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M.L.Institute of Diploma Studies,Bhandu

A Project Report OnDESIGN OF HYDRAULIC JACK & ANALYSIS

Submitted ToGujarat Technological University

Submitted ByRANA HITENDRASINH K. 096350319104PATEL SATISH H. 096350319082VANZARA RANCHHOD M. 096350319117RATHOD HITESH M. 096350319060

Guided By Faculty Name : Mr.M. K. PATEL Mechanical Engineering Department

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` www.mechengg.netUNDEFINED PROBLEM

The student information

Name of student

(In Capital Letters) Surname Name Father’s Name

Enrollment Number

Contact Numbers Mob: Landline:

Email ID

College Name College Code:

Branch Semester:

Student Team Name:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Enrollment Numbers

Student Signature

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GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

M.L. INSTITUTE OF DIPLOMA STUDIES

BHANDU

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

Mr./Ms

from College having Enrolment No:

has completed UDP/ Semester V Project Report

having title

In a group consisting of persons under the guidance of the Faculty Guide

Institute Guide-UDP Head of Department

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am deeply indebted to my revered supervisor M.K. PATEL for inspiring, encouraging and guiding me in my project work without his suggestion timely guidance and co-operation. I confess, I would not have completed my Project Work he has been constantly a source of motivation for complete this thesis and model.

I am very much thankful to R. D. GOSWAMI, head of Mechanical department M.L.I.D.S. BHANDU & K.R. PATEL SIR, for providing me all the necessary facility for my project work.

I owe a world of gratitude to the authorities of M.L.I.D.S. BHANDU they granted me permission whenever I requested not only that they also provided me excellent facility of my work.

I would like to express my thanks to my prof. R. M. GOGE & prof. R. M. PATEL who have assisted me at various stages of my Work.

I wish to express my heart left gratitude to my friends. For their ceaseless help and co-operation all throughout this onerous task.

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` www.mechengg.netLast but not list I owe have a word of gratitude to the

almighty for providing me hidden strength and inspiration. I also thank all who have supported me a lot in my project work.

ABSTRACT:

Now a day, infrastructure development is very fast growing, for that the use of

R.C.C construction machinery is very widely used, but in any R.C.C construction machinery

proper Mixing of raw material for Concrete is major problem. Proper mixing of raw material is

important task in any construction, for that we are use latest equipments which are mechanically

and hydraulically combined operated mostly. DESIGN OF OPEN HYDRAULIC JACK & ANALYSES is

one of them which are operated by two prime movers one prime mover is use for hydraulic

system operation for operating the hoper and other for operating drum for proper mixing of

concretThe work presented herein is mainly divided into the three chapters. The first chapter

introduces the concrete benching mixing machine with problem formulation and provides

motivation for the project. The second chapter presents the current state of mixing machine

research as presented in the form of scientific literature review.

PROJECT DEFINATION:

A hydraulic jack is a device used to lift heavy loads. The device itself is light, compact and portable, but is capable of exerting great force. The device pushes liquid against a piston; pressure is built in the jack's container. The jack is based on Pascal's law that the pressure of a liquid in a container is the same at all point

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

No. Titles Page no.

Acknowledgement 1

Abstract 8

Tables Of Contents 9

List Of Figure

Nomenclature

Ch.1 Introduction 12

1.1 Definition Of Hydraulic Jack 13

1.2 Introduction 13

1.3 Pascal’s Law 13

1.4 History 14

1.5 Features 14

1.6 Classification Of Jack 14

1.6.1 Mechanical Jack 15

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` www.mechengg.net1.6.2 Hydraulic Jack 15

1.6.3 Pneumatic Jack 16

1.6.4 Strand Jack 17

1.7 Working Principal:- 18

1.8 Working Of Hydraulic Jack 18

1.9 Advantages 21

1.10 Applications 23

Ch.2 Design Of Hydraulic System 24

2.1 Hydraulic Basics 25

2.1.1 Pressure And Force 25

2.2 Basic Systems:- 27

2.3 Parts Of Hydraulic Jack 29

2.3.1 Parts Of Cylinder 29

2.3.1.1 CYLINDER BARREL 29

2.3.1.2 CYLINDER BASE OR CAP 29

2.3.1.3 CYLINDER HEAD:- 30

2.3.2 Piston Rod:- 30

2.3.2.1 Piston Rod Construction 30

2.3.2.1.1 -Metallic Coatings:- 30

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` www.mechengg.net2.3.2.1.2 CERAMIC COATINGS:- 31

