shawg.org.uk

Sheep Health and Welfare Report Second edition

2018/19

2

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

What is SHAWG? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Background to the updated report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Industry structure, data and trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Abattoir data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Mortality data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

The impact of the UK leaving the EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Disease surveillance, monitoring and horizon scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Biosecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Farm assurance and welfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Flock health planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Nutrition and body condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Responsible medicine use and antibiotic targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Lameness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Abortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Neonatal disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Other endemic diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Production-limiting or iceberg diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Internal parasites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

External parasites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Breeding and genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Research projects funded by SHAWG members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

SHAWG would like to thank Kate Bamford for her significant contribution to this report. Photos were kindly provided by: AHDB, Ben Strugnell, BSDA, BWMB, the CVOs, Fiona Lovatt, Madeleine Crawley, NFU, NSA, Peers Davies and SWISH.

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Introduction

We are pleased to welcome the second report from the Sheep Health and Welfare Group. We recognise the value of SHAWG’s work in promotion of sheep health improvements which have animal welfare and production benefits across the sector. The reports comes at a time of uncertainty and therefore challenge for the sheep sector. We hope that this report will give industry a focus on the opportunities to be gained through working together to maximise the benefits of the common goals identified by the SHAWG.

The UK’s sheep flock remains the largest in Europe. The new vision of SHAWG of “a world class sheep industry that is inspired by, and competing with, the best” will be not be easy to achieve. It is, however, a vision that the CVOs whole heartedly support. Improving the health and welfare of our national flock reduces costs and waste associated with disease and improves the economic performance of flocks. Sheep farming shapes our UK landscapes and provides incomes to a diverse range of rural communities. Achieving this vision is critical in supporting food security, protecting public health and maintaining consumer confidence. It will support our access to new global markets. The report provides a valuable insight into activity and successes since the last report and identifies where further activity should be prioritised to achieve this vision.

The report highlights the need to encourage best practice and facilitate systems for collecting and sharing data on endemic disease and medicine use. The sheep industry is stronger when all involved work together to achieve common goals.

We congratulate SHAWG on producing this informative report and on the progress they are making. We look forward to seeing further progress and success in the coming year.

Charles Sercombe SHAWG Chair (2017–present)

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What is SHAWG?

The Sheep Health and Welfare Group (SHAWG) is an independent UK body with membership reflecting the variety of organisations involved in the sheep industry. Established in 2009, originally as an England-only committee, it soon gathered representatives from across Great Britain. In 2017, membership was extended to include representatives from Northern Ireland, so SHAWG now covers the whole UK. It also act as an extremely useful link between representatives of the sheep industry, Government departments and their agencies.

SHAWG receives financial support from the Agriculture & Horticulture Development Board (AHDB), Quality Meat Scotland (QMS) and Hybu Cig Cymru (HCC) to cover the costs of the farmer representatives. AHDB provides the secretariat and the National Farmers’ Union (NFU) hosts three face-to-face meetings per year.

A new vision: SHAWG’s new vision is to achieve ‘a world-class sheep industry that is inspired by and competes with the best’.

SHAWG’s objectives:1. To reduce the impact of endemic disease by acting on surveillance data and new knowledge.2. To ensure the industry is aware of the threat of any new or re-emerging diseases.3. To promote and encourage responsible use of medicines, including anthelmintics and antimicrobials.4. To ensure welfare is maintained as a priority for the sheep industry.5. To highlight the role of nutrition in good health and welfare.6. To deliver an integrated approach with all stakeholders, allied support industries, retailers and Government.

Biennial conferenceSHAWG holds a biennial conference attracting around 180 delegates including sheep farmers, suitably qualified persons (SQP), advisers, consultants and vets. The conference provides an opportunity to share knowledge and highlight priority areas for future activity. The fourth conference, ‘Becoming the best sheep industry for health and welfare’, was held on 21 November 2018 in Staffordshire and brought together a variety of speakers covering the priority areas needed to achieve SHAWG’s vision.

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SHAWG membersMore than 35 organisations are members of SHAWG, including Government agencies, levy boards and trade associations. Members of SHAWG also include farmer representatives from England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. industry, Government. For further information, please visit shawg.org.uk or contact lis.king@ahdb.org.uk.

Agricultural Industries Confederation (AIC)Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (AHDB) [secretariat]AgriSearchAnimal Medicines Training Regulatory Authority (AMTRA)Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)Animal Disease Surveillance Governance Board (AHSGB)Animal Health and Welfare Board for England (AHWBE)Animal Health Distributors Association (AHDA) Association of Independent Meat Suppliers (AIMS)British Meat Processors Association (BMPA)British Retail Consortium (BRC)Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra)FAI FarmsFood Standards Agency (FSA)Hybu Cig Cymru (HCC, Meat Promotion Wales)Livestock and Meat Commission (LMC)Livestock Auctioneers Association (LAA)

Moredun Research InstituteNational Farmers’ Union (NFU)NFU CymruNFU Scotland (NFUS)Farmers’ Union of Wales (FUW)Ulster Farmers’ Union (UFU)National Sheep Association (NSA)National Office of Animal Health (NOAH)Red Tractor Assurance (RTA)Responsible Use of Medicines in Agriculture Alliance (RUMA) sheep target task forceRoad Haulage Association (RHA)Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) Scottish GovernmentSheep Veterinary Society (SVS) Soil AssociationSustainable Control of Parasites in Sheep (SCOPS)Quality Meat Scotland (QMS)Veterinary Medicine Directorate (VMD)Wales Animal Health and Welfare Framework (AHWF)Welsh Assembly Government

6

Background to the updated report

The aims of the SHAWG report are to:

Inform and update the industry of current disease threats, control measures and disease incidence

Highlight potential areas for concerted efforts to help maintain a profitable sheep sector in the UK

Emphasise the need for proactive health planning and surveillance to protect our national flock to maintain trade

The 2018/19 report focuses on providing an update on health and welfare activity relevant to today’s sheep industry and uses historic data from a variety of sources (including industry, Government and peer-reviewed literature) to provide a context for the findings. Data comes from statutory surveillance and voluntary collection, both of which have pros and cons with regards to being reliable and representative. The report aims to encourage the identification and collection of additional data, particularity in relation to the research priorities identified by SHAWG.

Research priorities identified by SHAWG In the last report, SHAWG identified nine major health and welfare concerns for the sheep industry. In this updated report, we have shifted the focus of concern from specific disease areas to two priority areas. To achieve our vision of ‘a world-class sheep industry that is inspired by and competes with the best’, then our thinking must move away from single disease issues.

The two priority areas are:

1. To produce a comprehensive, updated impact assessment for endemic diseases in the UK sheep industry to ensure that investment and activity is focused on the key areas.

2. To investigate how to ‘nudge’ farmers and their advisers to adopt good practice guidelines by understanding the current barriers to uptake.

These areas will lead to further activity (see Figure 1). The priorities were reported to the Animal Health and Welfare Board of England (AHWBE) in spring 2018.

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Figure 1. Key research priorities

Animal Health and Welfare Board of EnglandIn 2017, the mandate of the Animal Health and Welfare Board of England (AHWBE) was refreshed. Its role is to provide support, advice and constructive challenge to Defra’s ministers and their officials in the Brexit and post-Brexit strategic policy objectives.

The Board provides leadership, championing the ethos of partnership working between industry, animal keeping sectors and Government. It acts as a focal point for communication and coordination across the various sectors of industry, ensuring broad, deep, two-way engagement through interactive board meetings that bring together Defra and stakeholders, as well as reaching out to wider industry and, in particular, sector groups such as SHAWG.

AHWBE invited SHAWG to feed in ideas about what the English sheep industry needs from Defra and other Government agencies to ensure the industry can remain vibrant and profitable post-Brexit.

Coordinated platform for disease and

welfare monitoring and surveillance

Tackle disease hot spots

Enhance uptake of objective welfare

Improve the vet –farmer interaction and relationship

interactions

Establish sheep health declaration form

Increase productive lifespan and lamb

survival

Improve lamb survival and performance, scanning to sale

Target chronic wasting diseases

Breeding for resistance and

resilience

UK Sheep industry impact

assessment for endemic

diseases

Adoption of good practice by farmers and their advisers

8

Industry structure, data and trends

Sheep numbers and distribution Defra figures for the UK sheep flock, which are based on the annual June census, show a decline in ewe numbers between 1998 and 2009 (Figure 2). Since 2010, there has been a steady increase in ewe numbers each year, with an increase of 17 per cent since 2010. The June 2017 census indicates a UK breeding flock of about 17 million ewes, with around 7.5 million in England and 3.5 million in Scotland. Data from Wales and Northern Ireland was not available(1). In June 2016 there were about 5 million ewes in Wales and 1 million in Northern Ireland. Data from 2018 was not available in time for the publication of this report.

Figure 2. Ewe numbers by region in the United Kingdom, 1998–2017

Figure 3. Sheep population density in Great Britain in 2016

Source: Defra, DAERA, Scottish Government and Welsh Assembly

The distribution of sheep tends to be in the west and north(2) (see Figure 3).

25

20

15

10

5

0

1998

1999

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2004

2005

2006

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2010

2011

2012

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2014

2015

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2017

Milli

on e

wes

UK England Scotland Wales Northern Ireland

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Results from the British Sheep Breed Survey There hasn’t been a survey on British sheep breeds since the last SHAWG report. The British Sheep Breed Survey has been carried out periodically since 1971, with the fifth and latest survey describing the breed structure at mating in 2012(3).

In 2012, a single-page postal questionnaire was sent to 42,215 wool producers registered with the British Wool Marketing Board (BWMB). Completed and usable forms represented 23 per cent of breeders and 16 per cent of breeding ewes.

The survey found that the number of breeds and crosses had increased to 106 in 2012. Crossbred ewes made up 56 per cent of ewes mated and purebreds made up 44 per cent; in 2003 the split was 50:50. Change has been driven by a fall in purebred numbers, while crossbred numbers were similar. Much of the fall in ewe numbers since 2003 is attributed to reduced numbers of the three main hill breeds (Scottish Blackface, Swaledale and Welsh Mountain). More information can be seen in Tables 11 and 12 in Appendix 1.

Most rams used in Great Britain are purebred (94 per cent) and are dominated by the three terminal sire breeds: Texel, Suffolk and Charollais. Together, these accounted for nearly half of the rams used in 2012 (see Table 13 in Appendix 1).

Texel is now the dominant sire, accounting for more than a quarter of all rams used. While many of the other popular sires saw a slight decline in numbers, the Lleyn has seen an approximately 50 per cent increase since the last survey in 2003. Crossbred rams are becoming more popular (e.g. Suffolk-cross-Texel or Charollais-cross-Texel) and new composite breeds lines have been developed.

10

Lamb productEach year Defra calculates the lamb survival rate from ewes and ewe lambs put to the ram (Figure 4). There has been an overall upward trend since 2001. In the shorter term, in 2011, 2014 and 2017 there were high survival rates of around 121 per cent, dropping to 117 per cent in the less favourable years of 2013, 2015 and 2016. The survival of lambs is highly dependent on weather conditions and this needs to be considered when interpreting year-on-year changes. Anecdotally, the range in lamb survival rate varies enormously by breed, season and system from about 80–200 per cent. It is likely that the figure will be lower for 2018 because of the poor weather over lambing.

Figure 4. Surviving lamb percentage for the United Kingdom(4)

Source: Defra, AHDB, LAA and IAAS

In 2017, around 14 million sheep were slaughtered in the UK. Figure 5 shows that this figure has been fairly constant for the last five years. Lamb and mutton made up approximately 14–15 per cent of red meat production in the UK over the period 2012–2017 (see Table 14 in Appendix 1).

125

120

115

110

105

100

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2014

2015

2016

2017

Lam

b su

rviva

l (%)

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Wool production The British Wool Marketing Board (BWMB) is required to register all producers with four or more sheep (with the exception of Shetland, which has its own arrangement). There are currently approximately 43,000 registered producers(5).

In 2016, just over 29 million kilogrammes of wool was produced with a value of £33 million. Clip values from 2012 to 2016 are shown in Table 15 in Appendix 1.

Very low clip values were seen in 2015 and 2016, highlighting the difficultly of covering the cost of shearing and transportation of wool to collection centres. The BWMB has highlighted that the 11 per cent fall seen between 2015 and 2016 was mainly attributed to the drop in exports to the Chinese market as they began to use more synthetic materials.

Future focus will be on marketing strategies – particularly carpets, which account for more than half of the use of British wool, with China and the UK being the main markets. Educational programmes to promote the benefits of natural wool are being put in place, which will, over time, increase the value of wool.

Figure 5. Sheep slaughterings in the United Kingdom, 2000–2017

Source: Defra, AHDB, LAA and IAAS

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

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2010

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Thou

sand

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Clean sheep Ewes and rams

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Sheep milk productionThere are currently about 70 members of the British Sheep Dairying Association (BSDA), but there is no accurate figure for the number of ewes milking or the numbers by breed. The predominant breed for milking is the Friesland and its crosses (e.g. with Poll Dorset) and, more recently, the Lacaune breed, which has been imported from France.

Limitations on drug use exist in the same way as in the dairy cow industry, where milk must be withdrawn until milk residues are below the maximum residue limits prescribed by legislation. Although many veterinary products are not licenced for milking ewes, the prescribing cascade is used when necessary. This allows vets to prescribe products authorised for a different species where an authorised drug does not exist for the animal needing treatment.

A small number of farmers, who supply one sheep milk buyer, send in weekly bulk milk samples to National Milk Records for milk analysis (fat, protein, lactose), somatic cell counts, bactoscan and antibiotic residues.

