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Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning 1

Running head: AN EXAMINATION OF ADULT LEARNING

Journal Article: An Examination of Adult Learning

Timothy Stafford MA MS


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Application of Adult Development and Andragogy

When teaching and designing coursework for adults, it becomes inextricably clear early

in the process that adult learning is paradigmically different in many different aspect than

teaching for children, teenaged students, or even young adults. The adult learning populace

operates from a holistic worldview that must be considered when teaching and certainly when

designing coursework. Teaching adults and teenagers for instance, have many similarities.

Often, difficult concepts have to be taught in multiple learning methods for adults much like for

teenagers as an example (Reigeluth, 1999, pp. 2-3). Collaborative learning is also difficult for

adults in some cases as it is for teenagers. Helping adults understand the reasoning behind

learning and the objectives of a course is critical. Those who have taught teenagers know of the

"when will we ever use this" question, but truthfully adults ask it as well. Having made these

comparisons, there are a large number of contrasts between the two groups. First, adults are

much more often intrinsically motivated than teenagers. Adults also have many differing

distractions than teenagers. Children, careers, job expectations, all of these things are possible

for the teenager, but most of the time they are well defined distractions for the adult learner.

Global economy, changing demographics, and changing technological trends and expectations

are also issues for the adult where the teenager views these as part of normal living (Mirriam,

Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 7). If it is true that all teachers teach to change the world

(Brookfield, 1995, p. 1), then the potential for teaching teenagers and adults is the same; the

only difference being that in teaching teenagers there is a sense of delayed satisfaction and for

the instructor of adults, changes in the world can be seen almost immediately.

This comparison and contrast yields to the conversation of note and that is how do

adults learn and what about their learning modes and methods should one consider when


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approaching the education of adults on any level. A comparison and contrast of four learning

theories will be the approach with an emphasis on looking at applicable means within the

context of corporate training and furthering the education of adults in a corporate business

model.

The Aging Mind

Adult learning does not occur in a vacuum (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 25) and so there

must be a set of critically reflective tools that one must use when appealing to the adult learner

and the adult learning mind from a cognitive and intellectual framework. Even memory can be

a factor for the mind as it is aging. This is not to say that all aging mind necessarily forgets

things, but the aging mind remembers in a certain context that must be understood when

teaching adults. For instance, recently a lecture was given on the application of technology in

the modern classroom and how the developing technologies of today will impact the

educational atmospheres of tomorrow. During the lecture, the presenter asked how the

computer has affected your career path. Many shared that the computer has completely

changed the way that they work by making their workflow more synchronous and the data they

need readily available. Many told stories of the past that gave the rest of the listeners a real

sense of the framework that these learners worked and a history of their career path. Many of

them expressed a learning model that seemed to be informal in its nature and many used the

term on the job training, but a few expressed that their formal education fueled a real

dependency on technology in a way that their parents did not espouse. However, there were

those detractors that talked of the good ol days where slide rules and apothecaries ruled and

everything was so much simpler. Life was easy going and learning was an indigenous reality,


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you learned what you needed to survive (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 33). Technology has now

forced out of relationships and into a more pixel driven approach to life. Almost all of these

detractors reflected a distain with the fact that a Hand shake is not contractual anymore and

that corporate business has changed.

Here one can see that the aspects of cognitive, intellectual and even domains in

memory are all reflective in a learning scenario that is unique to adults and it seems to be a true

gauge even among adult learners who are thirty-five and forty years old. In this scenario, the

attendees of the lecture were of all ages and the comments came from a wide range of age

groups. So when one considers learning theory, these are items that should be kept in mind.

Learning Theories

Many have sought to define a holistic framework by which instruction and design can be

developed that will address the core concepts surrounding the adult learner and thus the study

of andragogy was born. Malcolm Knowles found that there were some intriguing realities

behind the educating of adult learners and sought to form causal minks to some of the realities

of the adult learner. Thus the following realities were developed and, in a sense become the

basis by which many others have developed their theories of adult learning: (1) Self-concept in

an adult shifts from dependency ton independency. (2) Experience acts as a reservoir that

enhances the adult learning scenario. (3) Sociability plays an important role for adult learners.