2.3.2.1.3 Length:- 31

2.3.2.3 Gland (End Cap):- 31

Ch.3 CALCULATION FOR DESIGN 32

Ch.4 LITREACHER RIVIEW 37

Ch.5 REFERENCES 48

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Chapter 1

Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1-Defination Of Hydraulic Jack:-

A hydraulic jack is a device used to lift heavy loads. The device itself is light, compact and portable, but is capable of exerting great force. The device pushes liquid against a piston; pressure is built in the jack's container. The jack is based on Pascal's law that the pressure of a liquid in a container is the same at all points.

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` www.mechengg.net 1.2-Introduction:-

A hydraulic jack is a jack that uses a liquid to push against a piston. This is based on Pascal’s Principle. The principle states that pressure in a closed container is the same at all points. If there are two cylinders connected, applying force to the smaller cylinder will result in the same amount of pressure in the larger cylinder. However, since the larger cylinder has more area, the resulting force will be greater. In other words, an increase in area leads to an increase in force. The greater the difference in size between the two cylinders, the greater the increase in the force will be. A hydraulic jack operates based on this two cylinder system.

1.3-Pascal’s law :-

Pressure on a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished and acts with equal force on equal areas and at 90 degrees to the container wall.

A fluid, such as oil, is displaced when either piston is pushed inward. The small piston, for a given distance of movement, displaces a smaller amount of volume than the large piston, which is proportional to the ratio of areas of the heads of the pistons. Therefore, the small piston must be moved a large distance to get the large piston to move significantly. The distance the large piston will move is the distance that the small piston is moved divided by the ratio of the areas of the heads of the pistons. This is how energy, in the form of work in this case, is conserved and the Law of Conservation of Energy is satisfied. Work is force times distance, and since the force is increased on the larger piston, the distance the force is applied over must be decreased.

1.4-History:-

The Origin Of Hydraulic Jacks Can Be Dated Several Years Ago When Richard Dudgeon, The Owner And Inventor Of Hydraulic Jacks, Started A Machine Shop. In The Year 1851, He Was Granted A Patent For His Hydraulic Jack. In The Year 1855, He Literally Amazed Onlookers In New York When He

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` www.mechengg.netDrove From His Abode To His Place Of Work In A Steam Carriage. It Produced A Very Weird Noise That Disturbed The Horses And So Its Usage Was Limited To A Single Street. Richard Made A Claim That His Invention Had The Power To Carry Near About 10 People On A Single Barrel Of Anthracite Coal At A Speed Of 14 M.P.H. Dudgeon Deserves A Special Credit For His Innumerable Inventions Including The Roller Boiler Tube Expanders, Filter Press Jacks, Pulling Jacks, Heavy Plate Hydraulic Hole Punches And Various Kinds Of Lifting Jacks.

1.5-Features:-

The jack uses compressible fluid, which is forced into a cylinder by a plunger. Oil is usually used for the liquid because it is self-lubricating and has stability compared with other liquids. When the plunger comes up, it pulls the liquid through a check valve suction pump. When the plunger is lowered again, it sends liquid through another valve into a cylinder. A ball used for suction in the cylinder shuts the cylinder and pressure builds up in the cylinder. The suction valve present in the jack opens at each draw of the plunger. The discharge valve, which is outside the jack, opens when oil is pushed into the cylinder. The pressure of the liquid enables the device to lift heavy loads.

1.6-Classification Of Jack:-

1.6.1-Mechanical jack:-

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` www.mechengg.netFig 1.1 Mechanical jack

Jackscrews are integral to the Scissor Jack, one of the simplest kinds of car jacks still used.

