly, the same appreciation is
extended to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Ezree Bin Abdullah who was also my co-
supervisor during my Ph.D.’s study here in Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. It
is impossible for me to forget mentioning my appreciation of my research group
members. I owe a great debt to Dr. Shaban Ismael Albrka Ali, and I also want to
thank my friend who has shared ideas, Puan Nurul Hidayah Binti Mohd Kamaruddin
and for her prayers.
iv
ABSTRACT
Road construction is required to provide better mobility for the community. This
research aims to evaluate the use of BPSC particles as additive in Hot Mix Asphalt
(HMA) mixture which was previously introduced in powder form. The experimental
work for this survey included the use of four BPSC ratios (2, 4, 6 and 8%) according
to the weight of bitumen. A design for the hot mix asphalt was executed by using the
Superpave method for each additive ratio. However, using soft clay as filler to
modify asphalt binder and mixture was not intensively done by researchers.
Additionally, physical properties results of penetration and softening point show that
soft clay can increase the binder stiffness, while storage stability of modified asphalt
binder had a good compatibility between the original and modified binder. The
rheological properties results such as dynamic shear rheometer indicated that soft
clay modified asphalt binder would increase the stiffness and the elastic behavior
compared to unmodified binder at intermediate and high temperatures. It has also the
lowest susceptibility for rutting and the temperature susceptibility. In addition,
microstructure examinations of the asphalt binders were then achieved by using
scanning electron microscopy, hence; images displayed that soft clay particles
distributed uniformly in the asphalt matrix. In addition, asphalt mixture test such as
indirect resilient modulus, indicated that the stiffness increased as the percentages of
soft clay increased. Also, dynamic creep results showed that the adding soft clay to
asphalt mixtures remarkably decreases its susceptibility to permanent deformation.
As for the moisture susceptibility, all the samples pass the 80% tensile strength ratio,
it could be noted that BPSC had improved adhesion strength between an aggregate
and binder. Furthermore, ageing index values show that the susceptibility to
oxidative ageing was significantly reduced with the increase of BPSC content after
short-term aging, and also it was observed that short-term aging had given a good
resistance to oxidation. Studies on correlation analysis between different rheological
modified asphalt binder and mixture of HMA were also conducted. It was shown that
a strong correlation exists among G*/sin δ and rut depth. In conclusion, the
introduction of BPSC has a bright potential as a new material of HMA which can be
used in pavement construction in the future.
v
ABSTRAK
Pembinaan jalan diperlukan untuk memberi mobiliti yang lebih baik kepada
masyarakat. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk menilai penggunaan BPSC sebagai bahan
tambahan dalam Campuran Asfalt Panas (HMA) yang sebelum ini diperkenalkan
dalam bentuk serbuk. Kerja eksperimen untuk kajian ini menggunakan empat nisbah
BPSC (2, 4, 6 dan 8%) mengikut berat bitumen. Reka bentuk untuk asfalt campuran
panas telah dilaksanakan dengan menggunakan kaedah Superpave bagi setiap nisbah
bahan tambahan. Bagaimanapun, penggunaan tanah liat lembut sebagai pengisi untuk
mengubah pengikat asfalt dan campuran tidak dilakukan secara intensif oleh
penyelidik. Selain itu, sifat-sifat fizikal penusukan dan titik pelembut menunjukkan
bahawa tanah liat lembut dapat meningkatkan ketegangan pengikat, sementara
kestabilan penyimpanan pengikat asfalt diubahsuai mempunyai keserasian yang baik
antara pengikat asal dan diubahsuai. Keputusan sifat-sifat reologi seperti reometer
ricih dinamik menunjukkan bahawa pengikat asfalt diubahsuai dengan tanah liat
lembut akan meningkatkan ketegangan dan kelakuan elastik berbanding dengan
pengikat yang tidak diubahsuai pada suhu pertengahan dan tinggi. Ia juga
mempunyai kerentanan yang paling rendah untuk aluran dan suhu. Di samping itu,
pemeriksaan mikrostruktur pengikat asfalt telah dicapai dengan menggunakan
mikroskop elektron imbasan, dimana; Imej yang dipaparkan menunjukkan bahawa
zarah-zarah tanah liat lembut diagihkankan secara seragam dalam matriks asfalt. Di
samping itu, ujian campuran asfalt seperti modulus berdaya tahan tidak langsung,
menunjukkan bahawa ketegangan meningkat apabila peratusan tanah liat lembut
meningkat. Hasil penyelidikan rayapan dinamik juga menunjukkan bahawa
vi
penambahan tanah liat lembut dalam campuran asphalt mengurangkan
kerentanannya terhadap perubahan bentuk kekal. Bagi kerentanan kelembapan,
semua sampel melepasi nisbah kekuatan tegangan 80%, ini menunjukkan bahawa
BPSC telah meningkatkan kekuatan lekatan antara agregat dan pengikat. Tambahan
pula, nilai indeks penuaan menunjukkan bahawa kerentanan terhadap penuaan
oksidatif berkurangan dengan peningkatan kandungan BPSC selepas penuaan jangka
pendek. Ia juga diperhatikan bahawa penuaan jangka pendek telah memberikan
ketahanan yang baik terhadap pengoksidaan. Kajian mengenai analisis korelasi
antara pengikat asfalt diubahsuai dan campuran HMA juga telah dijalankan. Didapati
bahawa korelasi yang kuat wujud di antara G*/sin δ dan kedalaman aluran.