13

Sheep imports Live sheepTable 1 shows the total live sheep imports from EU countries. Between 2014 and 2016, most consignments were for breeding stock (about 90 per cent), with Belgium and the Republic of Ireland being the biggest exporters in terms of animal numbers.

Ireland has consistently exported sheep to the UK for finishing and slaughter. Trade with Ireland has dominated the UK’s import market, with 86 per cent of sheep being imported for finishing and slaughter in 2016. However, there was a 40 per cent decrease in the number of sheep exported by Ireland to Great Britain between 2015 and 2016.

Table 1. Live sheep imports from the European Union, 2014–2016

2014 2015 2016

SlaughterNumber of

consignments 7 16 4

Number of animals 2,137 3,287 552

FinishingNumber of

consignments 5 10 8

Number of animals 578 1,326 1,749

BreedingNumber of

consignments 100 140 123

Number of animals 680 1,014 813

Source: TRACES

Meat importsImports of lamb and mutton are mainly from non-EU countries and 85 per cent of that is from New Zealand.

Figure 6. United Kingdom sheep meat imports (tonnes)(6)

2017

Source: AHDB, UK HMRC and IHS Maritime and Trade

70,000

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

Shee

p m

eat i

mpo

rts (t

onne

s)

from EU

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

from Non-EU

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Sheep exportsIn 2016, a total of 483,855 live animals were exported in 2,237 consignments from the UK to the EU (see Table 2). Of these, 1 per cent of animals were destined for breeding, 19 per cent for finishing and 80 per cent for slaughter. Most sheep destined for slaughter (99.2 per cent) were exported to Ireland from Northern Ireland. France (56 per cent) and the Republic of Ireland (26.8 per cent) imported the largest numbers of breeding stock from the UK, followed by Austria and Switzerland. APHA vets supervise loadings of consignments at places of departure to ensure the required health and welfare standards are met.

Table 2. Live sheep exports from the United Kingdom to European Union countries in 2016

Destination country

Slaughter Finishing Breeding

Number of consignments

Number of animals

Number of consignments

Number of animals

Number of consignments

Number of animals

Austria 3 193

Belgium 19 5,462 42 111

France 5 2,261 36 15,386 32 2,790

Germany 34 14,235 22 135

Ireland 1,348 380,909 291 50,529 331 1,334

Italy 14 70

Latvia 1 37

Netherlands 5 1,929 21 8,166 19 62

Switzerland 9 212

Others 5 34

Total 1,358 385,099 401 93,778 478 4,978Source: TRACES

Exports of sheep meat are recorded in Table 16 in Appendix 1.

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Abattoir data

The breakdown between live and deadweight sales for sheep (ewes and lambs) has remained relatively constant since 2010, with approximately 55–60 per cent of finished sheep sold through livestock markets and the remaining 40–45 per cent sold direct to abattoirs (see Table 17 in Appendix 1). There were 111 livestock markets selling nearly 8 million lambs in 2017, as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Lamb throughput at auction markets selling finished sheep in Great Britain for 2017

Number of auction centres Total throughput (head) Average throughput (head)

Total 111 7,799,661 70,267

Source: AHDB, LAA and IAAS

Table 4 shows the size distribution of abattoirs slaughtering sheep in England in 2017. Nearly 10 million sheep were slaughtered at 150 abattoirs. The figures highlight the relatively small number of high-throughput abattoirs that slaughter the majority of sheep, with 21 abattoirs taking in 81 per cent of sheep. Similar patterns are seen in Wales and Scotland, especially in Wales where total throughput is a third of the size of England’s, but the number of abattoirs is six times smaller (Table 5).

Table 4. Size profile of abattoirs slaughtering sheep, England 2017

Size group (head) Number of abattoirs

Total throughput (head)

Average throughput (head)

Share of throughput (%)

1–1,000 28 12,963 463 0.1

1,001–5,000 42 89,310 2,126 0.9

5,001–10,000 15 114,392 7,626 1.1

10,001–20,000 13 192,663 14,820 1.9

20,001–30,000 8 193,451 24,181 1.9

30,001–50,000 10 376,225 37,623 3.8

50,001–100,000 13 907,733 69,826 9.1

>100,000 21 8,068,903 384,233 81.0

Total 150 9,955,640 66,371 100.0

Source: AHDB

Table 5. Abattoirs slaughtering sheep in England, Wales and Scotland and Northern Ireland in 2017

Country Number of abattoirs Total throughput (head)

Average throughput (head)

Share of throughput (%)

England 150 9,955,640 66,371 67

Wales 20 3,365,498 168,275 22

Scotland 18 1,154,331 64,130 8

Northern Ireland 5 453,502 * 3

Total 193 14,928,971

Source: AHDB, HCC, QMS and LMC

* 97% of sheep slaughtered in Northern Ireland pass through three abattoirs only

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Health data from abattoirs At post-mortem inspection, several conditions may be identified that result in rejection of organs (e.g. liver, heart) or part/whole carcases, leading to lower returns to the producer and processor. Some of these, such as bruising and abscesses, can be controlled through careful handling of the live animal.

Abscesses are among the most common post-mortem conditions found in sheep slaughtered in English abattoirs (7). Many of these abscesses are avoidable if farmers follow best practice when administering injections. Detailed advice on injection best practice and minimising parasite infections can be found in the AHDB BRP manual Minimising carcase losses for Better Returns.

The main causes of rejection, as a percentage of all sheep slaughtered in England, Scotland and Wales for 2014, are presented in Figure 7.

Figure 7. The main causes of rejection at meat inspection for sheep slaughtered in English red meat abattoirs in 2017

All sheep sent to approved abattoirs are subject to inspection before the meat is sold for human consumption. These inspections are carried out by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) and aim to identify any conditions that may indicate a concern to animal health and welfare or public consumption. Findings from these inspections are reported back to farmers. This can help inform current and future health and welfare farm strategy and reduce production losses. The information flow from the inspector to farmers is called the ‘collection and communication of inspection results’ (CCIR).

In May 2016, the FSA, in partnership with AHDB, launched a list of post-mortem rejection conditions(8). The new list focuses on identifiable conditions with true importance to public health and animal health and welfare and on which interventions are available to address them.

Post-mortem inspection results should be discussed with a vet to develop farm health and welfare strategy. Using this data can lead to better returns by minimising the losses of meat rejected at slaughter and improving productivity.

Veterinary pathology, especially in farm animals, is a vulnerable skill, with no structured education scheme to introduce new talent into the area. AHDB, along with MSD Animal Health and Post Mortems Ltd, is funding a Pathology Fellowship at the University of Nottingham.

The fellowship, which has been awarded to Katie Waine, is being used to:

• Ensure farm animal pathology expertise continues to exist

• Create a sustainable training course for future farm animal pathologists

• Support farm animal veterinary surgeons in their disease diagnosis and postmortem skills

• Ensure efficient and economical on-farm post-mortems benefit the farmer

• Provide information to the farmer, allowing delivery of timely treatment and preventative measuresAs part of the fellowship, Katie is also carrying out a project on laryngeal chondritis (‘Texel throat’), a severe upper respiratory tract disease of sheep for which there is no known cause. She is examining the anatomy of the larynx in affected and unaffected rams. The project will provide a foundation for further work.

Source: AHDB and FSA

Shee

p re

ject

ed (%

)

Cysticercustenuicollis

Liverfluke

Cysticercusovis

Pneumonia/pleurisy

Abscess(localised/

liver/injection)

0

1

2

3

4

5

7

8

6

9

17

Mortality data

Focus on ewes The annual ewe mortality rate in the UK is estimated to be 5–8 per cent(9), representing a loss of 800,000–1.3 million ewes per year. Data on ewe mortality is not centrally collected or analysed.

The profile of diseases that contribute to mortality and involuntary culling in adult ewes is known but cannot be quantified with any certainty. For ewes that die on farm, the cause is often known, e.g. prolapse, difficult lambing or a ewe stuck on her back. These causes may be recorded by the farmer but there is no national scheme to collect this data.

Fallen stock projectBetween 1 March 2015 and 31 March 2017, 500 ewes were submitted to Farm Post Mortems Ltd under the AHDB Fallen Stock Project. The ten most common diagnoses made are shown in Figure 8. Johne’s disease, ovine pulmonary adenomatosis (OPA) and pneumonia were the three most common causes of death.

Figure 8. The ten most common causes of ewe death for the Fallen Stock Project

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Perc

enta

ge o

f sub

miss

ions

(%)

No diagnosis

made

Johne’s disease

OPA Chronic suppurative pneumonia

Laryngeal chondritis

Pasteurella pneumonia

Endocarditis Listeriosis Dosing gun injury

PGE

18

Source: NFSCo(10)

More information exists on the number of adult sheep culled because most of these are slaughtered at licensed abattoirs. With an estimated breeding sheep population of 17 million in 2017(11), this represents a culling rate of 9 per cent (see Table 6).

Table 6. Adult sheep slaughterings, ‘000 head

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Jan–Mar 498 461 356 423 372 375Apr–Jun 468 410 363 387 383 359Jul–Sept 532 479 455 474 418 -Oct–Dec 571 455 429 419 400 -

Year (52 weeks) 2,069 1,805 1,603 1,703 1,573 -Source: Defra and AHDB

National Fallen Stock SchemeA proportion of the fallen stock figures for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are recorded by the National Fallen Stock Company (NFSCo). The figures do not include all collections, just those put through the NFSCo scheme. Statistics are not available for other disposal routes (e.g. hunt kennels or on farm incineration). Furthermore, NFSCo data is recorded in different ways between fallen stock centres, with some recording numbers of sheep and others only recording volume. Consequently, conclusions should only be drawn according to the trends, rather than the specific figures.

For example, the trends show a dramatic increase in the proportion of lambs collected in the lambing months of March and April, with over half of lamb deaths seen in these months (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Proportion of lambs collected per month by the National Fallen Stock Scheme

May 14%

Jun 4%

Jul 2%

Aug 2%

Sept 3%

Oct 3%

Nov 3%

Jan 4%

Feb 4%

Mar 4%

Apr 4%

Dec 3%

Figures from 2011

to 2017

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Replacement rateAHDB carries out costings(12) on several farms each year and ewe mortality, empty ewes and replacement rates are recorded (Table 7). The average ewe replacement rate is estimated to be 20 per cent. As with ewe mortality, farmers are required to record the number of ewes entering the flock, but the data is not used to generate national figures.

Table 7. Average ewe mortality, empty ewes and replacement rates for a selection of English flocks for 2016/17

Non-SDA† breeding SDA breeding Non-SDA indoor lambing flocks

Non-SDA outdoor lambing

Number of flocks 57 13 17 16Percentage of empty ewes (at

scanning)4.5 3.9 4.0 4.2

Ewe mortality (%) 4.4 5.4 3.0 6.5Flock replacement

rate (%) 23.9 25.8 20.0 28.5

†Severely disadvantaged area

Source: AHDB Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC) has recently completed a study on a new estimated breeding value (EBV) for ewe longevity, enabling farmers to select for ewes less likely to be culled after their first couple of seasons. Long-lived, productive ewes means reduced female replacement costs and higher flock prolificacy(13).

AHDB is funding a seven-year project called Challenge Sheep, which is looking at the management of replacement ewes and how this affects lifetime productivity.

Ram mortality As part of the AHDB-funded Fallen Stock Collection Centre project, 75 rams were given a post-mortem examination and their causes of death recorded. The top five causes of death were chronic supparative pneumonia (8.2 per cent), largygeal chondritis (6.8 per cent), acidosis (5.5 per cent), Johne’s disease (5.5 per cent) and redgut (4.1 per cent).

A recent project funded by the British Veterinary Association (BVA) Animal Welfare Foundation examined the longevity of rams in commercial sheep flocks(14). The results suggest that ram survival is one year less than farmers would like it to be, with ram longevity shorter in larger flocks. The survey also showed that 41 per cent of rams are not routinely given a clostridial and pneumonia vaccine. The four most common reasons for culling rams were old age, poor condition, respiratory disease and no apparent reason. The project identifies the need for the development and use of key performance indicators (KPIs) for rams, which can be benchmarked.

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Lamb mortalityWhen estimated from pregnancy scanning to sale or retention, lamb mortality is thought to be 15–20 per cent, although accurate figures are not available. A HCC survey of the main causes of lamb losses (from pregnancy scanning to September) in Wales during the 2010/11 breeding season showed a very similar pattern on hill, upland and lowland flocks(15) and an overall lamb loss rate of 12 per cent. Figure 10 shows the main causes of lamb loss for upland ewes.

Figure 10. Main causes of lamb losses on a selection of Welsh farms

Source: Hybu Cig Cymru

Between 1 March 2015 and 31 March 2017, post-mortems were carried out on 823 lamb carcases submitted to Farm Post Mortems Ltd under the AHDB Fallen Stock Project. The 10 most common causes of death are shown in Figure 11. Nine per cent of submissions received no diagnoses. Pasturella and worms were the most common conditions discovered in the dead lambs. Many of the causes of death were preventable, so farmers should be able to use this information to prevent further losses.

Abortion/stillbirth26%

Other18%

Disease9%

Weather/predation4%

Mismothering10%

Abnormal4%

Lamb too small6%

Lamb too big5%

Delivered fewer lambs than scanned

3%

Ewe died before/during lambing

15%

Rotaviru

s

Figures from 2010/11 breeding season

21

APHA has reviewed the diagnoses for lambs up to seven days of age, shown in Figure 12. The most commonly diagnosed cause of death in young lambs was rotavirus, which causes diarrhoea. Environmental contamination of rotavirus can be facilitated by crowded indoor lambing, which will increase flock cases of the virus. Other common diagnoses are associated with a lack of colostral antibodies (hypogammaglobulinaemia) and lack of or improper vaccination of ewes for clostridial diseases and Pasteurella.