A mechanical jack is a device which lifts heavy equipment. The most common form is a car jack, floor jack or garage jack which lifts vehicles so that maintenance can be performed. Car jacks usually use Mechanical advantage to allow a human to lift a vehicle by manual force alone. More powerful jacks use hydraulic power to provide more lift over greater distances. Mechanical jacks are usually rated for a maximum lifting capacity (for example, 1.5 tons or 3 tons). The jack shown at the right is made for a modern vehicle and the notch fits into a hard point on a unibody. Earlier versions have a platform to lift on the vehicles' frame or axle.

1.6.2-Hydraulic jack:-

Hydraulic jacks are typically used for shop work, rather than as an emergency jack to be carried with the vehicle. Use of jacks not designed for a specific vehicle requires more than the usual care in selecting ground conditions, the jacking point on the vehicle, and to ensure stability when the jack is extended. Hydraulic jacks are often used to lift elevators in low and medium rise buildings.

A hydraulic jack uses a fluid, which is incompressible, that is forced into a cylinder by a pump plunger. Oil is used since it is self lubricating and stable. When the plunger pulls back, it draws oil out of the reservoir through a suction check valve into the pump chamber. When the plunger moves forward, it pushes the oil through a discharge check valve into the cylinder. The suction valve ball is within the chamber and opens with each draw of the plunger. The discharge valve ball is outside the chamber and opens when the oil is pushed into the cylinder. At this point the suction ball within the chamber is forced shut and oil pressure builds in the cylinder.

In a bottle jack the piston is vertical and directly supports a bearing pad that contacts the object being lifted. With a single action piston the lift is somewhat less than twice the collapsed height of the jack, making it suitable only for vehicles with a relatively high clearance. For lifting structures such as houses the hydraulic interconnection of multiple vertical jacks through valves enables the even distribution of forces while enabling close control of the lift.

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` www.mechengg.net In a floor jack (aka 'trolley jack') a horizontal piston pushes on the short end of a bellcrank with the long arm providing the vertical motion to a lifting pad, kept horizontal with a horizontal linkage. Floor jacks usually include castors and wheels, allowing compensation for the arc taken by the lifting pad. This mechanism provide a low profile when collapsed, for easy maneuvering underneath the vehicle, while allowing considerable extension.

1.6.3- Pneumatic jack:-

A pneumatic jack is a hydraulic jack that is actuated by compressed air - for example, air from a compressor instead of human work. This eliminates the need for the user to actuate the hydraulic mechanism, saving effort and potentially increasing speed. Sometimes, such jacks are also able to be operated by the normal hydraulic actuation method, thereby retaining functionality, even if a source of compressed air is not available.

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` www.mechengg.net1.6.3- Pneumatic jack:-

Fig 1.2 Threaded rod 7" fully extended

Fig 1.3 2.5 ton house jack that stands 24 inches from top to bottom fully threaded out.

A house jack, also called a screw jack is a mechanical device primarily used to lift houses from their foundation. A series of jacks are used and then wood cribbing temporarily supports the structure. This process is repeated until the desired height is reached. The house jack can be used for jacking carrying beams that have settled or for installing new structural beams. On the top of the jack is a cast iron circular pad that the 4" × 4" post is resting on. This pad moves independently of the house jack so that it does not turn as the acme-threaded rod is turned up with a metal rod. This piece tilts very slightly but not enough to render the post dangerously out of plumb

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` www.mechengg.net1.6.4- Strand jack:-

A strand jack is a specialized hydraulic jack that grips steel cables often used in concert, strand jacks can lift hundreds of tons and are used in engineering and construction.

1.7-Working Principal:-

The hydraulic jack is a device used for lifting heavy loads by the application of much smaller force. It is based on Pascal’s law, which states that intensity of pressure is transmitted equally in all directions through a mass of fluid at rest.

The working principle of a hydraulic jack may be explained with the help of Fig. Consider a ram and plunger, operating in two cylinders of different diameters, which are interconnected at the bottom, through a chamber, which is filled with some liquid.