Kesimpulannya, pengenalan BPSC mempunyai potensi yang cerah sebagai bahan
baru HMA yang dapat digunakan dalam pembinaan turapan di masa hadapan.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLE
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF SYMBOLS
LIST OF APPENDICES xxi
i
iii
iv
v
vi
viii
xiv
xvii
xxi
xxii
xxiv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background
1.2 Objectives of study
1.3 Problem statement
1.4 Scope of research
1.5 Significance of study
1.6 Thesis structure
1
3
3
4
5
5
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of clay soil
2.3 Batu Pahat Soft Clay (BPSC)
2.3.1 The physical properties of BPSC
2.3.2 Particle size distribution of soft clay
7
7
8
10
10
viii
2.4 Additives and modifiers in hot mix asphalt
2.5 Chemical propeties of additives
2.6 Mineral fillers
2.6.1 Ordinary Portland cement
2.6.2 Fly ash
2.6.3 Diatomaceous earth
2.6.4 Hydrate lime
2.7 Asphalt binder
2.8 Effect of filler in asphalt binder
2.9 Filler interaction of asphalt binder
2.10 Influence of filler on aging resisitance of asphalt
binder
2.11 Rheology properties of asphalt binder
2.11.1 Dynamic shear rheometer
2.11.2 SHRP (rutting parameter)
2.12 Linearity of asphalt binder
2.12.1 Isochornal plots
2.12.2 Master curves
2.13 Scanning electron microscope
2.14 Effect of filler in the asphalt mixture performance
test
2.14.1 Permanent deformation
2.14.2 Factors affecting rutting of asphalt
mixtures
2.15 Moisture susceptibility
2.16 Dynamic creep
2.17 Resilient modulus
2.18 Using waste materials as filler in asphalt mixture
2.19 Summary
11
12
13
14
15
16
16
17
18
20
22
23
23
25
26
28
29
30
31
32
33
36
37
40
42
44
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 46
ix
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Process framework
3.3 Expreimental process and materials
3.3.1 Specific gravity of asphalt binder
3.3.2 Batu pahat soft clay
3.4 Cone-penetration test of soft clay
3.4.1 Determine the plastic index and
plastic limit of BPSC
3.4.2 Aggregate structure design
3.5 Blending procedure
3.6 Physical properties of asphalt binder
3.7 Storage stability test
3.8 Temperature susceptibility
3.8.1 Pen-Vis Number (PVN)
3.8.2 Penetration index
3.9 Viscosity
3.10 Asphalt binder aging methods
3.11 Rheological properties of asphalt binder
3.11.1 Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
3.12 Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy
3.13 Scanning electron microscopy
3.14 Surface energy test
3.15 Superpave mix design method
3.15.1 Superpave Specimens
3.16 Volumetric properties of asphalt mixture
3.16.1 Maximum specific gravity (Gmm
CoreLok)
3.17 Material selection of asphalt mixture
3.18 Ageing procedures of asphalt mixture
3.19 Performance testing of asphalt mixture
3.19.1 Resilient modulus test
3.19.2 Wheel tracking test
46
47
48
48
48
49
50
50
51
52
52
53
53
54
54
55
56
56
56
57
58
58
60
61
62
62
63
63
63
65
x
3.19.3 Dynamic creep test
3.19.4 Moisture susceptibility test
3.20 Summery
66
68
69
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ON ASPHALT INDER 70
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Plastic and liquid limit results of
BPSC
4.2 Point of homoeneity
4.3 Physical properties of asphalt binde
4.3.1 Softening point results
4.3.2 Penetration results
4.3.3 Ductulity results
4.3.4 Loss on heating result
4.4 Storage stability results
4.5 Viscosity results
4.6 Physical properties of aged index results
4.6.1 Aged viscosity index
4.6.2 Aged softening point index
4.6.3 Aged penetration index
4.7 Temperature susceptibility
4.8 Scanning electron microscope
4.8.1 Standard less quantitative elements
analysis
4.9 Surface energy of asphalt binder
4.10 Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy
4.11 Rheological properties of asphalt binder
4.11.1 Rutting performance (G*/sin δ ≥
1.0kPa)
4.11.2 Rutting RTFO parameter (G*/sin δ ≥
2.2kPa)
4.12 Fail temperature
70
71
72
73
73
74
74
76
78
79
81
81
83
85
86
87
87
90
91
95
95
99
102
xi
4.13 Creep and recovery (unaged)
4.14 Creep and Recovery (short-term)
4.15 Multiple stress creep recovery (unaged)
4.16 Multi Creep and recovery (short-term)
4.17 Frequency sweep (unaged) 10 rad/s
4.18 Frequency sweep (short-term)
4.19 Rheological properties of base and BPSC
modified binder
4.19.1 Isochronal plot (10 rad/s)
4.19.2 Master curve (unaged)
4.19.3 Master curve (short-term)
4.20 Summary
103
105
109
111
114
115
117
117
119
120
122
CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS ON ASPHALT MIXTURES 124
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Materials and mix design D
5.2.1 Materials
5.2.2 Aggregate mix design and gradation
5.2.3 Superpave mix design
5.3 Performance tests of asphalt mixture
5.3.1 Resilient modulus
5.3.2 Dynamic creep
5.3.3 Wheel tracking
5.3.4 Moisture susceptibility
5.3.5 Indirect tensile strength
5.4 Contributions and Applications
5.5 Impact of Incorporation BPSC into Asphalt
Mixtures
5.5.1 Durability
5.5.2 Ruttin
5.6 Applications of BPSC in construction pavement
engineering
124
124
124
125
127
128
128
133
137
140
141
143
144
144
146
146
xii
5.6.1 Cost of construction
5.7 Correlations between asphalt binder and mixture
5.7.1 Correlation between Mr and ITS
5.7.2 Correlation between Mr and G*/sin δ
short-term
5.7.3 Correlations between wheel tracking
and G*/sin δ (rutting)
5.8 Summary
147
148
149
151
152
152
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 154
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Conclusion
6.2.1 Physical and rheological properties of
asphalt binder
6.2.2 Engineering Properties of Asphalt
Mixture
6.2.3 Oxidative aging effects in asphalt
binders and mixtures
6.3 Recommendations
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
154
154
155
156
156
158
159
192
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Physical properties of Batu Pahat soft clay 10
2.2 Typical moisture contents 10
2.3 Generic classification of asphalt additives and modifiers 12
2.4 Various factors affecting the permanent deformation 34
3.1 Properties of Batu Pahat soft clay 49
3.2 Gradation limit of 19.00 mm nominal maximum size 51
3.3 Blending binder protocol 51
3.4 The physical properties of asphalt binder 80/100 52
3.5 Superpave compaction parameter 60
3.6 Volumetric properties of superpave mix design criteria 61
3.7 Design matrix for the asphalt mixture 62
3.8 The parameters for resilient modulus (ASTM D4123) 64
3.9 Rutting depth test parameters 66
3.10 Dynamic creep test Parameters 67
4.1 Results of liquid and liquid limit of BPSC 71
4.2 Optimum blending time 72
4.3 Comparison of significant difference level of ductility 76
4.4 Post Hoc multiple comparison of ductility 76
4.5 Comparison of significant difference level of loss on
heating
78
4.6 Comparison of significant difference level of storage
stability
79
4.7 Post hoc multiple comparison of storage stability test 79
4.8 Aging index of viscosity 83
4.9 The softening point aging index after Aging 85
4.10 The penetration aging index after aging 86
4.11 The PI and PVN for base and BPSC-modified-asphalt binder 87
4.12 Chemical composition for unmodified binder 88
4.13 Chemical composition of BPSC 89
xiv
4.14 Designations of main groups of modified asphalt binder 93
4.15 Comparison of significant difference of unaged for rutting 97
4.16 Post hoc multiple comparisons between modified and
unmodified
98
4.17 Comparison of significant difference of unaged and S-T 101
4.18 Post hoc multiple comparisons between modified and
unmodified
102
4.19 Comparison of significant difference of compliance creep
for base and S-T
107
4.20 Post hoc multiple comparisons of compliance creep for
base and S-T