(4) Adults are often motivated by urgency to learn for their own sense of self-preservation

which leads to a greater motivation to learn (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 84). In addition to these,

Morrison, Ross, and Kamp add that adult learners: (5) are eager to be a part of the decision

making process making learning a truly cooperative effort. (6) Tend to be less flexible than


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younger students due to the habitual and routine nature of adulthood (Mirriam et al., 2007, p.

61).

McCluskys Theory of Margin

In an attempt to marginalize adult learning into a more formulaic approach, McClusky

postulates that the adult learner desires to strike a balance between what he calls the (L) load

of life which expends energy and the (P) power of life which enables the learner to deal with

load. The ratio, then of P:L determines the margin by which one can participate in learning

(Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 93). This idea is refectory of Knowles idea that there are external

mitigating factors that play into the ability of the adult to learn. Families, career, job

responsibilities, and the like are all real issues for the adult learner and thus must be a

consideration. The difference here is the McClusky puts a strong weight on this issue as a real

mitigating factor of success for the adult learner.

Illeriss Three Dimensions of Learning Model

While McCluskys model focuses on the marginal ration between the weight of the life

responsibility of the learner and his/her ability to mitigate those responsibilities in light of

taking on new learning, Illeris is solely interested in the process of learning itself. He uses an

inverted triangle to sow the relationships between cognition, emotion, and society and then

looks at these three dimensions individually and as a whole and gives examples of how this

model might play out in a real word scenario like a chemistry lesson (Mirriam et al., 2007, pp.

97-100). This comprehensive, yet simple model provides strength to Knowles idea that the

question s of why are as important to the adult as the what, who, or hows that are

associated with traditional learning models. The adult needs to find a balance between his/her

cognitive ability to understand how something works, but also emotionally and socially, the


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reasons for why and for what purpose are equally important. In fact, the this theory could be

used t explain young adult learning as well and, for the most part this need of equilibrium is

even found in Middle and high school students as well as children who have a tendency to e

more inquisitive.

Jarviss Learning Process

Jarvis attempts to bring a synergy between the cognitive, emotional and social aspects

of the learner by beginning with adult experience as the catalyst of understanding learning.

Jarvis begins with the overarching philosophy that all learning begins with experience and thus

he determines that there can be a disjuncture between what he calls biography and experience

(Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 101). He believes that all learning begins through the biological five

senses and through their intense functionality, one can begin to discern things that are

different and learn the nuances of many different experiences that the human has within

his/her environment on a moment by moment basis. What makes Jarvis theory even more

specific to the learner, is that each persons lives within a flow of time within a life world and

within that life world the learner experiences and learns things differently than perhaps

another learner in context of his./her own flow of time and life world (Mirriam et al., 2007, p.

101-102). This is a significant addition to the study of learning because of its intense personal

aspect that would make each learner independent of other learners, however to capture the

essence and nuances of this type of model may be difficult when designing instruction for large

groups of learners. However, even in this scenario, it would behoove any instructional designer

or course instructor to consider the demographics of his/her classroom and to utilize these

demographics to help craft design concepts that would resonate in a greater way with each

group of students.


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Studying the Jarvis model brings to the forefront a measure by which a model could be

constructed that used a persons worldview as the catalyst or understanding how the individual

learner will embrace the materials being presented and by what capacity they can and will learn

new ideas and ways of thinking. A world view has been defined as the set of beliefs about

fundamental aspects of Reality that ground and influence all one's perceiving, thinking,

knowing, and doing. It includes but is not limited to beliefs about: (1) epistemology: beliefs

about the nature and sources of knowledge. (2) Metaphysics: beliefs about the ultimate nature

of Reality. (3) Cosmology: beliefs about the origins and nature of the universe, life, and

especially Man. (4) teleology: beliefs about the meaning and purpose of the universe, its

inanimate elements, and its inhabitants. (5) Theology: beliefs about the existence and nature of