Fig 1.4 Consider a ram and plunger,

1.8-Working Of Hydraulic Jack:-

Hydraulic jacks and many other technological advancements such as automobile brakes and dental chairs work on the basis of Pascal's Principle, named for Blaise Pascal, who lived in the seventeenth century. Basically, the principle states that the pressure in a closed container is the same at all points. Pressure is described mathematically by a Force divided by Area. Therefore if you have two

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` www.mechengg.netcylinders connected together, a small one and a large one, and apply a small Force to the small cylinder, this would result in a given pressure. By Pascal's Principle, this pressure would be the same in the larger cylinder, but since the larger cylinder has more area, the force emitted by the second cylinder would be greater. This is represented by rearranging the pressure formula P = F/A, to F = PA. The pressure stayed the same in the second cylinder, but Area was increased, resulting in a larger Force. The greater the differences in the areas of the cylinders, the greater the potential force output of the big cylinder. A hydraulic jack is simply two cylinders connected as described above.

An enclosed fluid under pressure exerts that pressure throughout its volume and against any surface containing it. That's called 'Pascal's Principle', and allows a hydraulic lift to generate large amounts of force from the application of a small Assume a small piston (one square inch area) applies a weight of 1 lbs. to a confined hydraulic fluid. That provides a pressure of 1 lbs. per square inch throughout the fluid. If another larger piston with an area of 10 square inches is in contact with the fluid, that piston will feel a force of 1 lbs/square inch x 10 square inches = 10 lbs

Fig 1.5 Working Of Hydraulic Jack:-

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So we can apply 1 lbs. to the small piston and get 10 lbs. of force to lift a heavy object with the large piston. Is this 'getting something for nothing'? Unfortunately, no. Just as a lever provides more force near the fulcrum in exchange for more distance further away, the hydraulic lift merely converts work (force x distance) at the smaller piston for the SAME work at the larger one. In the example, when the smaller piston moves a distance of 10 inches it displaces 10 cubic inch of fluid. That 10 cubic inch displaced at the 10 square inch piston moves it only 1 inch, so a small force and larger distance has been exchanged for a large force through a smaller distance.

Hydraulic jacks have six main parts. These are the reservoir, pump, check valve, main cylinder, piston, and release valve. The reservoir holds hydraulic fluid. A pump will draw the fluid up and then create pressure on the down stroke as it pushes the fluid through the check valve. This valve allows the fluid to leave the reservoir and enter the main cylinder. In the main cylinder, the piston is forced up as the cylinder is filled with the fluid. When it is time to release the pressure and allow the piston to return to its starting position, the release valve is opened. This allows the fluid to return to the reservoir.

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` www.mechengg.netShow In Figure;-

1.9-Advantages:-

Safety First:- Hydraulic jacking System is one of the most safest mode to erect storage tank, complete work is executed on ground level preventing risks of accidents. For decades, there has been not a single report that proves its credibility in being the safest and most likely method for the storage tank construction. The hydraulic jack systems has now gained a lot of popularity.

Easier Inspection:- Our efficient hydraulic jacking systems needs various

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` www.mechengg.netscaffolding and attachments to offer comfortable access for welding heights.

No Scaffolding Required:- Welding inspectors can now perform ultrasonic as well as several other non destructive tests on welds at ground level, it allows easier inspection for better quality control.

Faster Erection:- The shell plates are erected at ground level in place of being installed at the height of about 30 feet or more, in order to save construction time required for the alignment of plates. The time and manpower needed for lifting the plates to the height is amputated. Construction work remains unaffected by snow or rain.

Tank Erection Top Downwards Cuts Construction Time And Cost Considerably :-

New shell plates are developed at the ground level in place of being hauled up to about 30 feet heights or more, saving considerable time desired for alignment of plates. The cumulative time needed for lifting of men and material to the heights that is eliminated. Tank construction work stays practically unaffected from rain or snow, hence most work is performed under the protection of the tank itself.

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1.10-Applications:-

Dismantling of old tanks Repair to tank foundation Building of field erected storage tanks Repair or replacement of tank bottom plate Increasing tank capacity by adding shell rings or courses Erection of other circular structures such as reactor shields in nuclear power

stations, etc.

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Design of Hydraulic Jack

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` www.mechengg.netChapter 2 Design of Hydraulic Jack

2.1 Hydraulic Basics:-

Hydraulics is the science of transmitting force and/or motion through the medium of a confined liquid. In a hydraulic device, power is transmitted by pushing on a confined liquid.Figure 1-1 shows a simple hydraulic device. The transfer of energy takes place because quantity of liquid is subject to pressure. To operate liquid-powered systems, the operator should have a knowledge of the basic nature of liquids. This chapter covers the properties of liquids and how they act under different conditions.