Figure 12. The 20 most common diagnoses in young lambs (up to seven days of age) between 2014 and 2017 (aggregated data)

Figure 11. The ten most common causes of lamb death for the Fallen Stock Project

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Perc

enta

ge o

f sub

miss

ions

(%)

Pasteurella septicaemia

No diagnosis

made

Parasitic gastro-enteritis

Pasteurella pneumonia

Pulpy kidney

Nematodirus Pneumonia Coccidiosis Intestinal torsion

Ruminal acidosis

1009080706050403020100

Num

ber o

f dia

gnos

es

Rotaviru

s

Hypog

ammag

loblina

emia

Cryptos

porid

iosis

Colisep

ticae

mia

Conge

nital a

bnorm

ality

Clostrid

ium pe

rfring

ens B

(lamb d

ysente

ry)

Border

disea

se

Clostrid

ium pe

rfring

ens D

(Pulp

y Kidn

ey)

Colibac

illosis

ETEC

Arthriti

s -Stre

p dysg

alacti

a

Dystok

ia

Colibac

illosis

- ente

ric

Navel ill

- join

t ill

Salmon

ellosis

-othe

r

Neona

tal hy

pothe

rmia/

starva

tion

Pneum

onia -

M.haem

olytic

a

Watery

mouth

Pasteu

rellos

is (no

n-resp

irator

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Pneum

onia -

other

caus

e

Traum

a/Frac

ture

22

Research highlights

A recent study carried out by Glasgow University has found that it is possible to genetically select for parasite resistance. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) can interfere with the worm’s ability to grow in its larval stages and therefore reduces the number of eggs shed onto pasture. Selecting stock with high IgA measurements in saliva will help eliminate persistently infected breeding lines. The 2017 Signet Breeding Services Lleyn analyses included IgA measurements as a new estimated breeding value (EBV).

Until 2020, AHDB, HCC and QMS are funding a project led by the University of Edinburgh, which is looking to improve neonatal survival of lambs and suckled calves. Using a similar approach to the AHDB Dairy Mastitis Control Plan, a large-scale epidemiological study will quantify and characterise sources of neonatal mortality and disease in lambs and suckled calves and describe their key drivers. The results will be packaged so that the levy boards are able to launch and support a UK-wide neonatal survival and sustainable antibiotic plan.

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Climate change

Extreme weather and unexpected weather events, which may or may not be linked to climate change, are already affecting sheep farming in many ways. Some of these effects include increased disease vectors (e.g. midges), increased heat stress and flooding and drought resulting in poor forage yield/quality and effects on parasite lifecycles (for example, liver fluke).

The UK Climate Change Risk Assessment report, created by Defra in 2017, acknowledges the potential negative impacts of climate change, including reduced soil quality and water availability. However, it is also acknowledged that, with proper management, there are opportunities to increase crop productivity(16). This indirectly affects livestock production through feed availability. An important factor in ensuring the UK agricultural market is best placed to deal with the challenges and opportunities that climate change provides is how the successor to the EU Common Agricultural Policy is developed.

Defra also concludes that there is an urgent need for research on how climate change is likely to affect the threat of emerging pests and diseases and their impact on animals and plants in the UK.

Opposing extremes of weather during the spring and summer of 2018 has made it an incredibly hard year for farmers. Poor conditions at lambing reduced lamb survival rates and has led to a significant 6 per cent (1 million head) reduction in the expected lamb crop for 2018 compared with 2017 (final figures will not be available until late autumn). The severe drought that followed minimised grass growth, with lambs sent to slaughter underfinished and a subsequent drop in liveweight lamb prices. The 2018 weather is expected to have effects lasting into 2019’s lamb crop because the minimal grass growth seen during June, July and August affect ewe body condition at tupping(17).

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The impact of the United Kingdom leaving the European Union

Brexit will be incredibly challenging for the sheep sector. With the UK planning to leave the European Union in March 2019, the potential post-Brexit trade agreements have been identified. The UK will definitely not be staying in the Single Market or Customs Union. These are the so called ‘red lines’ for the UK. Trade in EU in lamb products is therefore likely to change.

The Chequers Deal proposes that we have a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and area with the EU. However, it is highly possible that an FTA will not be agreed upon on or before March 2019. Instead, there may be an interim deal to let trade continue until a permanent deal is arranged.

If an FTA is not possible, the UK will revert to World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules, facing the same EU tariffs as other WTO members. For sheep meat, this would mean tariffs of around 46 per cent, making UK-produced lamb uncompetitive in the EU market.

The UK will need to decide whether or not to impose tariffs of its own, including on imports from the EU. It may choose not to do this in order to keep consumer prices low.

Outside of the EU Customs Union, the UK would be free to negotiate FTAs with other trading partners, such as China or the US. This will probably be complex, with tariffs remaining in place for certain products, including agricultural products. Agricultural product trade is limited in some agreements with non-tariff barriers. These non-tariff barriers include measures put in place to protect health, or technical barriers to protect the environment, national security or consumer information.

Some current UK agreements rely on the UK remaining subject to EU rules and regulations and may require re-negotiation following Brexit.

Currently, most sheep meat imports to the EU fall within a quota, which allows tariff-free access to the EU market for New Zealand and Australia. This helps to smooth out seasonal fluctuations in supply. Imports over this quota are subject to tariffs equivalent to about 50 per cent, making sheep meat over the quota uncompetitive in the EU market. It is likely that some arrangement to share this quota will be agreed and this trade flow will continue post-Brexit. Currently, the UK imports around 70–80,000 tonnes of sheep meat under this quota from New Zealand.

China is the leading sheep meat importer. It imposes tariffs of 12–15 per cent on lamb and 23 per cent on mutton imports. However, FTAs with New Zealand and Australia mean that tariff rates are being gradually reduced for these countries.

Opportunities and threatsThe major southern hemisphere exporters dominate global trade and UK access is likely to be most successful if limited to premium cuts. More opportunities will probably be found in markets where there is high demand for lower-value cuts and offals. These cuts do not have high value on the domestic market, so may offer improved returns to the UK. China is expected to further increase its imports of sheep meat, so is a possible target market for the UK’s lower-value sheep meat.

The FTAs already negotiated by China with New Zealand and Australia will place the UK at a disadvantage unless the UK Government is able to negotiate its own FTA with China. Other potential markets for the UK are African and other Asian markets, but again, this will rely on trading relationships generated by the UK Government.

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The UK could impose its own tariffs on imported sheep meat using the Tariff-Rate Quota (TRQ) – a trade policy tool used to protect domestically produced products from competitive imports. The TRQ is separate from Brexit negotiations, so imports will continue to enter the UK tariff-free. However, under a hard Brexit, UK lamb would face high tariffs going into the EU, making it uncompetitive. According to modelling carried out by AHDB, this would cause the UK market to face a massive oversupply and consequent price reductions in the region of 33 per cent.

A major threat to the trade of sheep meat in the UK is the current dependence on the UK following EU rules and regulations. If trade deals cannot be successfully re-negotiated then these trade routes will be cut off.

ConclusionsThe Horizon reports produced by AHDB detail probable outcomes based on three possible scenarios; these will be updated as the likely trade deal become clearer. Alongside this, AHDB have released several tools including a Brexit Impact Calculator and a resilience checklist. To be fit for the future post-Brexit, farmers are being strongly encouraged to analyse their businesses, plan their directions and act on informed business decisions now.

The Brexit Impact Calculator is available at bic.ahdb.org.uk

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Disease surveillance, monitoring and horizon scanning

The governments of the UK fund disease surveillance, collecting information on diseases and infections in animals from a variety of sources. There are two main types of surveillance: scanning and targeted.

Scanning surveillanceScanning (or passive) surveillance includes regular contact between private veterinary practitioners and veterinary investigation officers and the analysis of samples submitted for diagnostic testing to APHA, SRUC Veterinary Services (SRUC VS) centres and non-APHA post-mortem examination (PME) sites (see Figure 13). To facilitate access to the provision of PME in England and Wales, free carcase collection is offered in those areas shaded in yellow on the map.

Veterinary scanning surveillance enables early detection and investigation of new or re-emerging animal diseases and helps us all to understand disease patterns and trends.

Scanning surveillance has identified several new or unusual conditions in recent years. Examples include:

• Re-establishment of Schmallenberg Virus in cattle and sheep in Great Britain

• Sheep scab mites resistant to macrocylic lactone (ML) injectable products

• Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 outbreak affecting sheep and cattle

• New cases of Dicrocoelium dendricticum (aka the ‘lancet fluke’ or ‘small liver fluke’)Surveillance data is captured from carcase submissions and samples that are submitted for testing, e.g. blood or tissue samples (non-carcase submissions).

Figure 13. Location of disease surveillance sites for APHA across Great Britain

Free carcase collection is for pre-agreed surveillance PMEs only, and is not a free disposal service.

Source: APHA

WVSC(AberystwythUniversity)

Universityof Bristol

Bury

Carmarthen

Penrith

RoyalVeterinaryCollege

SAC StBoswells

Shrewsbury

Starcross

Thirsk

Universityof Surrey

ThursoDSC

Inverness

Aberdeen

Perth

Edinburgh

Ayr

Dumfries

Lasswade(PoultryOnly)

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Improving traceability of animal movements within the industry

Food satefy, security, origin and animal welfare are becoming increasingly important to the industry and to the consumer. A new system is being developed, using electronic identification, to allow farmers and processors to track animal movements throughout the life of the animal. Defra has said that this new livestock information service (LIS) will “provide the foundation for what is said to be some of the best farm-to-fork traceability in the world when the UK leaves the EU. It will demonstrate the UK’s credentials as a leader in food production”. The LIS will be operational in 2019 and will initially be used for dairy cows, cattle, sheep, pigs and goats. The service should also enable the Government and livestock sectors to be better equipped to respond to outbreaks of disease and will bring huge benefits to the industry.

DashboardsThe Great Britain Disease Surveillance Dashboards have been developed to share the surveillance information gathered from submissions to the GB veterinary diagnostic network.

The dashboards allow you to choose a geographic area, a time period and an age group of interest. Having selected your filters, you can use the dashboard to answer questions such as:

• What diagnoses have been made by the GB surveillance network in sheep from my local area?

• What is the GB surveillance network’s most common diagnosis in adult sheep?

• Where in the country have specific diagnoses (e.g. liver fluke) been made in sheep by the GB surveillance network?

• How many diagnoses were made of a specific disease (e.g. enzootic abortion of ewes (EAE)) in a particul ar year by the GB surveillance network?

To access the Sheep Disease Dashboard, go to https://public.tableau.com/profile/siu.apha#!/vizhome/SheepDashboard_/Overview

Figure 14. Sheep diagnostic surveillance dashboard

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In Scotland, diagnoses reached (and not reached) from voluntary submissions to SRUC VS’ eight Disease Surveillance Centres have contributed to the GB-wide scanning surveillance system as described previously. These surveillance activities are enhanced by further investigations, such as the following:

• In 2016, severe outbreaks of joint ill in lambs led to a more in-depth study in spring 2017 where no new cause was identified. Streptococcus dysgalactiae continues to be the most common cause, with similar patterns of antibiotic sensitivity to previous outbreaks.

• A case study of an 800-ewe flock with Maedi Visna (MV) virus demonstrated a significant impact on productivity and profitability. Additional costs in the breakdown year were approximately £20,000 and the predicted total cumulative income loss in the breakdown year and subsequent restocking program was around £130,000(18)

Emerging issues are highlighted in On the Hoof, a bitesize news bulletin produced by SRUC Veterinary Services. For example, septic arthritis in lambs (February 2018), Nematodirus reminder (May 2018), ovine abortion diagnoses (July 2018) and parasitic gastroenteritis alert for lambs (September 2018), while monthly Farm Advisory Service bulletins provide wider industry context.

Targeted surveillanceTargeted (or active) surveillance includes when specific surveys are carried out to measure the prevalence of certain diseases.

EU law requires all member states to carry out active disease surveillance for bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle and scrapie in sheep and goats. This information is used to determine the transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) disease status of each country.

Statistics on the active and passive surveillance of TSE in sheep in GB can be seen in Table 18 in Appendix 1.

The United Kingdom is recognised by the European Commission as being free from Brucella melitensis (the highest status defined by the EU) and enables us to demand that any animals imported from the EU are of the same high status. If the UK was not recognised as free, or if the status was lost, then the importation of animals of lower health status could not be prevented. This would substantially increase the risk of importing Brucella melitensis (B. melitensis) from abroad. To maintain the national status as Brucellosis free, annual random testing must be carried out to a specified level and this is achieved by the Annual Sheep and Goat survey for B. melitensis.

In Scotland, targeted surveillance, over and above statutory requirements, has included a preliminary abattoir-based survey of antimicrobial resistance in faecal samples from sheep during 2017/18. This survey will be repeated in 2018/19. Results were published in the Scottish One Health Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance (SONAAR) report during Antibiotic Awareness week (12–18 November 2018).

Meanwhile, the Scottish Government has funded research within the Strategic Research Programme (SRP 2011–2016) into the use of ovine NFSCo collections data for surveillance purposes. Ongoing studies, within both the current SRP (2016–2021) and the Centre of Expertise for Outbreaks of Animal Disease (EPIC), aim to explore how sheep movement data can be used to inform the design and interpretation of surveillance activities. They will also explore whether existing datasets can be utilised to provide better estimates of specified ovine endemic diseases, how CCIR data can be utilised for surveillance purposes and how diagnostic tests can be improved.