God (6) anthropology: beliefs about the nature and purpose of Man in general and, oneself in

particular. (7) Axiology: beliefs about the nature of value, what is good and bad, what is right

and wrong (Hartshorne, 1984). These elements would make up an interesting model of

understanding learning through the filter of these areas. If it is true that all thinking is

connected in the sense that how one believes has an effect on how other ideas are formed and

shaped about anything and everything else that he/she may or may not believe, then it would

be surprising to see how significant these noetic structures would play a role in the learning

process (Plantinga & Wolterstorff, 1984). This would especially be true in light of the corporate

world and the knowledge industries. Many of the adult learners in knowledge industries are

being continually educated so as to remain ahead of the curve of learning for the sake of their

careers, yet many of them bring a wide variety of beliefs to the table about epistemology as an

example. Could it be that in the future, corporations will have to help shape the world view of

stakeholders, manager, and employees for the sake of the company staying current in the


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marketplace? What about corporations like Disney? Are they not already shaping the

worldviews of their employees? These are interesting questions that have a real place in the

future of learning theory.

Brookfield contends that there are four critical lenses of the reflective teacher, (1)

autobiography, (2) The lens of the student, (3) the lens of experience in relation to colleagues,

and (4) theoretical literature (Brookfield, 1995, pp. 29-30). These lenses must be in place in

addition to the model that one uses to teach or design from so that all aspects of the learning

experience and all factors of the learning environment are considered and acknowledged for

the security of the learning within these structures.

Adult Learning Theory Analysis

Gary Marx in his book, Sixteen Trends: Their Profound Impact on the Future (2006)

outlines sixteen different shifts in trend that will not only profoundly impact education,

but the whole of society. These sixteen trends have very real implications for the next

generation of learners, instructors and institutions of elementary, secondary, and

especially higher learning. The current Millennial Generation is insistent on solutions to

the many issues that have accumulated within the context of education as well as a

litany of social issues. Very soon the old will outnumber the young and ongoing

challenges continue to assert themselves in the area of diversification and social

cohesion (Marx, 2006). These issues coupled with the rising cost of doing business in

America are quickly creating a pandemic scenario for higher learning institutions.

Without sufficient funding, students cannot attend the local university. Without higher


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education, we will quickly lose our edge in the world economy and that will in turn

exponentially alienate those who are uneducated (Gamoran, 2001). There is now and

continually needs to be an understanding that sustained poverty in the country will only

continue to grow in expense, social debilitation, and leave a long lasting lack of security

for the members of our country and society (Yankelovish, 2005). So it is really up to the

higher education institution to reach out beyond the ivy covered walls and embrace

them where they are and give them the educational tools for the 21st

century in a 21st

century classroom environment..

Application of Adult Learning Theory to Future Trends

To enhance these ideas, it would be helpful to look at a few of these forecasted trends and

consider how they might impact Liberty Building Forensics Group (LBFG) as an institution:

#1 - Technology will continue to increase the speed of communication and the pace of

advancement or decline Distance is already an important component in the educational mix of

the United States and is quickly becoming a global reality. Those who move now have a chance

to be a part of the largest educational paradigm shift since the creation of the public education

system and LBFG is poised to make this a reality for our training facilities especially in the area

of offering continuing education units (CEUs) for professionals in the areas building,

architectural and construction forensics (Lundt, 2006). This empowering of distance learning

will, undoubtedly lead to more emphasis on self directed learning than ever before. The goals


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of self directed learning are 1) to enhance the ability of adult learners and to be self directed, 2)

to foster a new form of transformational learning and 3) to promote the ideas of emancipatory

learning and learning and social action the learner will have new tools by which to successfully

make an impact on his/her social context and culture (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner,

2007). This instructional model seeks to take learners from a dependency on an authority figure

like a classroom teacher or lecturer and shift that paradigm to a learner with a greater self-

direction who is willing and able to plan, execute and evaluate their own learning with or

without the help of an subject matter expert (SME) (Merriam et al., 2007). For LBFG, this will

prove to be a critical step for a variety of reasons. First, many of the firms employees are

remote and are unable to attend courses that may be offered in the onsite facilities without the

adaptation of a fairly resource intensive technological scenario that the firm does not currently

deploy. Second, within the remote nature of the employees there is a time sensitivity to most

projects that demands provision of tie for the employees that may not allow for a particular

time frame to attend training, therefore a more self-directed asynchronous approach must be

taken. Finally, there is a great deal of pressure for the professional engineers, contractors and

architects to keep their licenses current and this pressure brings into view the idea of these

continuing distance learners to form a community that is cooperative in nature for a common

goal among a set of professional standards. Each professional knows how competency is

defined within their specific discipline and the firm continues to put pressure on these

professionals to stay on the cutting edge of what learning needs are prudent to stay in the

forefront of their respective fields, (LEED certified buildings and their forensic issues as an

example).