108
4.21 Comparison of significant difference of multiple stress
creep recovery for unaged and short-term aged
113
4.22 Post hoc multiple comparisons of multiple stress creep
recovery for unaged and short-term aged
113
4.23 Comparison of significant difference of master curve of
ageing conditions
121
4.24 Post hoc multiple comparisons of master curve of ageing
conditions
122
5.1 Results of aggregate properties 126
5.2 Mix designations and nominal maximum size of aggregate 126
5.3 Specific gravity of course, fine aggregate and BPSC 126
5.4 Optimum binder contents and volumetric properties of
BPSC
128
5.5 Comparison of significant difference for ageing conditions
at 25°C
130
5.6 Post Hoc multiple comparisons between Base and BPSC-
modified-asphalt mixture at 25°C (1000ms)
130
5.7 Ageing index for resilient modulus tests at 25 and 40°C
(1000ms)
132
5.8 Comparison of significant difference of unaged and short-
term aged 40°C
132
5.9 Comparisons between unmodified and modified asphalt
xv
mixture at 40°C 133
5.10 Ageing index for dynamic creep test 40°C 135
5.11 Comparison of significant difference of resilient modulus
at 40ºC
136
5.12 Post hoc multiple comparisons of resilient modulus for
unmodified and BPSC-modified-asphalt binder
136
5.13 Ageing index for wheel tracking test at 45°C 139
5.14 Significant difference of wheel tracking for unaged 139
5.15 Significant difference of wheel tracking for short-tem aged 139
5.16 Post hoc multiple comparison of unaged and aged mixtures 140
5.17 Significant difference of ITS for dry condition mixtures 142
5.18 Significant difference of ITS for wet condition mixtures 142
5.19 Post hoc multiple comparison of ITS for dry and wet
condition
143
5.20 Summary of the impact of essential asphalt mixture
parameters
146
5.21 Criteria for goodness of fit statistical parameters 149
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 Soft clay area of RECESS Malaysia 9
2.2 Process of gradually filling the voids in compacted
filler with binder
19
2.3 Schematic of dynamic shear rheometer testing
configuration
24
2.4 Dynamic shear rheometer test operations 24
2.5 General shape of an isothermal plot 28
2.6 General shape of an isochronal plot 29
2.7 Construction of a master curve with dynamic
parameters
30
2.8 Failure zones under tire load 32
2.9 Permanent deformation 33
2.10
2.11
2.12
Influence of creep stress intensity on strain rate
Cumulative plastic strains versus time for creep
testing
The fillers effect on asphalt mix properties
38
39
42
3.1 Flow chart of the experimental 47
3.2 Equipment for producing BPSC 49
3.3 Cone-penetration equipment 50
3.4 Storage stability procedures 53
3.5 Rolling thin-film oven test equipment 55
3.6 Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy 57
3.7 Field emission scanning electron microscopy 57
3.8 Schematic layout and device of surface energy
method
58
3.9 Superpave gyratory compactor 59
3.10 SGC mold configuration 59
3.11 Indirect resilient modulus device 64
xvii
3.12 Wheel tracking device 66
3.13 Dynamic creep device 66
3.14 Moisture susceptibility 68
4.1 Plot result semi-log graph and determine the liquid
limit
71
4.2 Optimum blending time 72
4.3 Softening point versus BPSC Contents 73
4.4 Penetration against BPSC contents at 25°C 74
4.5 Ductility versus different ratios of BPSC Contents 75
4.6 Loss on heating of RTFO versus BPSC Contents 77
4.7 Different in softening points between the top and
bottom for BPSC modified binder
78
4.8 Viscosity of different percentages of BPSC modifier
asphalt binder under unaged
80
4.9 Viscosity of different percentages of BPSC modifier
asphalt binder under short-term
81
4.10 Viscosity ageing index of BPSC Contents at 135°C 82
4.11 Softening point ageing index of BPSC contents 84
4.12 Penetration aging index values of BPSC contents 85
4.13 Electron images of unmodified samples 88
4.14 Distribution of BPSC particles sizes in asphalt binder 89
4.15 Typical image during the contact angles measurement 90
4.16 Surface energy of BPSC contents 91
4.17 FTIR spectra of base and BPSC modified binder 92
4.18 Carbonyl index 1700 cm-¹ of modified and
unmodified binder
94
4.19 Sulfoxide index 1030 cm-¹ of modified and
unmodified binder
94
4.20 G*/sin δ of unaged binder against various ratios of
BPSC at 64ºC
96
4.21 Complex modulus (G*) against temperature 97
4.22 Phase angles (δ) against temperatures for unaged
xviii
samples 98
4.23 G*/sin δ of short-term aged binder versus different
ratios of BPSC at 64ºC
99
4.24 Complex modulus (G*) of short-term aged against
temperature
100
4.25 Phase angles (δ) of short-term aged against
temperatures
101
4.26 High failure Temperatures of unmodified and
modified binder
103
4.27 Compliance creep and recovery of unaged samples
(3Pa)
104
4.28 Compliance creep and recovery of unaged samples
(10Pa)
104
4.29 Compliance creep and recovery of unaged samples
(50Pa)
105
4.30 Creep and recovery of short-term (3Pa) 106
4.31 Creep and recovery of short-term (10Pa) 106
4.32 Creep and recovery of short-term (50Pa) 107
4.33 Multiple stress creep recovery of unaged binder under
stress level of (100 Pa)
110
4.34 Multiple stress creep recovery of unaged binder under
stress level of (3200 Pa)
110
4.35 Multiple stress creep recovery of short-term aged
binder under stress level of (100 Pa)
111
4.36 Multiple stress creep recovery of short-term aged
binder under stress level of (3200 Pa)
112
4.37 Complex modulus (G*) at 10 rad/s 114
4.38 Phase angel (δ) at 10 rad/s 115
4.39 Complex modulus against temperatures at10 rad/s 116
4.40 Phase angel against temperatures at10 rad/s 116
4.41 Complex modulus versus temperatures at10 rad/s 118
4.42 Phase angel versus temperatures at10 rad/s 118
xix
4.43 Complex modulus of master curve for unaged 120
4.44 Complex modulus of master curve for short-term aged 121
5.1 NMAS 19 mm aggregate gradation 125
5.2 Resilient modulus of unaged and short-term aged at
25ºC
129
5.3 Resilient modulus of unaged and short-term aged at
40ºC
131
5.4 Dynamic creep of unaged at 40°C 134
5.5 Dynamic creep of short-term aged at 40°C 135
5.6 Wheel tracking results of unaged 137
5.7 Wheel tracking results of short-term aged 138
5.8 Moisture sensitivity of asphalt mixture 141
5.9 Indirect tensile strength 142
5.10 Correlations between MR and ITS at 25ºC for unaged 150
5.11 Correlations between MR and ITS at 25ºC for short-
term aged
150
5.12
Correlations between Mr at 40°Cand G*/sin δ
(unaged)
151
5.13 Correlations between Mr at 40°C and G*/sin δ (Short-
term)
151
5.14 Correlations between rut depth and G*/sin δ (rutting) 152
xx
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
F - Recovered Angle
G*/sin δ - Superpave™ rutting factor
G* - Complex shear modulus
δ - Phase angle
A - Thermal diffusivity
FTU - High failure temperatures of unaged asphalt binder
E - Cumulative micro-strain
FTS - High failure temperatures of short-term-aged
asphalt binder
G’ - Elastic component or storage modulus
G’’ - Viscous component or loss modulus
Jnr - Creep compliance
Ω - Average angular recovery speed
[∇MR]A - Rate of aging effect on resilient modulus due to
long-term aging condition at 25℃
[∇MR]T - Rate of test temperature effect on resilient modulus
∆MR - Difference in resilient modulus
∇MR - Resilient modulus gradient
γ - Ratio of the strain
σ - Constant applied load
PI - Penetration index
S.P - Softening point
Au - Gold
C - Carbon
𝑆 - Sulfur
Pt - Platinum
CI - Chorine
SI - Silicon
O - Oxygen
Na - Sodium
xxi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A - Aging
AI - Specific heat
AI - Asphalt Institute
AASHTO - American association of state highway and
transportation officials