Premium sheep and goat health schemesSRUC VS offers keepers of sheep and goats membership of nationally recognised schemes to screen for MV, caprine arthritis encephalitis and enzootic abortion.

Members of these schemes are awarded certificates of health status following successful testing programmes. In addition, SRUC VS provides the membership database for the Scrapie Monitoring Scheme (SMS). Table 8 shows the Premium Sheep and Goat Health Sscheme (PSGHS) membership by disease and country. Flocks and herds that comply with the requirements of the SMS are able to demonstrate compliance with ‘negligible risk’ and ‘controlled risk’ status for classical scrapie. This is an international trade requirement for breeding and finishing sheep and goats, semen and embryos.

29

The MV accreditation scheme has continued to show a steady increase in member numbers, the majority of whom are pedigree breeders. In contrast, Enzootic Abortion Scheme member numbers continue to gradually decline. SMS member numbers have also shown a decline, although this is largely explained by the recent removal of a large number of dormant accounts.

Table 8. Membership of PSGHS by administration in August 2018 (2015 figures in brackets for comparison)

Maedi Visna Enzootic abortion Scrapie monitoring

England 1,577 (1,449) 17 (28) 108 (109)Scotland 849 (810) 224 (247) 16 (61)

Wales 472 (458) 0 (1) 16 (28)Great Britain 2,898 (2,717) 241 (276) 140 (198)

Source: SRUC Veterinary Services (Julie McDiarmid and David Wilson)

Horizon scanningThe Government has a responsibility to maintain border security, but equally the industry must be mindful of these potential threats in terms of trade and surveillance for signs of disease.

Foot and mouthThe Middle East, North Africa, and Turkey, in particular, still pose a significant risk of being the source of a new disease incursion into the EU. It is particularly concerning given the level of political instability in Syria, Libya and other countries in the region and the associated movements of refugees, economic migrants, their possessions and livestock. Although these outbreaks do not currently represent an increase in risk to the EU from legal trade, there is an overall low risk of introduction of disease from any affected region in the world. It is important that livestock keepers maintain strict on-farm biosecurity and report all suspicions of notifiable disease promptly.

Bluetongue Virus (BTV)Four serotypes of BTV (BTV1, 2, 4 and 16) circulated in mainland Europe in 2014 and five serotypes (BTV1, 2, 4, 8 and 16) in 2015, particularly in the southern Mediterranean. The re-emergence of BTV8 in central France and the emergence of BTV4 in Austria in the autumn of 2015 is a reminder of the potential for further incursion of this disease into Northern Europe and the UK, either from these known serotypes or from new emerging strains. The further the spread, the greater risk to the UK.

A qualitative risk assessment for entry of BTV8 into the UK was published by Defra in 2016 and 2017. Situation assessments are regularly reported by Defra. The UK currently remains free of BTV. The Met Office’s Numerical Atmospheric-dispersion Modelling Environment is run twice daily to estimate the likely transport of infected midges from overseas. The risk is continually kept under review and is currently classed as low.

Sheep and goat poxSheep and goat pox occurs in regions including Africa (north of the equator), the Middle East, Central Asia and India. Turkey, Greece and Israel reported outbreaks in 2014, with outbreaks continuing in Turkey and Greece in 2015. The risk of introduction of sheep and goat Pox Virus into the UK via the importation of one untreated animal skin, hide or wool bale from the EU is low.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR)PPR can have a significant economical impact on small-ruminant farming, causing production loss in non-endemic regions with mortality of more than 50 per cent in affected flocks(19). As such, it is the target disease for global eradication. It occurs in a band spreading across Africa between the equator and the Sahara, through the Arabian Peninsula, the Middle East, South West Asia and India. China first reported the disease in 2007 and it spread into North Africa for the first time in 2008. Disease has re-emerged in China in 2013 and 2014. The first occurrence of PPR in the EU was reported in Bulgaria in 2018. The risk of PPR introduction to the UK as a result of this outbreak is still considered negligible.

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Contagious agalactia (CA)Mycoplasma agalactiae is the principal cause of CA and has been reported in many countries surrounding the Mediterranean, in particular Portugal, Spain, Greece, Italy, France, Turkey, Israel and North Africa. It has also been found in many parts of the Middle East, most notably Iran, as well as India, Mongolia and parts of South America. Sporadic cases have been reported in the USA. The pathogen can be difficult to diagnose in clinically normal animals and trade rules rely only on lack of clinical signs in consigned animals. In October 2014, a post-import test detected Mycoplasma agalactiae in one of four goats imported into Wales from France. Effective action to control the disease risk was successfully implemented. Surveillance for CA is pro-active and relies on submissions of samples from cases showing signs of mastitis or udder abnormality in sheep or goats, which are tested by APHA. In addition to this passive surveillance, all imported animals from countries that have the disease are tested after import.

BrucellosisBrucellosis in sheep and goats is mainly caused by Brucella melitensis, although infection with B. abortus and B. ovis can also occur. B. melitensis is prevalent in sheep and goats in several Mediterranean countries. The UK is considered free of these diseases. Annual surveillance (blood testing) and testing of sheep abortion material is carried out to uphold free status.

Schmallenberg Virus (SBV)SBV emerged as a novel virus in the Netherlands and Germany in 2011. It was first confirmed in Great Britain in 2012. Since then, infection has spread widely throughout Europe and disease is now considered endemic in many countries. Data from APHA(20) shows an increase in diagnoses of SBV in the 2017 lambing season compared to 2016. Data from the Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI)(21) shows an increase in the geographical spread of SBV in Northern Ireland in 2018. It is thought that the UK will continue to see cycles of large outbreaks of SBV in one year, with the risk greatest in warm years with high midge numbers and where previous exposure to the virus is low, followed by low circulation in the subsequent few years (22). There is the potential for new strains of this virus to emerge with differing pathogenicities and vets and producers are encouraged to investigate incidents of high mortality or morbidity.

AnthraxTwo cows died from Anthrax in Wiltshire in 2015. Movement restrictions were imposed at the farm and the animals’ carcases were incinerated. The previous outbreak in livestock in Great Britain was in 2006.

Other potential issuesChanges to support paymentsReduction in funding paid to farmers under the Basic Payment Scheme, along with reduced access to environmental support, may have an indirect impact on sheep health by reducing available financial resources across the farm business. Proactive health planning will play a big part in promoting the benefits of good veterinary care to maintain and increase output from many sheep flocks as farmers seek to find greater returns from the market place.

Exchange rates and export opportunitiesThere is a need to make farmers more resilient to price volatility. Improved levels of mortality and effective health planning and implementation will have a part to play in creating robust, efficient production systems. The weaker pound following the Brexit result had some short-term benefits on lamb prices, resulting in a reduction in the volume of exports.

Drug resistanceThe sheep industry must continue to play its part in the responsible use of antimicrobials, anthelmintics and flukicides. Increased emphasis on proactive flock health planning, appropriate use of effective vaccines, using FECs to test for worm and fluke resistance, grazing strategies and improved ewe nutrition will help farmers achieve this.

31

New draft EU animal health lawThe aim of this regulation is to consolidate and simplify legislation so that all the major transmissible diseases are covered by a single piece of law. It will include five major diseases: foot and mouth, classic swine fever, African swine fever, highly pathogenic avian influenza and African horse sickness. Thereafter, the regulation introduces categorisation and prioritisation of diseases that require intervention at EU level. The impact of the regulation on the UK sheep industry will largely depend on how diseases are categorised and how the controls are applied. The new regulations are based on the principle that prevention is better than cure. There will be added emphasis on biosecurity and the use of compartmentalisation (that is, allowing some biosecure farms to be considered safe to trade even during a disease outbreak) could be extended.

The regulation aims to improve standards and to provide a common system to better detect and control disease. It proposes to introduce a requirement for all farms to be visited by a vet at a frequency proportional to the risk posed. Until the listing and categorisation of diseases is agreed, it is unclear how or if the requirement for vet visits may affect sheep farmers in the UK. However, it is clear that these visits would not be another kind of official control, but would be a private arrangement between farmers and their chosen vets. These visits could play some part in the member states’ surveillance strategy. Higher-level proposals have now been agreed by the EU and decisions on UK implementation will be made in the coming years.

Until Brexit negotiations are concluded, the UK remains a full member of the European Union and all the rights and obligations of EU membership remain in force. During this period, the Government will continue to negotiate, implement and apply EU legislation and will do what is needed to support farmers as the UK leaves the EU and makes a success of Brexit.

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Biosecurity

Flock biosecurity is an integral part of flock health planning, but the complex network of sheep movements between breeders in the UK means sheep farms are generally less biosecure than more intensively reared species. Most of the transmission risk for diseases comes with the movement of live animals between farms; shearers and ultrasound scanners pose only a small risk in comparison. On-farm foot dips provide a small part of the solution. Quarantine periods for returning or replacement stock should depend upon the specific health planning priorities of the farm and should be considered in detail by farmers and their vets.

In 2004, a Defra-funded project highlighted that better quantification of the benefits of biosecurity for UK cattle and sheep farms is needed(23). The number of sheep movements taking place in the UK each year is high, with a total of 70 million individual sheep movements reported in 2014(24). ADAS recorded that 70 per cent of sheep farmers who had brought in sheep over the previous 12 months had purchased them from a livestock market(25).The high number of sheep movements clearly increases the risk of disease spread between farms and presents significant challenges for knowing and maintaining health status.

The lack of perceived importance of good on-farm biosecurity remains a key challenge to the health status of the national sheep flock. This is a challenge for all diseases, but particularly for those with hidden or subclinical symptoms (i.e. iceberg diseases; see page 45).

The aim for the sheep industry is to develop health monitoring schemes that enable commercial farmers to understand their health status, while providing greater health assurance for a variety of diseases. Responsibility starts with ram breeders and sellers of replacement ewes to ensure their animals are of a known health status. However, the demand must also come from the purchaser and, unfortunately, that currently only tends to happen once they have experienced a disease breakdown.

33

Farm assurance and welfare

A number of farm assurance schemes applicable to the sheep sector operate in the UK, which have the primary aim of protecting the reputation of agriculture.

Red Tractor AssuranceCovering six farming sectors, Red Tractor is the UK’s main farm assurance scheme and has a membership of approximately 24,500 farmers in the English beef and lamb sector. In 2017, Red Tractor Assurance (RTA) completed a review and, as a result, implemented a complete makeover of beef and lamb standards, with changes in force from 1 October 2017. These were revised in 2018 and updated on 1 June 2018.

The changes include a requirement for farms to be visited by a vet at least annually and for the vet to undertake and write up an annual livestock health and performance review. The annual review includes identifying key issues and making recommendations, reviewing records and data, including the medicine records book and making recommendations to reduce antibiotic use without negatively impacting animal welfare. This includes an assessment of the quantity of antibiotics used on the farm by product name. Highest priority critically important antibiotics (HP-CIA) must only be used as a last resort under veterinary direction and must be supported with either sensitivity or diagnostic testing. It is also recommended that at least one member of staff responsible for administering medicines holds a certificate of competence or has attended a course on handling and administering medicines.

Other schemesThe Farm Assured Welsh Livestock Beef and Lamb Scheme (FAWL) operates in Wales and is provided by Welsh Lamb and Beef Producers Ltd; a cooperative owned by over 7,200 Welsh farmers.

The QMS Cattle and Sheep Assurance Scheme is an essential element in the Quality Meat Scotland (QMS) ‘whole chain’ consumer assurance programme. It has 6,464 members in the sheep industry.

The Northern Ireland Beef and Lamb Farm Quality Assurance Scheme (NIBL FQAS) is owned by the Livestock and Meat Commission (LMC) on behalf of the beef and sheep meat industry in Northern Ireland. There are approximately 12,200 sheep and beef members in the scheme.

RSPCA Assured, the RSPCA’s assurance scheme, has low membership among sheep farmers. The RSPCA welfare standards for sheep are currently under review, with new standards expected in 2020.

Welfare outcome assessment for sheep The AssureWel assessment protocol for sheep is a practical tool that provides an objective, accurate and direct picture of sheep welfare, that can be used for an individual animal, farming system or farm assurance scheme. The tool can be used by farmers to self-assess, or by farm assurance schemes, farmer groups or vets to formally assess, give feedback and provide benchmarks to improve animal welfare. Table 9 lists the measures of assessment.

Table 9. Individual, flock and record measures for the AssureWel protocol

Individual measure 1 (a) Lameness

Flock measures

1 (b) Lameness (severely lame)2 Body condition score (thin sheep)3 Dirtiness4 Fleece loss5 Sheep needing further care

6 (a) Tail docking (docked short)

Records6 (b) Castration, tail docking and ear notching

7 Mortality

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AssureWel was a six-year (2010–2016) collaborative project led by the RSPCA, the Soil Association and the University of Bristol and supported by the Tubney Charitable Trust. It provided a practical welfare outcome assessment for the major farmed animal species. For further details and to download the protocol visit: www.assurewel.org

Developing training packages for farmers – National Office of Animal Health (NOAH)

In July 2018, NOAH, in partnership with stakeholders across the food supply chain, launched the Animal Medicines Best Practice (AMBP) programme, which included training modules on the responsible use of antibiotics for farmers. The training, which is available online from Lantra, will provide a Certificate of Training for farmers wishing to improve skills and comply with Farm Assurance standards. A package of materials will also be produced for vets to use with clients and this will be available from October 2018.

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Flock health planning

Several health planning tools are available for sheepfarmers, including ready-made templates and web-based health planning services. In the UK, vets are not required to be involved in creating or reviewing a farm health plan. However, in October 2014, RTA required its members to be visited by a vet once a year, as a minimum, to review the use of prescription only (POM-V) medicines, production records and the health plan. Since June 2018, it is now a requirement for a vet to undertake an annual livestock health and performance review.