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#2 - Release of human ingenuity will become a primary responsibility of education and society.

In her article, ee-Learning: The Best Road to Adulthood? Linda Chisholm discusses the potential

of ee-learning to address some of the inherent problems of college campuses. In an era of large

campuses and large classes, students are removed from the positive examples once provided

by faculty who lived in the campus community (Chisholm, 2007). By putting students in contact

with positive adult role models in professional settings, Chisholm goes on to suggest that a new

paradigm, ee-learning, can counteract these detrimental developments, giving students the

flexibility to continue their studies as they pursue the professional, social, and ethical

development the college experience should provide. Not to say that there is not a need for

morality on the campus, but that our primary responsibility is to promote an environment for

development of human ingenuity and whatever comes with this set of priorities and foci

(Chisholm, 2007).

Here is the very nature of the ideas that surround transformational learning. By

engaging a learner in an environment that brings him/her to a point of not only knowing

information but understanding their place in the world, this kind of transformation will

ultimately lead to a greater understanding of self on a holistic level as well as self on a socio-

cultural level (Merriam et al. 2007). For the first time, a new and fully believable mantra among

learners of all ages will be that one person can make an impact on their community and world

in a way that has never been understood or accomplished before. In the spirit of a more

transformational approach to learning, LBFG has partnered with a local high school to offer fully

paid internships that provide a more hands-on approach to learning in a variety of disciplines


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that surround the professional goals of the firm. These internships offer experience to the

learner in a real world environment where learners are a part of actual projects where the

work of building forensics, technology, and marketing practices for such a firm can be seen

from outside of the test tube world of the classroom. This allows for students who return to

the classroom, then, to critically reflect on the work that is being performed within these field

experiences and the goal is to provide a lasting connectivity between what the students are

learning and how these concepts play themselves out in the field. This being said, we see that

individual development then is exponential because of mentoring of these professionals in the

lives of these learners. As an example, one of the vice presidents of the firm recently sat in a

training session with four high school learners between the ages of fifteen and eighteen years

of age and offered a two hour session on how a set of moisture sensors were deployed,

activated, and then read for data about the inner forensics of building walls in severely humid

climates. This SME has over twenty-five year and has won numerous awards for his work in the

building forensics world. He has published hundreds of articles and even co-authored a mold

and moisture manual that has become one of the standards for the industry. In his blue jeans

and safety glasses working along with high school students to show them how geometry and

algebra play a significant role in understanding how to analyze this data, then students were

engaged and transformed by the event. They then were sent out on an actual job to watch the

sensors being deployed by professionals and then took part in the data analysis. The young

adults have now had experiences that will set the standard for what education should look like

for them in the future and they will seek out these types of experiences to continue them on

this type of development and critical thinking.


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#4 - The Millennial Generation will insist on solutions to accumulated problems while the

emerging Generation E will call for equilibrium.Marx summarizes the generation situation inAmerica in this way. By 2030 the Boomers will be between the ages of 66 and 84 and they will

be competing for services and attention alongside the then 90 million Generation Xers and

more than 75 Million Millennials. The Millennial will be focused on the solvency of accumulated

issues and creating a sense of civic order. The equilibrium or E generation will begin

Kindergarten in 2008-2010 and in college in 2022. Their given name indicates what they will be

in search of and they will be looking for resources and opportunities to create scenarios that

not only speak of equilibrium but provide it (Chisholm, 2007). Experience will be the

encapsulant of such equilibrium in the sense that when adaptation and autonomy are

understood in light of application, both critical and vocational, and expression then social

practice rapidly changes and therefore a greater impact can be made (Merriam, et al 2007).