ASTM - American society for testing and materials
ANOVA - Analysis of Variance
AC - Aging Condition
BT - Asphalt Binder Type
BPSC - Batu Pahat Soft Clay
CGN - Compaction Gyration Number
DSR - Dynamic Shear Rheometer
DG - Dense-Grade
ESALs - Equivalent Single Axle Loads
𝐺𝑠𝑏 - Bulk Specific Gravity of Aggregate
𝐺𝑏 - Specific Gravity of Asphalt
𝐺𝑠𝑒 - Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate
𝐺𝑚𝑏 - Specific Gravity of Aggregate
𝐺𝑚𝑚 - Maximum Specific Gravity of Paving Mixture
HMA - Hot Mixture Asphalt
ITS - Indirect Tensile Strength
MSCR - Multiple Stress Creep Recovery
MT - Mixing Temperature
𝑁𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 - Compaction Parameter
𝑁𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 - Compaction Parameter
𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 - Compaction Parameter
NAPA - National Asphalt Pavement Association
xxii
SHRP - Strategy Highway Research Program
OBC - Optimum Bitumen Content
𝑃𝑏𝑒 - Effective Asphalt Content, percent by total weight
of Mixture
𝑃𝑏 - Asphalt. Percent by total weight of mixture
PG - Performance Grade
RTFO - Rolling Thin Film Oven
RV - Rotational Viscometer
SMA - Stone Matrix Asphalt
SFE - Surface Free Energy
STA - Short-Term-Aging
SGC - Superpave Gyratory Compactor
TSR - Tensile Strength Ratio
UTM - Universal Testing Machine
VFA - Voids Filled Asphalt
VMA - Voids Mineral Aggregate
VTM - Voids in Total Mixture
xxiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Physical Properties of Aggregate 193
B Volumetric Properties and OBC of Asphalt Mixture 196
C Asphalt mixture 205
D Physical Properties of Asphalt Binder 213
E Statistical Analysis Data Output 229
F Statistical Analysis Data Output of Physical and
Rheological Properties
238
1 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
There are many potential ways to improve the performance of asphalt binder and
mixture which are applied in the surfacing course of road pavements. Currently,
researchers and engineers are still looking and take into consideration the most
important user requirements of asphalt pavement towards economy and safety on
road and highway construction [1]. Additionally, road pavement is always subjected
to external loads including mechanical loading induced by heavy traffic and thermal
loading [2]. Similarly, highway agencies stipulated the use of specific materials for
highway pavement construction to assure positive performance of pavements. Hence,
the tests used in the paving industry are only empirical in nature [3].
Asphalt binder is considered as the most applicable road pavement materials
[4], and it is also the key function of an asphalt mixture. Its properties such as
durability and viscoelasticity make it a necessary material in pavement engineering
design and application. Thus, non-conventional modified asphalt binder and mixture
materials are successfully applied to counter major early failures of pavement
structures [5]. Subsequently, the asphalt binder properties could be enhanced by
applying modifiers; thus asphalt technologists keep looking for new modified asphalt
materials to enhance the resistance of asphalt pavement’s distresses, oxidation,
2
moisture sensitivity and permanent deformation (rutting). The scientists and
engineers are constantly searching on equally important different methods to
improve the performance of asphalt mix, and using some modifiers of hot mix
asphalt [6].
More importantly, many research works have been implemented to modify
the asphalt binder properties. Thereby, the modification of asphalt binder to improve
the performance properties was significantly increased since the implementation of
the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) binder specifications [7]. The state
highway agencies have appointed modifier content to be comprehensive in asphalt
binder [8]. Moreover, asphalt modifiers were applied in the road construction
industry as early as 1950s, that applicable in improving the performance of asphalt
pavements in terms of increasing resistance to pavement distresses [9].
In order to enhance good quality of asphalt binder, polymer modification has
become one of the most popular methods to obtain a good performance for road
pavement materials [10]. Then again, modified binders have been utilized in
Superpave mixtures of numerous state agencies with potential to ameliorate the
mixtures [11]. In contrast, modifiers of asphalt binder were altered in function,
efficiency, and evolution of modified asphalt material; also it may enhance the total
performance of pavements [12]. However, the compatibility among asphalt binder
and the modifier is not guaranteed, and segregation during storage at high
temperature can affect the performance of asphalt binder [13].
Additionally, modified asphalt has shown a lot of attention during the past few
years due to the enhanced mixture performance [14]. The usage of modify asphalt
binder offers a promising method to improve the service-life of the highways even
though the road experience unpredicted growing quantity of traffic volume [15].
Furthermore, modifying the asphalt mixtures with polymers appeared to have the
greatest potential for successful application in the design of flexible pavements.
These benefits can be realized by extending the service life of the pavement [16].
3
1.2 Objectives of study
The main objectives of this research are based on:
i. To investigate the physical, chemical and rheological properties of BPSC-
modified-asphalt binder.
ii. To evaluate the effect of BPSC on performance tests of asphalt mixture.
iii. To determine which modified binders provide maximum initial durability
benefit with minimum regression due to aging.
iv. To develop regression models among the performance of asphalt binder and
mixture corresponding to the influence of BPSC in terms of permanent
deformation.
1.3 Problem statement
Hot mix asphalt should satisfy and has sufficient stability, durability, flexibility,
coefficient of friction, and workability for good pavement performance. In addition,
to produce a mixture with those properties, a suitable coating of the aggregated
grains by asphalt binder and suitable compaction up to designated air void ratio
should be guaranteed [17]. Recently, the continuous increase in the traffic numbers
may cause an accelerated deterioration of the road network [18]. Thus, the damage of
road asphalt layers is considered as the biggest challenge faced by countries around
the world today [19].
Certainly, the properties of asphalt binder are required to prevent the appearance
of two main pavement distresses such as permanent deformation (rutting), and
fatigue. The asphalt mixtures are sensitive to oxygen, ozone, and chemicals which
they are exposed during the preparation, storage, and service [20]. Similarly, the
durability of asphalt mixtures depends on two main factors: resistance to age
4
hardening and resistance to moisture damage. Antioxidants were used in the past to
control age-hardening of asphalt mixtures with some successes [21]. Additionally,
numerous attempts are still trying to resolve those factors in reducing the road
maintenance cost and enhancing pavement design life. Therefore, it was important to
acknowledge that some user agencies were indicated an increase of service life or
reduced the risk of the early distresses development through the use of modified
asphalt binders. Otherwise, asphalt mixes must be able to resist the existing heavy
loads and expected future loads for an acceptable period of time. This demands some
modifications to the reinforcement of asphalt binder [22].