There is still wide variation in the level of veterinary involvement on sheep farms in the UK. Targets set by RUMA also highlight the need for improved relationships between vets and farmers. The new RTA standards (see page 33) will undoubtedly increase the level of veterinary involvement on farms.

Flock health clubsFlock health clubs have been increasing in number and distribution (see Figure 15). In 2017, a survey showed that 56 UK vets were running a club and a further 34 vets had plans to set one up. Flock health clubs are a cost-effective way of building vet–farmer interactions, with the added advantage that farmers in the group can share experiences and benchmark performance against each other.

Clubs have partnered with AHDB, the National Sheep Association (NSA), National Farmers’ Union (NFU), the Sheep Veterinary Society (SVS) and the BVA, as well as a variety of pharmaceutical companies. The pricing and format of the clubs varies from practice to practice.

Each summer, technical training events are held for the vets who lead clubs. In 2018 there were four events and 90 vets attended.

In June 2017, the EU-funded Innovation for Sustainable Sheep and Goat Production in Europe (iSAGE) project agreed to investigate the effectiveness of clubs and barriers to their uptake. This research is being undertaken by the Organic Research Centre and NSA, with input from the University of Nottingham. It will be completed by March 2020.

For further information about flock health clubs please contact Fiona Lovatt, Flock Health Ltd, on 07711 710216, fiona@flockhealth.co.uk or go to the website: flockhealth.co.uk/Flock-Health-Clubs

Figure 15. Location of flock health clubs running in July 2017

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Examples of companies working togetherMSD Animal Health and a collaborative group of vet practices and laboratories in South West England have taken flock health planning one stage further. In August 2016, they created the South West Initiative for Sheep Health (SWISH). SWISH, a regional sheep vet group, aims to create a unified voice on sheep veterinary topics and build a forum upon which to exchange knowledge with farmers. Their ‘Ewe Know How’ event held in Cornwall in August 2018 was a huge success, attracting around 200 sheep farmers.There are preliminary plans to set up other regional groups in the UK.

Sheep farmer

SWISH

VET

Working together to help maximise flock healthand productivity performance

Access to SWISH collaborativeresources throughout the South West• Disease management• Nutritional support• Breeding expertise• Laboratory services• New technology• Knowledge share with growing number of flocks and sheep vet members

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Sheep flock health and production planning in Northern IrelandWorking closely with colleagues in sheep production science, key flock owners and their veterinary surgeons, AFBI’s Veterinary Sciences Division clearly identified the need for a co-ordinated approach to sheep health and production planning that involves farmers, veterinary surgeons, scientists and advisers. The purposes of the resulting sheep health planning initiative were to reduce disease loss, thus improving production in sheep flocks, sheep welfare and food chain safety. The flock health and production plan developed was based on an audit that identified areas for improvement and included implementation of corrective actions with subsequent financial analysis of benefit. A health and production plan was implemented in three upland and seven lowland flocks from summer 2016. Areas identified for intervention included reduction of reproductive wastage, reduction of growing lamb losses and improvement of parasite control in line with recommendations made by Sustainable Control of Parasites in Sheep (SCOPS). Improvements associated with planning included more effective control of EAE, improved ewe nutrition and young lamb survival.

The companies involved in SWISH are: MSD Animal Health, Castle Vet Group, The Vale Veterinary Group, North Park Veterinary Group, Mount Vets, South Moor Vets, Coast2Coast Farm Vets, Torch Farm Vets, Summerleaze Farm & Equine Vets, Calweton Veterinary Group, VLA Starcross and Axiom Veterinary Laboratories Ltd.

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Nutrition and body condition

Correct nutrition is fundamental to the health and welfare of all sheep in all systems of production, with well-nourished animals generally being more able to mount an immune response against disease challenge. There are issues with both over- and under-feeding. A variety of nutrition-related problems arise, particularly around lambing time. Most of these are associated with a lack of energy (pregnancy toxaemia) or protein or, conversely, overfed ewes can experience problems such as prolapse, acidosis and dystocia.

Body condition scoring (BCS) is hugely important in managing the nutrition of breeding sheep and there are widely accepted guidelines for target scores at different stages of the production cycle. In an AHDB-funded project that investigated the impact of BCS of ewes on the litter size at scanning and lamb growth rates to weaning, preliminary results indicated that:

• Ewes with low BCS (below 2 at weaning) have a longer term impact than first thought; even if ewes regain condition, this affects scanning in the following production year and weaning weight of lambs the following year

• Ewe parity affects litter size at scanning, eight-week lamb weights and weaning lamb weights, with younger ewes achieving lower scanning results and lighter lambs when rearing twins

• A ewe’s rearing phase (growth pattern from ewe lambs to shearlings) may have an impact on performance in her first year and possibly her lifetime

• The weight of lambs at eight weeks of age is important to their future performance. Lambs that are light at eight weeks (defined as below 17 kg when the flock target is to achieve an average weight of 20 kg) continue to be the lighter lambs at weaning and beyond. More analysis is needed, but it has been found that as ewe BCS improves, the number of light lambs reduces

• Shearling ewes rearing twins contribute the highest proportion of light lambs (when compared to the number of shearlings in the flock). The importance of shearling management is being investigated in the Challenge Sheep project (see page 19)

• The change in BCS between production periods appears to be as important as the actual BCS, but again, this requires further analysis to be able to highlight the periods of the production cycle that have the greatest impact on litter size and lamb weight

BCS and late pregnancy feeding have a huge impact on lamb survival. Ewes in poor body condition on inadequate diets give birth to poor, weak lambs. These lambs receive a poor supply of colostral antibodies, which makes them more likely to succumb to diseases such as watery mouth.

Although many nutrition-related conditions are reported by farmers and vets, no reliable statistics are available on prevalence. Several laboratories analyse blood samples for metabolic profiles (to assess nutritional status) and trace elements to help diagnose deficiencies, but these are purely to assist individual farmers in managing their flocks.

The AHDB manual Feeding the ewe provides a single, comprehensive reference source for progressive farmers and advisers on feeding ewes.

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Responsible medicine use and antibiotic targets

In light of increasing antimicrobial resistance and in response to the Government’s five-year strategy on antimicrobial resistance(26), several organisations, including RUMA, the Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD), NOAH and BVA are providing specific guidelines to promote responsible use of antibiotics.

Use of antibiotics in sheepThe VMD produces an annual report detailing the amount of antibiotics sold for farm animals and antibiotic resistance data for bacteria isolated from farm animals (27). Antibiotic sales data has many limitations and is currently not suitable for assessing use in each species, especially given that no antibiotics are licensed solely for sheep in the UK.

Antibiotic consumption data, i.e amount purchased, prescribed and administered, would provide much more precise estimates. The VMD is currently working in partnership with key livestock sectors to develop a system for the collection of antibiotic consumption data in food-producing animals, facilitating and coordinating sector-led collection systems for the priority livestock sectors (pigs, poultry and cattle).

In April 2016, the electronic medicine book for pigs (eMB-pigs) was launched for use by all pig farmers in the UK. An eMB for cattle has been developed and is being pilot tested throughout 2018. Once evaluated, it is possible that a sheep eMB will follow.

Current antibiotic usage data for sheep is limited. A study of 207 sheep-only farms by the University of Nottingham indicated that mean antibiotic use was 11.4 mg/PCU (median 5.6 mg/PCU).

The VMD collates data from Government laboratories on antibiotic resistance in bacteria found in animal samples. This is managed through two programmes: EU Harmonised Monitoring, which is carried out as a legal requirement and a clinical surveillance programme that relies on voluntary submission of samples by farmers and veterinary surgeons. In general, lower levels of resistance to most antibiotics are consistently observed in sheep than in pigs and cattle.

Medicine residuesThe VMD runs a surveillance programme to monitor the use of veterinary medicines and prohibited substances in UK produce. It produces annual reports on substances found in UK animal produce and what action is being taken to avoid unacceptable residues in the future. In 2017, antimicrobials were detected in less than 0.05 per cent of sheep samples tested and anthelmintics in less than 1.4 per cent(28).

Could we learn from the dairy cattle sector?A group of 30 forward-thinking dairy cattle farmers across South West England challenged themselves to reduce their use of on-farm antibiotics. The group, which was named ‘Antibiotics Anonymous’, demonstrated the power of farmer-to-farmer learning, using the stable school methodology used in Denmark.

The project, led by Lisa Morgans at the University of Bristol vet school and sponsored by AHDB Dairy, used the farmers’ knowledge and expertise to provide practical solutions to reduce antibiotic use. Using farm walks carried out by the host farmer, the group was encouraged to have open discussions, compare and contrast, consider best practices and the challenges and opportunities around reducing antibiotic use.

With a variety of farming systems, including organic and conventional, 60 to 600-cow herds, block and all-year round calving patterns, grazing and housed herds, all the farmers had different opportunities and challenges. A farmer from the group explained: “Going round other farms allowed us to cherry pick ideas and when you go home you start to think how you could implement similar changes on your own farm”. Bespoke action plans were developed for each farm using farm maps, score charts and ping pong ball voting systems to capture the group’s ideas, with a total of 300 practical steps identified to implement over 12 months. One farmer implemented over 90 per cent of the steps on his action plan, nine farms stopped using HP-CIAs, and two farms reduced their incidence of mastitis and respiratory disease.

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Update for RUMAUnder the leadership of the Sheep Target Task Force, a sub group of SHAWG, including AHDB, NSA, NFU and SVS have met regularly to ensure timely, coordinated messages reach the sheep industry and activity against these targets is recorded.

Table 10. Targets for the sheep industry with update on activity since November 2017

Targets Activity

Reduce overall antibiotic usage by 10%

A University of Nottingham study of 207 sheep-only farms indicated that mean antibiotic use was 11.4 mg/PCU (median 5.6 mg/PCU). Further

work (with funding from AHDB and MSD Animal Health) will be used to check progress against targets, with a publication due in 2019.Reduce the use of the highest

priority antibiotics by 50%

Coordinate collation of antibiotic usage data

A calculator tool (produced by the University of Nottingham and AHDB) for quantifying antibiotic use on farm is available to vets and farmers. This calculator is being used by vets and some processors to collate usage across farms. A requirement for an electronic medicine book

(e-MB) for sheep will be evaluated once a pilot for cattle has reported.

Increase uptake of the Five-Point Plan to control lameness

Sales data on the vaccine for footrot are being tracked as a proxy for this target. Knowledge exchange (KE) activities have included

campaigns on the uptake of the Five-Point Plan and foot health, as well as farmer workshops and articles in the veterinary and farming press.

Encourage the use of vaccination to control enzootic abortion in

ewes

Sales data on vaccines to control enzootic abortion (EAE) is being tracked. A KE campaign was coordinated by AHDB on vaccination for

abortion control in autumn 2017 and 2018, alongside the RUMA #VaccinesWork campaign. Work on diagnosing abortion in spring 2019 is planned to ensure appropriate preventative and treatment is used.

Encourage farmers to avoid using routine prophylactic

antibiotics in neonatal lambs except in high risk situations

Sales data on oral antibiotics used in neonatal lambs is being tracked. Members of SHAWG were heavily involved in the RUMA coordinated

campaign #ColostrumIsGold. Communications have been published in leading veterinary journals. Levy board KE activity has included the importance of appropriate ewe body condition score and nutrition in

both pregnant and lactating ewes.

Deliver a knowledge exchange plan to tackle vet and farmer

behaviour

The Sheep Veterinary Society Good Practice Guidelines (developed in 2017) were communicated to the industry during 2018 through articles

and presentations. Case studies were made available to RUMA campaigns for the hotspots (see targets 4, 5 and 6). Regular

communications between SHAWG, AHDB, NSA and SVS has ensured all audiences are targeted.

The updated RUMA report will be available from November 2018 at ruma.org.uk

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Lameness

Lameness is one of three hotspot areas targeted by RUMA for the reduction of antibiotic use in the sheep industry. Reduced lameness can be achieved by using existing lameness control strategies.

Lameness poses a significant animal welfare and economic challenge to the sheep sector. Footrot has been estimated to cost the sheep industry £24 million a year(29). Most of these costs are attributed to reduced flock performance, but some are associated with the time spent catching and treating lame sheep. A report published by the Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC)(30) estimated that about 3 million sheep or 10 per cent of the national flock are lame at any one time. A paper prepared by Fiona Lovatt in 2014 suggests that a lameness prevalence of 10 per cent could reduce flock profitability by more than £14 per ewe(31).

The main causes of lameness are footrot, interdigital dermatitis (or scald) and Contagious Ovine Digital Dermatitis (CODD). It is now recognised that the bacterium Dichelobacter nodosus is the cause of both footrot and interdigital dermatitis and that this infection is present in 97 per cent of flocks. CODD was first reported in the UK in 1997 and recent studies have shown it to be present in 35–50 per cent of flocks in England and Wales(32, 33). The cause of CODD is still unconfirmed, but the digital dermatitis-causing treponemes are thought to have a role. The fact that D. nodosus and Fusobacterium necrophorum are frequently found in CODD lesions suggests a link between footrot and CODD. AHDB and HCC are currently involved in a large project at the University of Liverpool, funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), which should provide answers in the near future.

The FAWC report(30) proposed that the prevalence of lameness in flocks in Great Britain should be reduced to 5 per cent by 2016 and to 2 per cent or less by 2021. In addition, cross-compliance regulations require farmers to maintain prevalence levels at less than 5 per cent. In 2014, a group of English stakeholders agreed that the Five-Point Plan(34) (Figure 16) should be implemented on farm in order to meet the FAWC targets.