2.1.1:- Pressure and Force.:-

Pressure is force exerted against a specific area (force per unit area) expressed in pounds per square inch (psi). Pressure can cause an expansion, or resistance to compression, of a fluid that is being squeezed. A fluid is any liquid or gas (vapor). Force is anything that tends to produce or modify (push or pull) motion and is expressed in pounds a. Pressure. An example of pressure is the air (gas) that fills an automobile tire. As a tire is inflated, more air is squeezed into it than it can hold. The air inside a tire resists the squeezing by pushing outward on the casing of the tire. The outward push of the air is pressure.Equal pressure throughout a confined area is a characteristic of any pressurized fluid.

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Figure 2.1 Basic hydraulic devices

For example, in an inflated tire, the outward push of the air is uniform throughout. If it were not, a tire would be pushed into odd shapes because of its elasticity. There is a major difference between a gas and a liquid. Liquids are slightly compressible (Figure 2.1). When a confined liquid is pushed on, pressure builds up. The pressure is still transmitted equally throughout the container. The fluid's behavior makes it possible to transmit a push through pipes,around corners, and up and down.

D2=F1*D1/F2

Where

F1 = force of the small piston, in poundsD1 = distance the small piston moves, in inchesD2 = distance the larger piston moves, in inchesF2 = force of the larger piston, in pounds

2.2-Basic Systems:-Page no:24

Confined liquid is

subject to pressure

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The advantages of hydraulic systems over other methods of power transmission are

• Simpler design. In most cases, a few pre-engineered components will replace complicated mechanical linkages.• Flexibility. Hydraulic components can be located with considerable flexibility. Pipes and hoses in place of mechanical elements virtually eliminate location problems.• Smoothness. Hydraulic systems are smooth and quiet in operation. Vibration is kept to a minimum.• Control. Control of a wide range of speed and forces is easily possible.• Cost. High efficiency with minimum friction loss keeps the cost of a power transmission at a minimum.• Overload protection. Automatic valves guard the system against a breakdown from overloading.

The main disadvantage of a hydraulic system is maintaining the precision parts when they are exposed to bad climates and dirty atmospheres. Protection against rust, corrosion, dirt, oil deterioration, and other adverse environment is very important. The following paragraphs discuss several basic hydraulic systems.

A- Hydraulic Jack:- In this system a reservoir and a system of valves has been added to Pascal's hydraulic lever to stroke a small cylinder or pump continuously and raise a large piston or an actuator a notch with each stroke. Diagram A shows an intake stroke. An outlet check valve closes by pressure under a load, and an inlet check valve opens so that liquid from the reservoir fills the pumping chamber. Diagram B shows the pump stroking downward. An inlet check valve closes by pressure and an outlet valve opens. More liquid is pumped under a large piston to raise it. To lower a load, a third valve (needle valve) opens, which opens an area under a large piston to the reservoir. The load then pushes the piston down and forces the liquid into the reservoir.

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Figure 2-2. Hydraulic jack

B- Motor-Reversing System:- Figure 2-2, shows a power-driven pump operating a reversible rotary motor. A reversing valve directs fluid to either side of the motor and back to the reservoir. A relief valve protects the system against excess pressure and can bypass pump output to the reservoir, if pressure rises too high.

C-Open-Center System:- In this system, a control-valve spool must be open in the center to allow pump flow to pass through the valve and return to the reservoir.

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` www.mechengg.netthis system in the neutral position. To operate several functions simultaneously,an open-center system must have the correct connections, which are discussed below. An open-center system is efficient on single functions but is limited with multiple functions.

The return from the first valve is routed to the inlet of the second, and so on. In neutral, the oil passes through the valves in series and returns to the reservoir, as the arrows indicate. When a control valve is operated, the incoming oil is diverted to the cylinder that the valve serves. Return liquid from the cylinder is directed through the return line and on to the next valve. This system is satisfactory as long as only one valve is operating at a time. When this happens, the full output of the pump at full system pressure is available to that function. However, if more than one valve is operating, the total of the pressures required for each function cannot exceed the system’s relief setting.