In order to enhance the durability of asphalt mixture versus pavement distress,
mineral filler are commonly used. Therefore, several paving technologist found that
mineral filler plays a dual function in asphalt mixture by acting as mineral aggregate
to fill voids and producing contact point among coarse aggregate particles to
strengthen the asphalt mixture [23]. However, using soft clay as filler to modify
asphalt binder and mixture was not intensively done by researchers. Moreover, the
effect of soft clay as filler on the properties of asphalt mixture and binder should be
studied.
1.4 Scope of research
In order to evaluate and approve the design of asphalt binder and mixture, several
tests were conducted using state-of-the-art equipment, and those tests were
conducted in the UTHM’s laboratory. The tests provide a strong indication of the
inadequacies of the materials since the failure in the laboratory under ideal
conditions usually represents the failure in the field. Therefore, in this study,
laboratory work concentrates on the influences of BPSC-modified-asphalt binder and
mixture. Moreover, several tests such as indirect resilient modulus, moisture damage,
5
dynamic creep and wheel tracking were conducted in order to observe the effect of
BPSC on the asphalt mixtures. Meanwhile, storage stability, viscosity, physical and
rheological properties tests for asphalt binder was also performed. Equally important,
the asphalt binder and mixture were tested based on Superpave’s specification and its
recommended criteria at high and intermediate temperatures, but the rheological
properties at low temperatures were not investigated. Complementary to this
procedure, specimens were subjected to aging condition with short-term aging by
using rolling thin film oven (RTFO) according to ASTM D 2872.
1.5 Significance of study
This study was conducted to determine the most suitable and optimum BPSC
particles in the asphalt mixture and expectant to produce a new road material and to
contribute towards producing cheap and effective asphalt mixtures for road
construction. Therefore, the performance of rheological properties of asphalt binder
and mixture tests can provide superior indication to characterize the use of BPSC
particles as a new additive for the best design selection of HMA. In the present study,
the applications of BPSC particles were demonstrated for the first time to modify the
asphalt binder and mixture. Hence, the benefit of using modification was expected to
enhance the physical and mechanical properties of asphalt binder and mixture, as
well as to resist the phase segregation among the asphalt and the modifier. This
means to improve the storage stability of modified asphalt binder.
1.6 Thesis structure
This thesis structure is organized as follows:
6
Chapter one explains an overview of the research, including the
introduction, problem statement, expected outcome, and objectives.
Chapter two provides previous studies related to BPSC history, and also
study on the effect of fillers on asphalt binder and mixture of hot mix
asphalt.
Chapter three describes the experimental plan, such as laboratory
equipment, materials properties of aggregates, binders, and mixture.
Chapter four presents the results of rheological, chemical, and physical
properties tests, which were conducted on the asphalt binder modified by
BPSC contents. This chapter is also based on the detailed discussion and
analysis of experimental data.
Chapter five discusses the performance of asphalt mixture modified with
BPSC. It also provides a discussion on experimental data acquired from
conducted testing and presents the contribution and application of BPSC
on the performance of asphalt mixture.
Chapter six concludes the study and provides recommendations for
further research.
7
2 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the summary review of related literature including scientific
papers, technical reports, and dissertations that had been conducted on modification
of asphalt binders and mixtures. Moreover, this literature review is presented in three
fundamental parts: Batu Pahat Soft Clay (BPSC) history, additives and modifiers in
hot mix asphalt, as well as the effect of fillers on asphalt binder and mixture.
2.2 Types of clay soil
There are many different types of soils, and each one has unique characteristics like
color, texture, structure, and mineral content [24]. Clay soil is known as a group of
soil and its particles sizes are flaky and the thickness is very small relative to their
length and width [25]. However, expansive soils are typically clays that demonstrate
extensive volume and strength changes at varying moisture content due to their
chemical composition [26]. Clay soil that consists of silt, sand, and/or gravel are
8
primarily the result of physical and mild chemical weathering processes, and it
retains much of the chemical structure of their parent rocks [27].
Soil classification in road and railway engineering is the ranking of different
soils with respect to their use ability in mechanical and mechanical-physical way
related to the long term performance of the road pavement or railway structure [28].
According to the latest available information of the unified soil classification system,
the soil sample was classified as clay of high plasticity (CH). It composes of 23%
sand, 15% silt, and 62% clay [29]. Furthermore, kaolin is a subgroup of the clay
family of mineral which includes kaolinite, dickite, nacrite, and halloysite [30].
Alternatively, Huat and Ali [31] reported that mineral compositions of the tropical
residual soils in Malaysia are mostly dominated by kaolinite which occurs from
weathering processes. On the other side, their major clay mineral have been between
the most important industrial raw materials [32]. Also, bentonites are the clay rocks
modified from glassy igneous material such as a volcanic ash [33]. In the same way,
bentonites are greatly affected from the acid activation, ion exchange, heating and
hydrothermal treatments [34].
2.3 Batu Pahat Soft Clay (BPSC)
Soft clay soil can be categorized as problematic soil. Thus, clay mostly consist of
alumina–silicates, which have a layered structure, and consist of silica 𝑆𝑖𝑂4
tetrahedron bonded to alumina 𝐴𝑙𝑂6 octahedron in a different ways [35]. Moreover,
this study was carried out in Batu Pahat district, which is known to have abundance
of soft clay. This type of clay called BPSC is available up to a depth of 4 meters from
ground level [36]. Batu Pahat’s roads have various sorts of failures such as potholes,
large surface deformation, and structural distortion of pavement layers. Hashim et al.
[37] briefly outlined that in order to minimize those failures, Batu Pahat soft clay
9
needs to be applied for reducing imported soil from other places. Ho and Chan [38]
stated that soft clays are introduced as cohesive soil, where water content is higher
than its liquid limits. Mokhtar [39] pointed that the soft soil includes the term of soft
clay soils, and have a big portions of fine particles such as clay soils and silts. More
recently, Mohd and Zain [40] expressed the opinion that various types of soils are
ranked as soft soils such as soft clays, peat soils, organic soft soils, and soft clays.
In addition, previous study [41] showed that BPSC may be a crucial factor to
probable damage to the rural road structure. Based on the findings of Chan and
Abdullah [42], had concluded that the engineering properties of these clay soils can
be enhanced by adding ordinary Portland cement for modification. In other research,
Malaysia is well known to have many areas with soft clay soil as the major soil
distribution percentage. This is because Malaysia has many coastal areas and rivers.