Figure 16. The Five-Point Plan to control lameness

Findings from a postal survey of 1,260 sheep farmers suggest that the first FAWC target has been met earlier than expected. Farmers were asked to estimate the period prevalence of lameness in their flocks between May 2012 and April 2013. When compared to the results from a similar survey in 2004, the period prevalence had fallen from 10.6 per cent in 2004 to 4.9 per cent in 2013(35). However, work that is being carried out at the University of Warwick indicates that the prevalence of lameness may be increasing, with preliminary findings suggesting that this may be because farmers are relying on vaccination rather than prompt treatment of lame sheep.

Evidence from research has shown that routine foot paring of the whole flock is associated with a higher level of lameness(36) and also that paring feet of lame sheep is associated with a longer recovery time(37).

The five points of the plan can be be split into three areas:• Cull to build resilience

• Treat, quarantine and avoid to reduce disease challenge

• Vaccinate to establish immunity

Source: FAI

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Abortion

Abortion is one of three hotspot areas targeted by RUMA for the reduction of antibiotics in the sheep industry. Reduced abortion can be achieved by improving the uptake of existing effective vaccination strategies.

Figure 17 shows the diagnoses for abortion recorded by APHA as a percentage of all abortion diagnoses made. The three main infectious causes of abortion have been consistent over the last five years. These are:

• EAE caused by Chlamydia abortus

• Toxoplasmosis

• Campylobacter spp.These three infections often cause abortion storms, with more than 20 per cent of ewes either aborting or producing weak lambs when the disease first appears in a flock. Effective vaccines against EAE and toxoplasmosis are available and estimates suggest that approximately one third of replacement ewes are vaccinated against EAE and one fifth against toxoplasmosis(38).

Salmonella and listeria are less commonly diagnosed causes of abortion. Various Salmonella serotypes are isolated, but they are only rarely the same serotypes that are commonly associated with illness in people.

Listeria generally causes sporadic abortions, usually in flocks in which ewes are being fed silage or root crops.

SBV causes stillborn lambs. Lambs are usually malformed, with fused joints or a twisted spine, which prevents a normal birth. There was a spike of SBV diagnoses in 2012, with over 300 confirmed cases in the UK(20). The number of cases then remained low until 2017 when a resurgence was seen with 124 confirmed cases. In 2018, at the time of publishing this report, there was only one confirmed case of SBV in England, Wales and Scotland, with 28 cases reported in Northern Ireland. However, as farmers are readily able to recognise the disease because of the malformed nature of the lambs, cases are not always submitted to a laboratory and therefore SBV may be under-reported.

Both C. abortus and Toxoplasma gondii are zoonotic infections. Human infection with C. abortus is very rare and there are no more than one or two human cases a year(39). However, toxoplasmosis has the highest human incidence of all parasitic zoonoses and is considered to be an underdetected and underreported disease in the EU(40). Since 2008, all EU countries have been required to enhance surveillance for toxoplasmosis in humans, sheep and goats.

Figure 17. Ovine abortion diagnoses for APHA diagnostic submissions from January 2011 to June 2018 as a percentage of all abortion diagnoses

Source: APHA

25

20

15

10

5

02011

Chlamydia abortus

Salmonella NOS

Toxoplasma

Listeria

Campylobacter

salmonella dublin

Listeria

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Perc

enta

ge o

f dia

gnos

es

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Neonatal disease

Neonatal disease is one of three hotspot areas targeted by RUMA for the reduction of antibiotics in the sheep industry. Reduced neonatal disease can be achieved through the use of effective vaccinations, good hygiene protocols at lambing, ewes having the correct nutrition and body condition for the type of farming system and ensuring lambs receive an adequate supply of colostrum after birth. Industry campaigns such as #ColostrumIsGold and #VaccinesWork are being used to promote these messages widely across industry.

Watery mouthThis disease is caused by the lamb ingesting bacteria from the environment. While Escherichia coli is frequently isolated from cases of watery mouth, inadequate colostrum is usually the underlying cause of this disease. Ewe nutrition, ewe body condition and good hygiene at lambing are key to the prevention of this disease.

Joint illJoint ill is caused by a bacterial infection within the joint that causes it to become swollen and painful. Bacteria enter the body through ingestion, the navel or as a result of management practices such as tagging, docking or castration. As with watery mouth, ewe nutrition, ewe body condition and good hygiene at lambing are key to prevention.

CoccidiosisCoccidiosis is one of the most common causes of production losses in lambs in Great Britain, second only to worms as a cause of scour and ill thrift. Disease is usually caused by either Eimeria ovinoidalis or E. crandallis, which are the two most pathogenic species of Eimerians. Coccidiosis is most common in more intensive systems where stocking rates are high.

PasturellosisBacteria previously identified as Pasteurella species have been re-classified; the main species causing disease in sheep are now called Mannheimia haemolytica (previously P. haemolytica) and Bibersteinia trehalosi (previously P. trehalosi).

M. haemolytica commonly causes either septicaemia in young lambs or pneumonia in all ages, but especially in lambs. B. trehalosi is most commonly associated with septicaemia in older lambs. Pasteurellosis is one of the most common causes of death in growing lambs in Great Britain, despite there being effective vaccines that offer protection against disease caused by both M. haemolytica and B. trehalosi.

OrfOrf is commonly seen as scabby lesions on the lips of lambs and results in poor growth while the lambs have lesions. The infection may also manifest as lesions on the teats of ewes and these lesions predispose to mastitis. A vaccine is available that can be given to ewes and lambs, but is most commonly used in young lambs.

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Other common endemic diseases

Clostridial diseasesClostridial diseases are the most common cause of sudden death in all ages of sheep in Great Britain. The most common syndromes are referred to as pulpy kidney disease and lamb dysentery, caused by Clostridium perfringens type D and type B, respectively. Less common clostridial diseases include black disease (caused by C. novyi) and botulism (caused by C. botulinum).

Botulism has become more common in sheep and cattle in recent years, with outbreaks usually associated with access to broiler litter. With all clostridial diseases, it is not the bacteria that causes disease, but the toxins they produce. Several multivalent vaccines protecting against all the major clostridial diseases are available and, when used correctly, are highly effective.

MastitisMastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland typically caused by bacterial infection. Infection affects ewe health, causing pain, loss of udder function, premature culling and death. Lamb growth rates are affected by the reduction in milk quality and quantity. Chronic mastitis is defined as the presence of an intramammary mass.

The University of Warwick carried out a two-year study following 10 suckler sheep flocks in Great Britain to identify factors associated with acute and chronic mastitis(41). Nutrition was found to play a big part in the flock incidence of mastitis. Ewes were:

• Four times more likely to develop acute mastitis if underfed protein in late pregnancy

• Six times more likely to have chronic mastitis in lactation if underfed energy in early pregnancy

• Two times more likely to have chronic mastitis in pregnancy if underfed energy in previous lactationLow BCS has been linked to subclinical and clinical mastitis. Ewes with a BCS below 3 at lambing will produce less milk for their lambs. This may result in hungry lambs, who will butt the udder to attempt to draw more milk. The damage this causes increases the risk of mastitis.

Mastitis is an infectious disease and so maintaining good hygiene will reduce the risk of infection. Wet or dirty bedding and high stocking densities will allow environmental bacteria to multiply and increase the risk of infection.

Pathogenic bacteria can also be spread between ewes by contaminated hands or clothing. Washing hands before testing milk supply and collecting milk in a container will reduce the risk of contamination.

The University of Warwick is currently carrying out two PhD research projects on mastitis in sheep to better understand the transmission of mastitis in ewes and to develop strategies for control. These will be completed during the first quarter of 2019 and the last quarter of 2020.

Using genomics to understand mastitis in Texel sheep

The British Texel Sheep Society received funding from Innovate UK to work with SRUC to investigate whether there is a genomic solution to mastitis. Twenty-five large performance-recorded Texel flocks were recruited; ewes were scored twice for udder conformation and milk samples were collected. A nasal swab was used to collect DNA and the samples were genotyped. This is the first step to understanding whether or not a genomic EBV can be produced for this trait and other hard-to-measure phenotypes.

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Production-limiting or iceberg diseases

A recent project carried out by the University of Nottingham and funded by AHDB, has summarised the information available for five production-limiting diseases of sheep:

• Border Disease (BD)

• Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA)

• Maedi Visna (MV)

• Ovine Johne’s Disease (OJD)

• Ovine pulmonary adenomatosis (OPA)The project has been raising awareness of these diseases among vets and farmers through meetings, train-the-trainer events and webinars. The work will end with a technical manual giving practical guidance to the industry on how to deal with these diseases. The publication will be available in winter 2018.

Border Disease Border Disease (BD), also known as Hairy Shaker Disease, is a less commonly diagnosed cause of abortion and is closely related to Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD) virus. Both diseases are caused by members of the Pestivirus family of viruses. Border Disease Virus (BDV) is present throughout the UK, with an estimated prevalence of between 30.4 and 37.4 per cent(42, 43, 44). Incidence has significantly increased in the last 40 years. The impact of BDV infection is widespread as it affects both reproductive performance and lamb performance.

Sheep can be infected by both BDV and BVD virus. A survey of pestiviruses isolated from sheep by the Moredun Institute in 2006 confirmed 80 per cent BDV and 20 per cent BVD virus type 1(43, 45, 46). Eradication programmes for BVD in cattle may be hampered by the presence of BDV in a significant proportion of mixed cattle and sheep farms. The unchecked presence of BDV in sheep will therefore be relevant to BVD eradication programmes in cattle. Further research in this area is needed.

Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA)Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) is caused by the Gram-positive bacterium Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis and was first diagnosed in the UK in goats in 1990, then in sheep in 1991. It is now classed as endemic. Initially thought to be found principally or exclusively in pedigree flocks producing terminal sires, it is now being seen in commercial UK flocks, usually introduced by infected rams (47). It has been proposed that feeding via troughs facilitates the spread of CLA within UK sheep systems. Experience from other countries shows that, if left uncontrolled, up to 60 per cent of adults within a flock may become infected(48).

There are no published estimates of the cost of the disease in the UK. In 2000, a serological survey of samples from 745 flocks found 18 per cent of flocks to have one or more CLA-positive animals, with an individual prevalence of 9.9 per cent(49). Serological screening kits for CLA are available in the UK.

There is no licensed vaccine in the UK, but the Australian Glanvac vaccine is widely imported under license from the VMD. Between 2009 and 2014, licences were granted for the import of 20,000–30,000 doses each year. Alternatively, an autogenous vaccine can be prepared within the UK. A complication of the use of vaccinated animals is that serological tests cannot differentiate between vaccinated and infected animals.

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Maedi Visna (MV)Maedi Visna (MV) is highly infectious, caused by the non-oncogenic lentivirus Maedi Visna virus (MVv). It is characterised by a long incubation period of several months to years, which leads to a progressive loss of condition or pneumonia, reduced flock production and poor economic performance. It may only be noticed when prevalence within a flock reaches 50 per cent. Infected ewes have a 9 per cent reduction in conception rate compared to similarly aged uninfected ewes within the same flock(50). The average longevity of MVv-infected sheep is reduced by at least one year(51). The disease is incurable: infected sheep become life-long carriers because they are unable to eliminate the virus. Serological screening kits for MVv are available in the UK, but there is currently no vaccine.

The prevalence within the national flock (including England, Scotland and Wales) is increasing and is estimated to be 2.8 per cent. Significant regional variation exists and in counties such as Leicestershire and Gloucestershire, flock level prevalence is 15 per cent(52). Members of the MV Accreditation Scheme are almost exclusively pedigree flocks. It is suspected that MV may well remain undiagnosed in many commercial flocks. The photo below shows normal lungs (left) and lungs from an MV-infected ram (right) at PME. Lungs of affected sheep are swollen, larger and heavier than uninfected counterparts and, when placed on the table, obscure the heart unlike the lungs on left.

Ovine Johne’s disease (OJD)Ovine paratuberculosis (Ovine Johne’s Disease; OJD) is a chronic bacterial disease of the small intestine caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). MAP was first reported in cattle in Europe in 1895 and has spread throughout the developed world and parts of the developing world. It is a multispecies pathogen, well-recognised as a major production-limiting disease in cattle and goats in Europe and in sheep in the antipodes.

In the UK, there is no reliable estimate of prevalence, but a recent survey of larger commercial sheep enterprises found 64 per cent were pathogen-positive on faecal PCR(53). Screening tests are available in the UK and the VMD has granted a limited marketing authorisation for the use of an inactivated MAP vaccine (Gudair) in sheep and goats. The photos below (page 47) show areas of thickened, sometimes pigmented intestines of Johne’s-infected sheep at PME.

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Ovine pulmonary adenomatosis (OPA)Ovine pulmonary adenomatosis (OPA), also known as Jaagsiekte or ovine pulmonary (adeno)carcinoma, is found globally, with the exception of Australia and New Zealand where it has never been reported and Iceland, which is the only country to have eradicated the disease.

The prevalence of OPA in the UK is not known, although abattoir cull ewe and fallen stock surveys have reported a prevalence of between 0.9 and 5.6 per cent(54, 55). With an incubation period of six months to three years, the disease is rarely seen in lambs; most clinically affected sheep are between three and four years old(56, 57,58). Subclinical sheep may be culled from the flock without diagnosis.

Diagnosis of OPA is challenging. There are no commercially available serological or antigen assays for OPA, despite research efforts. Diagnosis in the live animal is made by clinical signs and/or transthoracic ultrasound examination. The most definitive and reliable diagnosis is achieved by post-mortem examination, with gross pathology supported by histopathology.