2.3-Parts Of Hydraulic Jack:-

Gland (End Cap) Piston Road Cylinder Base Plate Hose Pipe

2.3.1-Parts Of Cylinder:-

2.3.1.1-Cylinder Barrel:-

The cylinder barrel is mostly a seamless thick walled forged pipe that must be machined internally. The cylinder barrel is ground and/or honed internally.

2.3.1.2-Cylinder Base Or Cap:-

In most hydraulic cylinders, the barrel and the bottom portion are welded together. This can damage the inside of the barrel if done poorly. Therefore, some cylinder designs have a screwed or flanged

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` www.mechengg.netconnection from the cylinder end cap to the barrel. In this type the barrel can be disassembled and repaired.

2.3.1.3-Cylinder Head:-

The cylinder head is sometimes connected to the barrel with a sort of a simple lock. In general, however, the connection is screwed or flanged. Flange connections are the best, but also the most expensive. A flange has to be welded to the pipe before machining. The advantage is that the connection is bolted and always simple to remove. For larger cylinder sizes, the disconnection of a screw with a diameter of 300 to 600 mm is a huge problem as well as the alignment during mounting.

2.3.2-Piston Rod:-

The piston rod is typically a hard chrome-plated piece of cold-rolled steel which attaches to the piston and extends from the cylinder through the rod-end head. In double rod-end cylinders, the actuator has a rod extending from both sides of the piston and out both ends of the barrel. The piston rod connects the hydraulic actuator to the machine component doing the work. This connection can be in the form of a machine thread or a mounting attachment, such as a rod-clevis or rod-eye. These mounting attachments can be threaded or welded to the piston rod or, in some cases, they are a machined part of the rod-end.

2.3.2.1:-Piston Rod Construction:-

The piston rod of an hydraulic cylinder operates both inside and outside the barrel, and consequently both in and out of the hydraulic fluid and surrounding atmosphere.

2.3.2.1.1:-Metallic Coatings:-

Smooth and hard surfaces are desirable on the outer diameter of the piston rod and slide rings for proper sealing. Corrosion resistance is also advantageous. A chromium layer may often be applied on the outer surfaces of these parts. However, chromium layers may be porous, thereby attracting moisture and eventually causing oxidation. In harsh marine environments, the steel is often treated with both a nickel layer and a chromium layer. Often 40 to 150 micrometer thick layers are applied. Sometimes solid stainless steel rods are used. High quality stainless steel such as AISI 316 may be used for low stress

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` www.mechengg.netapplications. Other stainless steels such as AISI 431 may also be used where there are higher stresses, but lower corrosion concerns.

2.3.2.1.2:-Ceramic Coatings:-

Due to shortcomings of metallic materials, ceramic coatings were developed. Initially ceramic protection schemes seemed ideal, but porosity was higher than projected. Recently the corrosion resistant semi ceramic Lunac2+ coatings were introduced. These hard coatings are non porous and do not suffer from high brittleness.

2.3.2.1.3:-Length:-

Piston rods are generally available in lengths which are cut to suit the application. As the common rods have a soft or mild steel core, their ends can be welded or machined for a screw thread.

2.3.2.3:-Gland (End Cap):-

The cylinder head is fitted with seals to prevent the pressurized oil from leaking past the interface between the rod and the head. This area is called the rod gland. It often has another seal called a rod wiper which prevents contaminants from entering the cylinder when the extended rod retracts back into the cylinder. The rod gland also has a rod wear ring. This wear ring acts as a liner bearing to support the weight of the piston rod and guides it as it passes back and forth through the rod gland. In some cases, especially in small hydraulic cylinders, the rod gland and the rod wear ring are made from a single integral machined part.

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Chapter 3

Calculation For design

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CALCULATIONS:-

Distance the larger piston moves

D2=F1*D1/F2

Where

F1 = force of the small piston, in poundsD1 = distance the small piston moves, in

inchesD2 = distance the larger piston moves, in

inchesF2 = force of the larger piston, in pounds

The definition of fluid pressure is a force per unit area, or in equation form,

P = F / A

where P = pressure (N/m2, psi),

F = force (N, lbf), and

A = area (m2, in2).