Soft clay has particle sizes of less than 0.002 mm. Therefore, when a soil has 50% or
more particles with sizes of 0.002 mm or less, it is generally termed as clay [43]. The
areas which consist of soft clay area in Peninsular Malaysia are shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2-1: Soft clay area of RECESS Malaysia
10
2.3.1 The physical properties of BPSC
Soft clay usually causes difficulty in construction process because of its strength and
low hardness properties [44]. The physical properties of BPSC have been
experimentally achieved by some previous studies as shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2-1: Physical properties of Batu Pahat soft clay
[36]
Parameters Researchers
2008 2009 2010
Bulk Density (Mg/m) 1.36 - -
Specific Gravity 2.66 2.62 2.62
Plastic Limit (%) 31 32 32
Liquid Limit (%) 77 68 68
Plasticity Index (%) 46 36 -
Moisture Content (%) - 48 85
Additionally, Rafidah and Chan [45] stated that the increment in the moisture
content caused the clay to become smooth and sticky till it cannot retain its original
shape when it is described as being in a liquid state as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2-2: Typical moisture contents
[45]
Soil type Moisture contents %
Moist sand 5-15
Wet sand 15-25
Moist silt 10-20
Normally consolidated clay low plasticity 20-40
Over consolidated clay high plasticity 10-20
Organic clay 50-200
Extremely high plasticity clay 100-200
2.3.2 Particle size distribution of soft clay
Clay is a natural material of a very fine texture, usually plastic when wet, and hard
compact when dry. It also consists of several minerals such as silica tetrahedron and
11
alumina octahedrons as its basic mineral units [25]. In addition, particles with size
below 75µm are considered as fillers [46]. In the same way, soft clay is the finest of
all and it can only be clearly monitored by using microscopic tools, with soil grains
finer than 0.075mm [47]. Clay also has large surface area because of its fine size and
platy character of the individual minerals, and it has different surface chemical
reactions and different bulk physical properties [48]. Aside from this, clay and silt
soil are part of cohesive soil because their particles are closed together and they tend
to stick within its particles [49]. In the other research, Jordan [50] indicated that clay
minerals are mostly specified by their small particle size, affinity for water, response
to chemical alternates in their environment, and are referred for their crystallization.
2.4 Additives and modifiers in hot mix asphalt
Asphalt binder modifiers are used to enhance performance properties of flexible
pavements. The study of Baumgardner [51] found that asphalt binder modification is a
common method of improving Hot-mix Asphalt (HMA) performance by enhancing
mix properties and reducing or delaying three general HMA distress types. Therefore,
the modification of asphalt binder to enhance the performance properties has grown
significantly since the application of the strategic highway research program binder
specifications. Similarly, modification of the asphalt binder is one approach that can
be taken to improve pavement performance [52]. In addition, the modification of
asphalt binder enhances their performance properties in the United State for more than
50 years. [53]. That is the reason for the modifications of asphalt binder to grow
significantly since the implementation of Strategic Highway Research Program
(SHRP) binder specifications [51]. Meanwhile, Nuñez et al. [54] found that the
modifications of asphalt binder is used as an substitution to enhance the original
properties of material.
12
2.5 Chemical properties of additives
The Superpave asphalt binder specifications based on SHRP require the asphalt
binders to meet stiffness criteria at both high and low pavement service temperatures.
However, most regular asphalt binders are not qualified for the requirements in areas
with extreme climate conditions. In the meantime, traffic volume and loads have
increased significantly in recent years [55]. This has caused lots of premature rutting
and cracking of HMA pavement constructed with neat asphalt binders. Modifications
of asphalt binders become of considerable interest in the improvement of pavement
performance and service life. Table 2.3 shows generic classification of asphalt
additives and modifiers. Some specific technical reasons for using additives and
modifiers in HMA are listed as follows:
Obtaining stiffer mixtures at high service temperatures to minimize rutting.
Obtain softer mixtures at low service temperatures to minimize thermal
cracking.
Improve fatigue resistance of HMA mixtures.
Improve resistance to aging or oxidation; rejuvenate aged asphalt binders.
Permit thicker asphalt films on aggregate for increased mix durability.
Improve abrasion resistance of mixture to reduce raveling.
Reduce flushing or bleeding; reduce structural thickness of pavement layers.
Reduce life cycle costs and improve overall performance of HMA pavements.
Table 2-3: Generic classification of asphalt additives and modifiers
Type Generic Examples
Filler
Mineral Filler: crusher fines
lime
Portland cement
fly ash
Carbon black
13
Type Generic Examples
Extender Sulfur
Lignin
Polymers
Rubber:
a. Natural latex
b. Synthetic latex
c. Block copolymer
d. Reclaimed rubber
Natural rubber
Styrene-butadiene or SBR
Polychloroprene latex
Styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS),
Styrene-isoprene-styrene (SIS)
Crumb rubber modifier
Plastic
Polyethylene/Polypropylene
Ethylene acrylate copolymer
Ethyl-vinyl-acetate (EVA)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Ethylene propylene or EPDM
Polyolefins
Combination Blends of polymers above
Fiber
Natural: asbestos
rock wool
Man-made: polypropylene
polyester
fiberglass
mineral
cellulose
Oxidant Manganese salts
Antioxidant Lead compounds
Carbon
Calcium salts
Hydrocarbon Recycling and rejuvenating oils
Hard and natural asphalts
Anti-stripping Agent Amines
Lime
Waste Materials
Roofing shingles
Recycled tires
Glass
Miscellaneous
Silicones
Deicing calcium chloride granules
2.6 Mineral fillers
The term filler means an aggregate that mostly passes through a specified sieve
(0.063 mm in Europe, 0.075 mm in the United States). Mineral fillers are added to
asphalt paving mixtures to fill voids in the aggregate and reduce the voids in the
14
mixture. However, addition of mineral fillers has dual purpose when added to asphalt
mixtures. A portion of the mineral filler that is finer than the asphalt film thickness
mixed with asphalt binder forms a mortar or mastic and contributes to improved
stiffening of mix. This modification to the binder that may take place due to addition
of mineral fillers could affect asphalt mixture properties such as rutting and cracking
[23].
Atkins [56] pointed out that the importance of mineral filler fraction was
often overlooked even though it is one of the most important components of HMA.
In general, filler have various purposes among which, they fill voids and hence
reduce optimum asphalt content and increase stability, meet specifications for
aggregate gradation, and improve bond between asphalt cement and aggregate [57].
Therefore, numerous studies have investigated utilize of mineral filler as an additive
in hot mix asphalt. In addition, several types of filler materials such as fly ash,
limestone, cement, hydrated lime, silica and fine sand were used as filler in asphalt
binder composites as followed down:
2.6.1 Ordinary Portland cement
The use of cement in asphalt mixtures is not a new concept. Portland cement was
used primarily as filler in hot mix asphalt to prevent stripping of the binder from
previously dried aggregate [58]. Also, using cement dust as a replacement to
conventional limestone of hot mix asphalt may increase the indirect tensile strength
of clay [59]. Hence, cement dust can totally replace lime stone mineral filler in
asphalt paving mixtures [60]. Furthermore, cement is also used as a filler material in
asphalt mixture and it was found to enhance anti stripping properties of asphalt
mixture [61].