In an experiential learning model, the adult learner couples the ideas of autonomy and

adaptation to real application and expression so that a well-rounded understanding of the

learning is achieved (Merriam, et al 2007). For LBFG, there are many situations that lend

themselves to this type of learning model. Many times, the firm will hire workers that may or

may not be trained in the specifics of the business types of the firm but nevertheless their

experience make them an excellent candidate for the position and then they will learn based on

the experiences of the position itself. As an example, the firm recently hired an accountant who

had all of the qualifications for managing a complicated accounting scenario, but the world of

the firm being billable through time and materials is a new set of realities for this particular


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person. However, she was up to the challenge and is learning how to do the things that she

knows in a new way every day. Here, the firm more or less becomes the educator, in that it

was able to assess the prior experience of the applicant and then provide opportunities for her

to earn by solving a specific set of problems and by overseeing a certain type of dilemma.

Opportunities to see best practices modeled, providing the scaffolding needed for the new

employees to make approximations and ultimately move into a place where that scaffolding is

no longer need are all apart of how these new employees are trained by virtue of the nature of

the business itself. The firm relies on employees having a sense of self-direction already a part

of their person and practice to help guide them to a self directed and generalized stage of

working within the firm (Merriam et al., 2007). For this new employee, all of these areas have

helped her to become the specific team member that the firm needed even though at first she

was not a perfect fit. Her ability to learn from experience has shaped her into the employee

that is an asset to the firm. Form a professional standpoint, the firm in its need to evaluate the

employees, will help to direct this employee as well as any of the others through the four

phases of the described cognitive apprenticeship above, and, in fact is also doing this for its

student interns as well.


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Ways of Knowing

Harry Blamires wrote, It is commonplace that the mind of man has been secularized.

For instance, it has been deprived of any orientation towards the supernatural (Blamires,

1963). Dr. Blamires hits on a reality that often academia tends to try to dismiss as it wrestles

with the philosophy of epistemology. In a Western sense, the mind has become synonymous

with personal achievement and a focus on the human as defined by his/her doings and leaves

any real reference to the human as a being to those who are thought to be more esoteric and

metaphysical in their approach to life as a general rule. However, the reality of the work place,

classroom, and communities in every corner of America is that spirituality plays a very real role

in the lives of those who are now being educated especially in the adult world. So the question

of how this will impact the training that Liberty Building Forensics Group (LBFG) employs for

its professional learners is critical and the goal here will be to try to find an approach to

understanding these way of knowing and how to understand the modeling behind trying to

design instruction to embrace some of the epistemic core values that each way of

understanding knowledge presents.

The Issue of Epistemology

In Michael Williams acclaimed book on the study of epistemology, he lists five

prominent problems with the philosophy of epistemology and how it impacts a philosophy of

any kind (Williams, 2001): (1) Defining knowledge as a whole is difficult. (2) What can be

absolutely known and what can only be understood given rational opinion? (3) How is

knowledge obtained? (4) What is the role of skepticism in truly knowing or not knowing? (5)

How is knowledge valuable? These five issues are at the heart of the epistemic conversation


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that ultimately will impact an educational philosophy at its very core. In a spirit of diversity and

trying to understand the needs of those who have differing faiths, it must be generally assumed

that these differing ideas stem from a platform of differing epistemologies and once this has

been embraced and there is an understanding of the differing worldviews of others, it becomes

easier to see through the quagmire of perceived needs of a diverse people and get to the root

of what must be taught so that most everyone arrives to the same understanding or at very

least a frame of reference of how to think through a set of given learning objectives. The danger

here is to leave epistemology and the study of worldview to the throes of merely an esoteric or

metaphysical pursuit without realizing the real value of understanding these ideas can be to

designing instruction or teaching designed instruction to a diverse group of people. This has

been the goal at LBFG as a training facility and that is to bridge the gap of these cultural dividers

and try to approach training through a well planned and executed learning system.

Case Study: Three Non-western Perspective of Knowing and their Impact at LBFG.