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Internal parasites

Worms and parasitic gastroenteritisParasitic gastroenteritis (PGE) refers to infections of the stomach or intestines by several nematode worm species, either singly or in combination.

The annual cost of gastrointestinal parasites to the British sheep industry was estimated to be £84 million in 2005, making PGE the most costly disease affecting sheep(29). This cost is predominantly associated with the effect of worms on production and is likely to be increasing as the level of anthelmintic resistance increases.

In sheep, PGE is still consistently the most common Veterinary Investigation Diagnosis Analysis (VIDA) finding(59). Figure 18 shows the most commonly diagnosed diseases in all ages of sheep in Great Britain from 2014 to 2017 excluding abortion.

Figure 18. The most common VIDA diagnoses of disease in sheep of all ages (excluding abortion) in Great Britain, 2014–2017

Anthelmintic resistanceSince 2011, five classes or groups of anthelmintic have been licensed for use in sheep in the UK. Resistance to benzimidazoles (1-BZ), levamisoles (2-LV) and macrocyclic lactones (3-ML) is widespread. In the UK, the first confirmed case of resistance to montepantel (4-AD) was reported in 2018.

A recent study of 47 Welsh farms found evidence of resistance to 1-BZs on 94 per cent of study farms, resistance to 2-LVs on 68 per cent of farms, resistance to ivermectin (in the 3-ML group) on 51 per cent of farms and to moxidectin (also in the 3-ML group) on 19 per cent of farms(60). Furthermore, 15 per cent of farms showed resistance to all groups tested.

Resistance to monepantel (4-AD) has been reported in New Zealand against Teladorsagia and Trichostongylus(61); to Haemonchous in Australia(62, 63), Uruguay(64) and the Netherlands(65); and, most recently toTrichostrongyle in the UK(66). Resistance to derquantel and abamectin (5-SI group) has not been recorded in the UK to date.

Source: APHA

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

Parasiti

c gast

roente

ritis

Chronic

fasci

oliasis

Pneum

onia -

M.haem

olytic

a

Clostrid

ium pe

rfring

ens D

(Pulp

y Kidn

ey)

Coccid

iosis

PGE - Nem

atodir

iasis

Pine/C

obalt

defic

iency

John

e’s Dise

ase

Pneum

onia -

other

caus

e

System

ic Past

eurel

losis

Hypos

elena

emia

OPA (Ja

agsie

kte)

Num

ber o

f dia

gnos

es

49

One study compared eight farms following SCOPS principles with eight farms following more traditional worm control practices(63). The results suggest that farms implementing SCOPS principles use less anthelmintics than other farms, without loss of animal performance or increased worm burdens.

For further information please visit scops.org.uk

Liver flukeLiver fluke Disease has increased in the UK in recent years and has spread into previously fluke-free areas. The disease is responsible for considerable economic losses, estimated at £3–5 per infected sheep(67), caused by direct production losses, poor reproductive performance and livers rejected at slaughter.

FSA data show that, in 2017, 721,500 (7.8 per cent) livers were rejected from abattoirs in England alone(7).

Triclabendazole (TCBZ) has been the most widely used flukicide in sheep because of its activity against young immature fluke. Diagnostic tests available in the UK include faecal egg counting (FEC), which detects infection 10–12 weeks after initial infection and a coproantigen test, but this does not identify infection with young, immature fluke.

Lack of efficacy of TCBZ against liver fluke has been reported for some years and the presence of resistance was confirmed in a dose-and-slaughter trial in 2011(68). The prevalence of TCBZ resistance is not known, but its presence is a major threat to sheep farming in wetter areas of the UK where liver fluke is endemic.

HaemonchosisHaemonchus contortus is becoming a serious threat to intensive sheep production throughout the UK. With haemonchosis, the most important clinical sign is anaemia, which can be assessed by looking at the animal’s eyelids.

Moredun Research Institute has developed a vaccine (Barbervax®) for H. contortus, which is registered for commercial use in Australia. It does not replace the need for wormers, but is used as part of a monitored control programme.

Hydatids and other cestodesIn 2013, 0.2 per cent of sheep slaughtered at licensed abattoirs in the UK were found to have hydatid cysts; the larval stage of the dog tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. Hydatid cysts rarely cause disease in sheep but the disease is zoonotic.

Cysticercus ovis and C. tenuicollis are the larval stages of the tapeworms Taenia ovis and Taenia hydatigena, respectively. Both of these parasites have similar lifecycles to E. granulosus, with the adults residing in the intestines of dogs or foxes and the intermediate stage being in sheep. These parasites rarely cause disease in sheep, but their presence leads to the rejection of affected tissues. In 2017, in England alone, 8.1 per cent of sheep livers were rejected because of C. tenuicollis and 0.3 per cent of sheep carcases were affected by C. ovis(7). Where C. ovis is detected in more than two sites, the whole carcase is rejected. In 2015, a study of C. tenuicollis and C. ovis on Welsh farms found that failure to worm dogs adequately and to prevent dogs from scavenging on sheep carcases was common and was likely to account for the high incidence of these parasites(69).

50

External parasites

ScabNieuwhof and Bishop (2005) estimated the annual cost of sheep scab in Great Britain to be £8.3 million(29). Only £800,000 was attributed to reduced animal performance, with most of the cost coming from that of controlling sheep scab. Historically, there have been many attempts to eradicate sheep scab from the UK, but all have ultimately failed. Many other European countries also struggle to control the disease. The last period of compulsory dipping for sheep scab ended in 1992 and, currently, the sheep scab Order 1997 operates in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Under this legislation it is an offence not to treat animals visibly affected by sheep scab. In Scotland, the disease was made notifiable again in 2010 under the sheep scab Order (Scotland) 2010(70).

The prevalence of the disease is not known with certainty, but it is widespread and common throughout most of the UK, with the exception of some of the Scottish Isles. In 2005, there were estimated to be 10,000 outbreaks of sheep scab. Many treatments are given to sheep in Great Britain every year to either control or prevent sheep scab. Effective treatment options are limited to plunge dipping in organophosphate (OP) or injecting with 3-ML anthelmintics, with the latter now more commonly used. Recent increases in the cost of Environment Agency disposal licences for OP plunge dip have also added to the rise in use of the 3-MLs. The fact that 3-MLs are dual-purpose means their use in scab treatment is contributing to the rapid increase in anthelmintic resistance. In January 2018, moxidectin (3-ML) resistance in sheep scab mites was confirmed in four flocks in England and Wales(71).

A recent diagnostic development is the ELISA test for Psoroptes ovis, which detects serum antibodies in infested sheep. This test has been developed by the Moredun Research Institute and became commercially available in 2015. The test is specific to scab, so can distinguish between infestation with lice or scab. It also picks up scab infestations in the early stages, so it can be used in quarantine testing of newly purchased or returning stock. The cost of testing is being subsidised by Bimeda throughout 2018.

In July 2018, SCOPS submitted an integrated, industry-led project proposal to obtain funding from the Rural Development Programme for England (RDPE) to help tackle sheep scab in regions where controlling scab is difficult, such as common grazing areas. The proposal seeks funding to enable a coordinator to establish, agree, implement and plan for the control of scab in the region using the Psoroptes ovis ELISA. A coordinated area approach was used on the Isle of Mull, with good results.

There is also motivation and activity within the industry to establish an accreditation scheme for mobile OP plunge dippers.

Other external parasitesThe prevalence of lice in sheep is also not known but, as with sheep scab, there is no doubt the incidence has markedly increased since compulsory dipping ended.

Blowfly strike is a constant threat for most sheep farmers during the summer months and preventive treatment is routinely carried out on most farms. The risk season is changing as weather patterns alter and may extend from April to October in some regions.

The period of activity and distribution of ticks appears to be extending in response to changing climate, but VIDA diagnoses of tick-borne diseases in sheep have not increased significantly as yet.

51

Breeding and genetics

In the UK, most genetic evaluations are carried out by Signet Breeding Services. In total, 635 flocks spread across 37 breeds are currently recording their performance with Signet. Breeds with more than 50 flocks being recorded include Charollais, Hampshire Down, Lleyn, Suffolk and Texel. Growth and carcase conformation EBVs have been largely accepted by the industry and an increasing number of commercial farmers are using these to inform their choice of ram.

EBVs for specific health and welfare traits are being developed and some already exist in some breeds. These two could offer a significant benefit to the sheep industry:

Worm resistance and resilience FEC can be used as an indicator of resistance to gastrointestinal parasites. AHDB provides a subsidy to support the laboratory testing of faecal samples collected from sheep in Signet-recorded flocks. The results are then used to generate an FEC EBV. In 2014 there was an increase in the amount of FEC samples submitted, prompted by an AHDB Beef & Lamb (then EBLEX) Farm Innovation Grant awarded to the Performance-Recorded Lleyn Breeder group to look at the relationship between FEC and IgA levels in saliva. Since then, the Lleyn group has collected over 11,000 saliva IgA samples and the breed now has EBVs for saliva IgA. In 2017, a Romney Marsh project, supported by iSAGE and AHDB, collected the first of its IgA samples and built a FEC dataset that has strengthened the Romney Marsh FEC EBVs.

Ewe and lamb survivalSRUC has completed work for AHDB on ewe longevity(72). Initially three breeds (Poll Dorset, Lleyn and Texel) were investigated because of the large data sets stored by Signet. From this work, Lleyn now have longevity EBVs available in routine analyses. Improving aspects of maternal performance is the key to reducing wastage and flock inefficiencies. SRUC undertook a short project funded by AHDB using Scottish Blackface data to see if a lamb survival EBV could be ‘data mined’ from the Signet datasets, to deduce genetic differences in lamb survival(73). The project found there are genetic components associated with lamb survival as both a trait of the ewe and the lamb. From this work, Lleyn and Scottish Blackface now have lamb survival EBVs.

The potential value of genetic improvement to health and welfare is not currently being realised. A recent study commissioned by AHDB concluded that the realised returns from genetic improvement of all kinds in sheep are substantially below their potential in the UK (74). The report stated that terminal-type breeds have been increasingly used to generate replacements for the ewe flock, with detrimental effects on the performance of the maternal ewe flock. It highlights the value of genomics in earlier identification of superior individuals and in assessment of hard-to-measure traits, such as disease resistance. The greatest opportunity from genomics is likely to be in maternal traits, including disease resistance/tolerance and ease of care (cost saving) traits.

52

Recommendations

In the 2016/17 report, four recommendations were made and an update on activity can be seen below. The same recommendations will be maintained for the 2018/19 report.

Recommendations Update Future plans

We need more data

More data is always needed on sheep diseases, but the potential

of CCIR can start to be seen.

Data has been collated for antibiotic use from the limited

sources available.

Prioritise updated sheep breeds survey.

Future plans for collaboration between industry and Government

will provide more opportunities.

Comprehensive, updated impact assessment for endemic diseases to ensure investment and activity

is focused.

More data is needed on medicine with a sheep eMB pilot a

possible target.

Engage with data hubAPHA’s dashboard shows the potential for combining data

sources.

Livestock information system offers a massive opportunity

Active health planning

Some very good examples of proactive activity – flock health

clubs and SWISH.

Promotion of vaccination and other techniques to ensure responsible antibiotic use.

Further development of regional activity to build relationships between vets and farmers

Further activity on responsible medicine use.

Get ready for the next challenges

Improved relationship with AHWBE has ensured SHAWG’s

voice has been heard in the development of future policies.

High-profile KE for the sheep sector on hotspots for

antibiotic use.

More activity is planned on how farmers and vets can tackle

production-limiting (iceberg) diseases.

Hopefully activity on sheep scab.

The impact of trade agreements on requirements for health and

welfare reporting.

53

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62. J Lamb, T Elliott, M Chambers, and B Chick (2017). Broad spectrum anthelmintic esistance of Haemonchus contortus in Northern NSW of Australia. Veterinary Parasitology 241: 48–51.

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64. AE Mederos, Z Ramos and GE Banchero, (2014). First report of monepantel Haemonchus contortus resistance on sheep farms in Uruguay. Parasites Vectors 7 (1): 598.

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66. K Hamer, D Bartley, A Jennings, A Morrison N and Sargison (2018). Lack of efficacy of monepantel against trichostrongyle nematodes in a UK sheep flock. Veterinary Parasitology 257: 48-53.

67. AHDB Beef & Lamb (2013). Economic impact of health & welfare issues in beef cattle and sheep in England. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Economic-Impact-of-Health-Welfare-Final-Rpt-170413.pdf.