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TO FIND INNER DIAMETER OF CYLINDER TUBE:-

p where, P = total pressure

D = Inner diameter

p = working pressure

3 *1000 = 0.785 × D2 × 300

D=3000/0.785*300

D2 = 12.76

D = 6CM = 60MM. (inner diameter of cylinder tube)

TO FIND OUTER DIAMETER OF CYLINDER TUBE:-

We have already a equation =

Where, = working stress

P = working pressure

= outer diameter of cylinder tube

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` www.mechengg.net = inner diameter of cylinder tube

= Working stress = 4200/4= 1050 KG/CM2

1050 = 300 ×

1050do -3780000=300do +1080000

750do =2700000

do =2700000*750

do =202500000

do=73mm

THICKNESS OF THE CYLINDER TUBE:-

Tube thickness =

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` www.mechengg.net =73-60/2

=6.5mm

DESIGN OF PISTON

We know that cylinder’s inner diameter is equal to piston’s outer diameter so piston outer diameter is 60mm . Generally piston’s are maded from MILD STEEL & SUITABLE MATERIAL……

DESIGN OF PISTON ROD

Material strength EN9 = 1750 kg/cm2

3000=0.785*60*60*1750

3000=4945500kg/mm

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Chapter 4

LITERATURE REVIEW

LITERATURE REVIEW

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` www.mechengg.net If the word hydraulics is understood to mean the use of water for the

benefit of mankind, then its practice must be considered to be even older than recorded history itself. Traces of irrigation canals from prehistoric times still exist in Egypt and Mesopotamia; the Nile is known to have been dammed at Memphis some six thousand years ago to provide the necessary water supply, and the Euphrates River was diverted into the Tigris even earlier for the same purpose. Ancient wells still in existence reach to surprisingly great depths; and underground aqueducts were bored considerable distances, even through bedrock. In what is now Pakistan, houses were provided with ceramic conduits for water supply and drainage some five thousand years ago; and legend tells of vast flood-control projects in China barely a millenium later. All of this clearly demonstrates that men must have begun to deal with the flow of water countless millenia before these times.

Though both the art and the science of hydraulics treat of such flows, they obviously differ significantly in time and substance. Hydraulic practice necessarily originated as an art, for the principles involved could be formulated only after long experience with science in general and water in particular. However necessary the conduct of the art thus was to the eventual development of the science, it is almost exclusively with the science of hydraulics that the present article will deal. As a matter of fact, the subiect matter of the traditional college course in hydraulics -- particularly as it was taught in the not-too-recent past -- provides a framework on which the history of the science can conveniently be based.

Such a course usually began with the topic of hydrostatics -- the characteristics of liquids at rest. Instructors then proceeded to the principle of continuity (the conservation of fluid mass) and a form of the work-energy principle known as the Bernoulli theorem. In passing, note was taken of means of measuring velocity, pressure, and discharge, including the use of small-scale models to simulate flow conditions in themselves too large to test. These principles were then applied to the study of flow from orifices, over weirs, through closed and open conduits, and past immersed bodies. Simple as such matters now seem when taught, they actually took centuries to understand. Particularly noteworthy is the fact that many such principles were first clarified by men like Isaac Newton whose interests extended far beyond hydraulics itself.

This scienceactually had its origins some two millenia ago in the course of Greek civilization. It must be granted, however, that Greek physics was of such a hypothetical nature that with one exception it had little positive influence

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` www.mechengg.netin the millenia to follow. The part that concerns us here is the then-prevailing belief that the universe consists of four elements (fire, air, water, and earth), that each is displaced by the next in order of increasing weight, and that the space around us must be occupied by one element or another. "Nature," in other words, "abhors a vacuum." In due time the concept of a fifth element, ether, came into being, for want of something to fill outer space. To the Greeks, the abhorrence of a vacuum served to explain free flight, a body in motion presumedly being driven by the fluid closing in behind. Known as the medium theory of motion, this was one of the teachings of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), who wrote on a wide variety of subjects ranging from physics to metaphysics. The so-called impetus theory of motion was proposed nearly a thousand years after Aristotle's time; however, because impetus could not be seen, the concept was not generally accepted, and the medium theory remained in favor for at least another millenium.