15
Some fines have a considerable effect on the asphalt cement making it acts as
a much stiffer grade of asphalt cement compared to the neat asphalt cement grade
[62]. The filler has the ability to increase the resistance of particle to move within the
mix matrix and works as an active material when it interacts with the asphalt cement
to change the properties of the mastic [63].
2.6.2 Fly ash
Fly ash is a fine material resulting from the burning of pulverized asphalt coal. Hence,
fly ash is a byproduct of coal fired electric power generation facilities. It has little
cementations properties compared to lime and cement [64]. Then again, Torrey [65]
found that the ash collected by the electrostatic precipitator contains a greater
percentage of very small particles <1.5 μ. Recently, Santagata and Baglieri [66]
found that fly ash can be used as replacement filler in asphalt mixtures resulting in a
totally satisfactory road pavement performance. Moreover, fly ash has been applied
in a wide range of applications: fill materials can be used in asphalt mixture [67]. On
the other hand, fly ash has been successfully used as a filler for asphalt mixes for a
long time and has the advantage of increasing the resistance of asphalt mixes to
moisture damage [68]. In addition, in order to filling voids, fly ash was announced to
have the ability to work as an asphalt extender [69]. Based on this study, using fly
ash in asphalt mixture attributes to providing economic benefits by decrease asphalt
content, and leading to long service life of pavement [70]. Similarly, filler
replacement with fly ash provides a considerable economic benefit of asphalt binder
and mixture [71]. In the same review, the purpose of using fly ash in asphalt binder is
to enhance the performance and decrease the costs and environmental effect [72].
16
2.6.3 Diatomaceous earth
Diatomite has been used since ancient times for agriculture and grain storage. The
Chinese used it 4,000 years ago for oriental medicine and agriculture. Therefore,
Diatomite has many importance industrial benefits because of its unique physical
properties, such as high porosity (35-65%), lightweight, low density, low thermal
conductivity, high liquid absorption capacity, chemically inert and large surface area
[73]. The unique physical properties of diatomite make it useful in civil engineering
application. Their stud indicated that the addition of raw diatomite to cement up to 10%
has produced positive results, but increased addition of raw diatomite reduce strength
due to higher water demands related to the porosity of diatomite [74]. It is also
suggested that diatomite and sup plasticizing admixture could be applied to enhance
the mechanical properties of conventional asphalt mixture. In asphalt, diatomite was
used as a type of modifier to improve the performance of asphalt mixture. Yi-qiu et
al [75] found that the low temperature properties of diatomite modifier asphalt
mixture and found that it performance better at low temperatures than neat asphalt
mixture. Also it was indicated that diatomite and glass fiber improved permanent
deformation resistance and fatigue performance of asphalt mixture, also has a
significant effect on the stiffness of asphalt mixture.
2.6.4 Hydrate lime
Hydrated lime has been categorized as a major additive in asphalt pavement because
of its wide availability and relatively cheap cost. In addition, utilization of hydrated
lime has been classified as a main additive in asphalt pavement due to its availability
and comparatively cheap cost. Gardiner and Epps [76] found that the use of hydrated
lime in asphalt mixture is useful, and still exists as the best method for adding lime to
17
asphalt mixture. Wang and Sha [77] examined the limestone and limestone filler
effect upon hardness and found that it was significant compared to granite and
granite fillers. Likewise, Behiry [78] stated that using hydrated lime gave better
results than Portland cement, and had the ability to enhance the mechanical
performance of asphalt mixture. In another study, hydrated lime would provide
resistance to moisture damage and chemical ageing [79]. It was also determined that
the modified asphalt mixture with recycled waste lime gave higher resistance against
stripping than unmodified asphalt mixture [80]. Addition of hydrated lime to asphalt
can increase penetration and lower the viscosities of asphalt binder [81]. Likewise,
asphalt mixture with hydrated lime has slightly greater stability than the mixture with
a crushed stone dust. This indicates that the hydrated lime improves the stability of
the mixture [82]. Sangiori et al. [83] reported that waste bleaching clay can lead to an
enhancement of mechanical properties of the asphalt mixture.
2.7 Asphalt binder
Asphalt binder is used as an adhesive material in roadway and roofing construction.
However, there are many types of distress like low temperature cracking, fatigue, and
permanent deformation that can reduce the quality and performance of road
pavement during life service [84]. Recently, Pan [85] showed that the performance of
asphalt binder is also highly related to its service conditions which involve climatic
conditions and traffic conditions, such as temperature, moisture and traffic loads. The
study of Kharghehpoush [86] showed that asphalt binder is highly particularly
important material with respect to highways. Thus, national transportation agencies
have expressed interest in asphalt binder modifiers from renewable resources [87].
In recent decades, strategic highway research program proposed new
performance based on specifications for asphalt binders, and recognized as
18
performance grade [88]. Meanwhile, most asphalt binders adhesives that utilized for
pavement materials are derived mostly from fossil fuels [89].
Asphalt binder additives can be defined as a material added in the binder to
improve its properties, and also an ideal additive should be able to decrease the
temperature susceptibility, control age hardening and must be compatible with any
type of binder [90]. However, an internal report of the Asphalt Institute identified 48
types of binder modifiers comprising of 13 polymers, 10 hydrocarbons, 6 mineral
fillers, 6 antioxidants, 6 anti-stripping additives, 4 fibers, 2 extenders, and 1oxidant
[91].
According to Zanzotto and Kennephl [92], asphalt additives should be capable
to improve the binder properties at both low and high in-service temperatures, and it
should be strong enough to withstand traffic loads at high temperature, which any
cause permanent deformation, and flexible enough to avoid excessive thermal
stresses at low asphalt temperatures.
2.8 Effect of filler in asphalt binder
Several studies have been investigated to understand the stiffness impact of mineral
filler on asphalt binder. In addition, use hydrated lime with SBS modified binder had
a good improvement of asphalt binder stiffness [93]. While, a study carried out by
Cross and Brown [94] investigated that using various types of mineral fillers such as
hydrated, cement, limestone lead to increase the stiffness of asphalt binder. An
excess of filler leads to mastic stiffening and the increase of cracking susceptibility
[95].
Anderson and Dongre [96] also reported that viscosity increased with
penetration decrease, and softening point increase. This in turn increase the filler
particles size which leads to increase the hardness of asphalt binder. Based on the
19
work done by Rostler and Dannenberg [97], the black carbon was applied as filler in
asphalt binder, which leads to higher viscosity compared to the original sample.
Meanwhile, Garrigues and Vincent [98] stated that the added of sulfur in the asphalt
binder could improve the physical properties of asphalt binder. Figure 2.2 shows the
process of gradually filling the voids in a compacted filler; the binder essentially
plays two roles that of a lubricant making the relocation of grains easier and that of a
liquid in which they can be suspended.