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56

69. ADAS (2015). Control of the dog tapeworm larvae C. ovis and C. tenuicollis in sheep.70. Scottich Government (2010). The sheep scab (Scotland) order 2010. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/

ssi/2010/419/pdfs/ssi_20100419_en.pdf.71. E Doherty, S Burgess, S Mitchell and R Wall (2018). First evidence of resistance to macrocyclic lactones

in Psoroptes ovis sheep scab mites in the UK. Veterinary Record. doi: 10.1136/vr.10465772. AHDB Beef & Lamb (2014). Genetic analysis of longevity in sheep. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.

uk/research/genetic-selection/genetic-selection-sheep/genetic-analysis-of-longevity-in-sheep/

73. AHDB Beef & Lamb (2014). Generating estimated breeding values for postnatal lamb survival. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/research/genetic-selection/genetic-selection-sheep/generating-ebvs-for-postnatal-lamb-survival/

74. AHDB Beef & Lamb (2014). Review of the genetic improvement of beef and sheep in the UK. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/research/genetic-selection/genetic-selection-generic/review-genetic-improvement-beef-sheep-uk/

57

Appendices

Table 11. Estimated size of pure breed populations of ewes kept in Britain in 2012 (ewes mated) compared with 2003

Breed Breed type

2012 2003No. of ewes

mated(‘000)

% of all ewesNo. of ewes

mated(‘000)

% of all ewes

Scottish Blackface Hill 1,125 8.6 1,686 11.1Welsh Moutain Hill 966 7.4 1,563 10.3

Swaledale Hill 721 5.5 1,047 6.9Lleyn Shortwool 474 3.6 237 1.6Texel Terminal sire 304 2.3 326 2.1

North Country Cheviot Hill 294 2.3 435 2.9Romney Marsh Longwool 251 1.9 165 1.1

Cheviot (unspecified) Hill 227 1.7 147 1.0Beulah Speckled Face Hill 144 1.1 498 3.3Hardy Speckled Face Hill 134 1.0 276 1.8

Suffolk Terminal sire 130 1.0 230 1.5

Source: AHDB Beef & Lamb

Table 12. Estimated size of crossbred ewe population in 2012 (ewes mated) compared with 2003

Breed Breed type

2012 2003No. of ewes

mated(‘000)

% of all ewesNo. of ewes

mated(‘000)

% of all ewes

North Country Mule LW x hill 1,636 12.5 1,915 12.6Welsh Mule LW x hill 576 4.4 738 4.9Scotch Mule LW x hill 469 3.6 610 4.0

Suffolk x (LW x hill) TS x 342 2.6 590 3.9Texel x (LW x hill) TS x 347 1.9 307 2.0

Other Texel x TS x 1,236 9.5 720 4.7Other Suffolk x TS x 584 4.5 699 4.6

LW: long wool; TS: terminal sire Source: AHDB Beef & Lamb

58

Table 13. Summary of ram breeds used in 2012 and 2003 (restricted to those representing over 3 per cent of all rams)

Breed2012 2003

No. of rams(‘000)

No. of flocks(‘000) % of all rams No. of rams

(‘000) % of all rams

Texel 99.0 19.8 27.1 100.4 24.4Suffolk 46.8 10.7 12.8 93.9 22.8

Charollais 32.0 8.7 8.8 31.0 7.5Scottish Blackface 24.2 2.9 6.6 30.3 7.4Bluefaced Leicester 21.7 4.2 5.9 30.8 7.5

Welsh Mountain 18.5 2.3 5.1 26.2 6.4Lleyn 12.6 3.5 3.4 8.2 2.0

Source: AHDB Beef & Lamb

Table 14. UK red meat production, 2012–2017 (000 tonnes)

Year Beef and veal Mutton and lamb Pork Total red meat

production

% of production sheep meat

2012 885 275 825 1,986 142013 847 290 833 1,969 152014 877 298 863 2,038 152015 885 302 900 2,086 142016 912 290 903 2,105 142017 905 299 899 2,103 14

Source: Defra and AHDB

Table 15. British wool production 2012 to 2016

Clip year Total production (million kg)

Average clip value (p/kg)

Average sale value (p/kg)

Sale value(£ million)

2012 31.6 77 119 37.62013 28.3 103 148 41.92014 28.6 105 150 43.52015 29.0 85 129.4 37.52016 29.3 72 115.3 33.8

Source: British Wool Marketing Board

59

Table 16. Lamb exports, 2012–2017 (tonnes)

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017Total

mutton and lamb

75,212 0 87,064 79,372 78,108 89,821

to EU 66,855 0 74,555 75,338 74,855 84,383France 43,467 0 43,474 42,682 40,332 40,848

Germany 7,258 0 8,287 9,662 10,880 14,086Ireland 4,988 0 7,372 7,311 7,695 9,208

Belgium 5,230 0 6,144 6,523 6,569 7,677Italy 2,761 0 4,351 4,063 3,296 3,729

Netherlands 1,526 0 2,068 2,468 3,397 5,348to Non-EU 8,358 0 12,509 4,035 3,253 5,438Hong Kong 4,154 0 8,955 1,846 2,093 3,725

Norway 1,220 0 1,438 597 0 0Ghana 409 0 564 639 216 537

Source: AHDB, UK HMRC and IHS Maritime and Trade

Table 17. Proportion of liveweight and deadweight sheep marketing, Great Britain

Year Liveweight (%) Deadweight (%)1997 66.1 33.91998 60.3 39.71999 55 452000 56.2 43.82001 12.6 87.42002 29.8 70.22003 47 532004 51.6 48.42005 47.3 52.72006 45.3 54.72007 45.8 54.22008 54.7 45.32009 57.1 42.92010 58 422011 57.9 42.12012 57.8 42.22013 57.7 42.32014 57.4 42.62015 55.7 44.32016 56.5 43.52017 54.1 45.9

Source: AHDB

60

Table 18. Summary of the number of confirmed cases of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) in sheep each year in Great Britain

Year Passive surveillance Active surveillanceClassical Atypical Classical Atypical

1993 325 0 0 01994 235 0 0 01995 253 0 0 01996 459 0 0 01997 507 0 0 01998 499 0 0 01999 597 0 0 02000 568 0 0 02001 296 0 0 02002 403 0 23 182003 379 0 63 522004 307 0 28 162005 178 3 43 222006 97 3 44 472007 10 2 23 312008 1 0 7 102009 3 0 5 252010 0 0 1 192011* 44 0 5 222012 0 0 2 282013 0 1 3 162014 0 0 0 102015 0 0 2 152016 0 0 0 132017 0 0 0 122018 0 0 0 10

Source: Public Health England

*42 out of the 44 classical positive passive cases were from a single flock

61

Research projects funded by SHAWG membersPr

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64

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65

Glossary of terms

ADAS ADAS is the UK’s largest independent agricultural and environmental consultancy and provider of rural development and policy advice

AFBNI Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute Northern IrelandAHDA Animal Health Distributors AssociationAHDB Agriculture and Horticulture Development BoardAHSGB Animal Disease Surveillance Governance Board AHWBE Animal Health and Welfare Board for EnglandAHWF Wales Animal Health and Welfare Framework AIMS Association of Independent Meat SuppliersAMBP Animal Medicines Best PracticeAMR Antimicrobial resistanceAMTRA Animal Medicines Training Regulatory Authority APHA Animal and Plant Health Agency, formerly AHVLA and VLA

AssureWel A University of Bristol, RSPCA and Soil Association initiative to establish farm animal welfare outcome measures

BBSRC Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilBCS Body condition scoringBD Border Disease BDv Border Disease VirusBMPA British Meat Processors AssociationBRC British Retail ConsortiumBRP Better Returns ProgrammeBSDA British Sheep Dairying AssociationBSE Bovine Spongiform EncephalopathyBTV Bluetongue VirusBVA British Veterinary AssociationBVD Bovine Viral DiarrhoeaBWMB British Wool Marketing BoardBZ Benzimidazoles, anthelmintic class 1CA Contagious agalagactiaCAP Common Agricultural PolicyCCIR Collection and communication of inspection resultsCLA Caseous lymphadenitisCODD Contagious Ovine Digital DermatitisCVO Chief Veterinary OfficerDAERA Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (Northern Ireland) Defra Department for Environment, Food and Rural AffairsDNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, carrier of genetic materialDNR Diagnosis not reached

66

DSC Disease Surveillance CentreDTP Doctorate Training ProgrammeEA Environment AgencyEAE Enzootic abortion of ewes

EBLEX Levy board representing beef and lamb producers in England (now AHDB Beef & Lamb)

EBV Estimated breeding valueEID Electronic IdentificationELISA Enzyme linked immunosorbent assayeMB Electronic medicine bookEPIC Centre of Expertise for Outbreaks of Animal DiseaseEU European Union FAI Food Animal InitiativeFAWC Farm Animal Welfare CouncilFAWL Farm Assured Welsh Livestock Beef and LambFEC Faecal egg countFSA Food Standards AgencyFSCC Fallen Stock Collection CentreFTA Free Trade AgreementFUW Farmers’ Union of WalesHCC Hybu Cig Cymru; development, promotion and marketing of Welsh red meatHPCIA Highest priority critically important antibiotics (i)CASE (Industrial) Collaborative Awards in Science and EngineeringIAAS Institute of Auctioneers and Appraisers for ScotlandIgA Immunoglobulin A

INRA Institut national de la recherche agronomique (French National Institute for Agronomic Research)

iSAGE Innovation for Sustainable Sheep and Goat Production in Europe KE Knowledge exchangeKPI Key performance indicatorKTN Knowledge Transfer NetworkLAA Livestock Auctioneers’ AssociationLIS Livestock Information ServiceLMC Livestock and Meat CommissionLV Levamisole, anthelmintic class 2LW Longwool sheep breed, e.g. Bluefaced LeicesterMAP Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis ML Macrocyclic lactose, anthelmintic class 3

67

MSDA division of the pharmaceutical company Merck & Co, MSD Animal Health offers veterinarians, farmers and pet owners the widest range of pharmaceuticals and vaccines, available in more than 50 countries

MV Maedi VisnaMVv Maedi Visna virusNADIS National Animal Disease Information ServiceNERC Natural Envrionment Research CouncilNFSCo National Fallen Stock CompanyNFU National Farmers’ UnionNFUS NFU Scotland

NIBL FQAS Northern Ireland Beef & Lamb Farm Quality Assurance Scheme, owned by the Livestock & Meat Commisssion

NMR National Milk RecordsNOAH National Office of Animal HealthNPA National Pig AssociationNSA National Sheep AssociationOIE World Organisation for Animal HealthOJD Ovine Johne’s DiseaseOP OrganophosphateOPA Ovine pulmonary adenomatosisPCR Polymerase chain reaction PGE Parasitic gastroenteritis PHE Public Health EnglandPI Persistently infectedPME Postmortem examinationPOM-V Prescription only medicines, prescribed by veterinary surgeon

POM-VPS Prescription only medicines, prescribed by veterinary surgeon, pharmacist or suitably qualified person

PPR Peste des Petits RuminantsPSGHS Premium Sheep and Goat Health SchemeQMS Quality Meat Scotland; levy board representing the red meat industry in ScotlandRCVS Royal College of Veterinary SurgeonsRDPE Rural Development Programme for England

RTA Red Tractor Assurance; food assurance scheme that covers production standards on food safety, traceability, animal welfare and environmental protection

RHA Road Haulage AssociationRSPCA Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to AnimalsRTA Red Tractor AssuranceRUMA Responsible Use of Medicines in Agriculture AllianceRVC Royal Veterinary College, London

68

SBV Schmallenberg VirusSCOPS Sustainable Control of Parasites in SheepSDA and non-SDA Severely disadvantaged area/non-severely disadvantaged area

SEERAD Scottish Executive Environment and Rural Affairs DepartmentSHAWG Sheep Health and Welfare Group of Great BritainSI Multi-active, anthelmintic class 5

Signet Breeding services providing genetic evaluation to sheep and cattle breeders, funded by EBLEX, HCC and QMS

SMS Scrapie Monitoring SchemeSONAAR Scottish One Health Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance SQP Suitably qualified personSRP Strategic Research ProgrammeSRUC Scotland’s Rural CollegeSRUC VS Scotland’s Rural College Veterinary ServicesSVS Sheep Veterinary SocietySWISH South West Initiative for Sheep HealthTB TuberculosisTCBZ Triclabendazole; a widely used flukicideTFF Targets Task Force

TMR Total mixed ration; method of feeding that combines forages, raw materials, minerals, vitamins and feed additives in one mix

TRACESTrade Control and Expert System is a web-based veterinarian certification tool used by the European Union for controlling the import and export of live animals and animal products within and without its borders

TRQ Tariff-Rate Quota TS Terminal sire, e.g. Suffolk, TexelTSE Transmissible Spongiform EncephalopathyUFU Ulster Farmers’ UnionUK HMRC UK Her Majesty’s Revenue and CustomsVARRS Veterinary Antimicrobial Resistance and Sales SurveillanceVAS Veterinary and Advisory ServicesVIDA Veterinary Investigation Diagnosis AnalysisVIO Veterinary Investigation OfficerVLA Veterinary Laboratory Agency, now APHAVMD Veterinary Medicine DirectorateWTO World Trade Organisation

shawg.org.uk

Christine Middlemiss

Chief Veterinary Officer for the UK

Sheila Voas

Chief Veterinary Officer for Scotland

Christianne Glossop

Chief Veterinary Officer for Wales

Robert Huey

Chief Veterinary Officer for Northern Ireland

We are pleased to welcome the second report from the Sheep Health and Welfare Group. We recognise the value of SHAWG’s work in promotion of sheep health improvements which have animal welfare and production benefits across the sector. The reports comes at a time of uncertainty and therefore challenge for the sheep sector. We hope that this report will give industry a focus on the opportunities to be gained through working together to maximise the benefits of the common goals identified by SHAWG.

The UK’s sheep flock remains the largest in Europe. The new vision of SHAWG of “a world class sheep industry that is inspired by, and competing with, the best” will be not be easy to achieve. It is, however, a vision that the CVOs whole heartedly support. Improving the health and welfare of our national flock reduces costs and waste associated with disease and improves the economic performance of flocks. Sheep farming shapes our UK landscapes and provides incomes to a diverse range of rural communities. Achieving this vision is critical in supporting food security, protecting public health and maintaining consumer confidence. It will support our access to new global markets. The report provides a valuable insight into activity and successes since the last report and identifies where further activity should be prioritised to achieve this vision.

The report highlights the need to encourage best practice and facilitate systems for collecting and sharing data on endemic disease and medicine use. The sheep industry is stronger when all involved work together to achieve common goals.

We congratulate SHAWG on producing this informative report and on the progress they are making. We look forward to seeing further progress and success in the coming year.

Support from the Chief Veterinary Officers

© Sheep Health Welfare Group 2018. All rights reserved.