Confucius and Learning for Enlightenment

In the Confucian view of knowledge, there is a purposed emphasis on learning for the

enlightenment for the soul and mind. The eightfold path of becoming enlightened is

synonymous with the eight-fold path that we find in other eastern religions like Buddhism that

are used to demonstrate a journey of the human being to become more enlightened. Whether

it is the renewing f the mind, or the elimination of suffering, these journeys are epistemically

the key to greater understanding and even more far reaching learning (Merriam, Caffarella, &

Baumgartner, 2007). John Maxwell encapsulates this idea well when he writes, each person

that we meet has the potential to teach us something (Maxwell, 2006). At LBFG this has


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greatly impacted us in a number of ways as we design instruction for our professional staff

members. First we must recognize that often we learn best when we allow others to give

feedback on what we have presented. Many times questions and reflections often bring out

ideas and additional areas that were missed in the design. It also helps us to consider this view

of knowing is determining what needs to be offered as learning modules to our staff. Often the

question is not, what do our staff members need to know? But rather the question is better

when asked, What will better move our staff members towards a greater knowing and

understanding the areas that they work within in the firm? This focus on enlightenment and

movement has proven to be a better platform to empower our staff towards excellence and

peer-learning in a way that simply imparting facts and figures does not.

The Islamic View of Teaching and Learning

Islam is a comprehensive way of life and within that comprehensive view comes an

understanding of learning that is unique for an epistemic standpoint because the learner and

the teacher are of equal value (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). To the Muslim it is

as important what is completed through knowledge as it is to complete the track of knowing.

By this it is meant that the impact of the learning to the community o the learner is an absolute

indicator of the value of that knowledge and the depth of learning that takes place. This greatly

affects the overall philosophy of instructional design at LBFG because although at this present

stage of the firms existence we do not have Islamic staff members, we do recognize that giving

back to the community is, in a sense not just a justification of knowledge but as a firm we

recognize that all learning should fundamentally spill out to the community. The way that we

have embraced this is to commit significant time and resources to the engineering,


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construction, and architectural communities by publishing papers, giving seminars, webinars,

and podcasts, all for the sake of helping the evolution of the community a reality and helping

that evolution to not merely be mutation but ultimately for the industry to be better and

perform at a higher level. This creates an environment of inspiration that is far better than

merely an environment of aspiration where everyones goals may or may not be different. As a

firm, we want to help inspire movement, excellence, and preparedness in our communities

both professional and local and so for that sake philanthropy of resource and knowledge has

become a solid platform within the philosophy and purpose of the firm.

African Oral Traditions

One of the maintenance crew is a seventy-two year old Nigerian man who has lived in

the immediate community surrounding the firms locations for more than fifty years. As a

young man he came from Nigeria to an America that would segregate him, force him into

stereotypes, give him little place in societies elite thinking and all but banish him back to the life

that he left. However, he remembered the words of his father who said to him, No matter how

bad it becomes over there (America) just remember that you have an opportunity to do

something that we could only hope for and that is hope for freedom. At the firm, we invite him

to sit at the head table at every function and our desire is to honor the man who never gave up

hope on hope and freedom.

This story illustrates an African oral tradition of learning that is becoming more and

more popular among many differing people groups in America. As more and more Africans

impact American culture, this rich heritage of oral learning and teaching can have a great

impact on our educational philosophy and style (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).


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This maintenance worker has had a great impact on each member of the staff as he/she sits

and listens to the stories that he tells and we learn of the days that many of us will never truly

know in the same way that he did, but his ability to impart this knowledge in his unique way is

nothing short of inspirational. LBFG has embraced this type of learning especially in the field

where the best method of learning takes place as one teaches another physically and orally and

then allows that person to train others. This creates a system of learning that can be very

effective especially in training certain skill sets that include building testing and other areas that

are done with technicians.

Ultimately, all epistemology stems from the discussion of the value of knowledge

(Williams, 2001). If knowledge is not valuable to the learner then the imparting of that

knowledge will never be as effective a knowledge that is at even the lowest level perceived as

valuable. At LBFG, we must always remain cognizant of the value of what we are teaching to

those that we are teaching it to. Realizing this value will ultimately help battle skepticism, and

evolve towards a more inspirational model that will affect the surrounding community both

locally and professionally leaving a legacy of knowledge behind.


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