Filler particles
Voids Binder
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 2-2: Process of gradually filling the voids in compacted filler with binder [95]
Moreover, nanoclay would enhance the physical properties of asphalt binder
and reduce the costs extensively [99]. Prowell et al. [100] reported that the addition
of fines to the asphalt binder can improve the stiffness of asphalt binder. The higher
asphalt content when apply in an incorporation with acid filler presents lower
viscosity, whilst the main filler show a higher viscosity [101]. Anderson [102]
pointed out that the rheological behavior of the asphalt binder was influenced by the
Filter-binder mix
with all voids
filled with binder
Filter-binder mix
with excess binder
after voids filled
Filter-binder mix
with insufficient
binder to fill voids
Filter particles only
at maximum dry
compaction
20
size of the filler particles. The addition of nanoclay enables to achieve better physical
properties in conventional composites [103]. Incorporation of up to 5% nanoclay in
asphalt binder lowered the penetration value and increased the softening point [104].
2.9 Filler interaction of asphalt binder
The asphalt and filler interaction have a significant role on the performance of
asphalt mastic, and they have ability to effect by the temperature and loading
frequency. To evaluate the asphalt and filler interaction, Hafeez and Kamal [105]
found that the size of filler and interactions among asphalt binder and filler greatly
affected by the reinforcement of asphalt mastic.
Zhang et al. [106] also found that the interaction ability of filler and asphalt
could be reflected by the change in the rheological properties of asphalt mastic. On
the other hand, Bhasin [107] explained that anti-striping property of asphalt
aggregated in water is limited for the evaluation of the asphalt and filler interaction.
It is well known that interaction between filler and asphalt binder is based on the
coefficient of variation of phase angel [108]. Tan et al. [109] defined the complex
viscosity coefficient to evaluate asphalt and aggregate interaction ability. Hence, the
segregation is not evident for asphalt and aggregate. Clopotel et al. [110] assumed
that the change in the viscosity of the matrix asphalt is entirely because of the change
in the glass transition temperature. Thereby, asphalt and filler interaction capacity
would be analyzed and evaluated by glass transition temperature and
physicochemical interaction model [111].
Recently, in an attempt to evaluate the asphalt and filler interaction ability,
Yiqiu and Guo [112] investigated that particle size allocation has a significant effect
on interface interaction among asphalt binder and filler. Most important, Bahia and
Hintz [113] reported that the filler properties such as size, shape, angularity, texture,
21
and composition a small number of chemical compounds impact asphalt filler
interaction. Similarly, Anderson [63] found that the filler has the capability to boost
the resistance of particle to move through the mix matrix and acts as an active
material when it interacts with the asphalt binder to alternate the properties of the
mastic. Most importantly, Hesami and Kringos [114] pointed out that the chemical
compositions of asphalt binder on the surface of filler is rearranged when the asphalt
and filler are mixed. Also Zhang [115] applied interface molecular models of
chemical and aggregate oxide compositions of binder by molecular dynamics to
analyse the interaction between binder and aggregate. It can be indicated that an
alteration in temperature or chemical composition would impose segregation among
the asphalt molecules [116].
In the other research, El-Shafie et al. [117] showed that addition of nanoclay
to asphalt binder leads to increase in softening point, viscosity and decrease in
penetration. It was concluded that nanoclay can improve properties such as stability,
stiffness modulus and indirect tensile strength and resulted in excellent performance
compared to that of unmodified binder [118]. Then again, the clay minerals, mostly
specified by their small particle size, affinity for water, and response to chemical
alternates in their environment are referred for their crystallization and viscosity-
increasing capabilities in aqueous components [50].
Likewise, Van et al. [119] nanoclay modification would improve
characteristics of asphalt binder and resistance to aging. Based on the ideas of Kim et
al. [120], an interacting influence between physico-chemical filler and asphalt binder
is related to the fineness and surface properties of the filler, which usually effects
fatigue fracture characteristics. Whereas, Craus et al. [121] reported that the physico-
chemical is related to higher surface activity which significantly contributes to strong
bonds at the filler of asphalt binder interface.
22
2.10 Influence of fillers on aging resistance of asphalt binder
The principal cause of asphalt binder ageing in service is the atmospheric oxidation
of certain molecules with the formation of highly polar and strongly interacts
functional groups containing oxygen. Qin et al. [122] also mentioned that the aging
can significantly change the rheological properties of asphalt binders and cause
asphalt hardening. Hence, it is importance to have a good understanding of changes
in rheology and structure of asphalt binders under aging environments. Aging
phenomenon is considering as one of the main causes for the failure of wearing
course. Therefore, the benefits of using filler to enhance the aging resistance are
studied by many researchers.
Wu et al., [123] reported that an oxidation which occurs in asphalt roadway
pavements during construction and service life can affect the rheological properties
of binder. Shenoy [124] argued that asphalt binder ageing has implications during the
construction of pavements and their long-term performance. Meanwhile, Moraes
[125] stated that that the aging process in asphalt pavement might be detrimental
when too much hardening is observed, and aging may be beneficial when a soft
mixture hardens in an adequate pavement.
In contrast, Bautista [126] reported that the properties of the asphalt binder
relied on the period of aging that can be considered in terms of rheological, and
studied the effect of fillers on the aging of asphalt binder mixes.
On the other hand, Huang and Zeng [127] studied the impact of filler surface
on the rheological properties of asphalt binder when exposed to long-term aging.
Petersen et al., [128] demonstrated that the addition of filler to mixes leads to
enhancement of asphalt binder, and it can delay the aging process. Likewise,
Plancher et al., [129] claimed that calcareous fillers can cause both catalysts and
23
polar molecules to increase the viscosity of asphalt binder. It is well known that
small particles sizes of filler prevent oxygen dispersal during asphalt binder [130].
Then again, fly ash appears to enhance the resistance of aging in asphalt binder.
This leads to the increase in the service life of asphalt pavement [131]. Likewise, the
asphalt mixture with hydrated lime had slightly greater stiffness which leads to
reduce the ageing of asphalt binder [82].
2.11 Rheology properties of asphalt binder
Rheological characterization could be defined as a science dealing with the flow and
deformation of different materials. Shafabaksh and Ani [132] claimed that the
rheological of the asphalt binder would influence the performance of asphalt binder.
Moreover, Yusoff et al. [133] reported that the fundamental rheological properties of
binder materials are normally measured using DSR from low to high temperatures.
2.11.1 Dynamic shear rheometer
DSR was applied to describe the viscous and elastic behavior on asphalt binder at
intermediate and high temperatures. It also determined the complex shear modulus
(G*) and phase angle (δ) of asphalt binder at the desired temperature and frequency
of loading [134]. DSR method for high temperatures require geometry gap of 1 mm
and with spindle 25 mm, while for low temperatures 2mm gap and spindle of 8mm
[135]. The schematic diagram of DSR testing configuration is shown in Figure 2.3.
24
Figure 2-3: Schematic of dynamic shear rheometer testing configuration
[133]
The DSR testing procedure is given in AASHTO TP5. As shown in Figure
2.4, the asphalt binder sample is constrained between a fixed plate and an oscillating
plate. Hence, all Superpave DSR test are conducted at a frequency of 10 radians per
second, which is equivalent to 1.59Hz [136].
Figure 2-4: Dynamic shear rheometer test operations
[136]
159
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