The Greekwho made the most lasting contribution to hydraulics was the Sicilian mathematician Archimedes (287-212 B.C.), who reasoned that a floating or immersed body must be acted upon an upward force equal to the weight of the liquid that it displaces. This is the basis of hydrostatics and also of the apocryphal story that Archimedes made this discovery in his bath and forthwith ran un clothed through the streets crying "Eureka!" Nevertheless, even though Archimedes' writings, like those of his fellow Greeks, were faithfully transmitted to the West by Arabian scientists, further progress in hydrostatics was not to be made for another 18 centuries.

In the course of the millenium following the time of Archimedes, the science of hydraulics retrogressed rather than advaneed. True, though the Romans developed extensive water-supply and drainage systems, and windmills and water wheels appeared on the scene in increasing numbers, these represented the art rather than the science. Paradoxically, although Aristotle taught that knowledge must progress, his teachings eventually came to be crystallized, so to speak, and in the time of Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-74), they were even adopted as gospel truth by the church. In the same period, on the other hand, researchers in the early universities particularly Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge gradually began to establish simple mechanical relationships such as that between velocity and acceleration.

Whereas the Greeks tended to reason without recourse to observation, it was the Italian genius Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) who first emphasized the direct study of nature in its many aspects. Leonardo's hydraulic observations extended to the detailed characteristics of jets, waves, aud eddies, not to mention the flight of birds and comparable facets of essentialIy every other field of

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` www.mechengg.netknowledge. In particular, it was Leonardo who first correctly formulated the basic principle of hvdraulics known as continuity: the velocity of flow varies inversely with the cross-sectional area of a stream. Unfortunately, not only were his copious notes writteu in mirror image (probably for reasons of secrecy), but, in addition, most of them were lost for several centuries after his death. Thus his discoveries had little effect on the growth of the science.

The second essential coutribution to hydrostatics was made by the Dutch hydraulic engineer Simon Stevin (1548-1620) in 1586, nearly two millenia after the time of Archimedes. Stevin showed that the force exerted by a liquid on the base of a vessel is equal to the weight of a liquid column extending from the base to the free surface. That this force does not depend on the shape of the vessel became known as the hydrostatic paradox.

If Leonardo was the first scientific observer of note, it was Galileo (1564-1642) who added experimentation to observation, thereby throwing initial light on the problem of gravitational acceleration. In his study of the phenomenon, he noted that a body sliding freely down an inclined plane attained a certain speed after a certain vertical descent regardless of the slope; it is said that he hence advised an engineer that there was no point in eliminating river bends, as the resulting increase in slope would have no effect! Whereas Leonardo was a loner, Gallleo gathered a small school around him. One of his students, the Abbe Benedetto Castelli (c.1577-c.1644), rediscovered the principle of continuity and delved further into other aspects of the science, though not always correctly. His younger colleague Evangelista Torricelli (1608-47) applied his mentor's analysis of parabolic free-fall trajectories to the geometry of liquid jets. Torricelli also experimented with the liquid barometer, the vacuum above the liquid column being comparable to the void that Galileo found to develop in a pump whose suction pipe exceeded a certain length; in other words, nature abhorred a vacuum only up to a certain point!

The French scientist Edme Mariotte (1620-84) is often called the father of French hydraulics because of the breadth of his experimentation; this included such matters as wind and water pressure and the elasticity of the air, a quality which we usually associate with the name of the Englishman Robert Boyle (1627-91) whereas the latter appears to have coined the word hydraulics, in France Boyle's law bears the name of Mariotte. Only a few years younger than Mariotte, the Italian Domenico Guglielmini (1655-1710) is similarly considered by many to have been the founder of the Italian school. But whereas Mariotte was a laboratory

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` www.mechengg.netexperimenter, Guglielmini made extensive field measurements of river flow. Interestingly enough, Guglielmini eventually became a professor of medicine!

At about the same time, the short-lived French savant Blaise Pascal (1623-62) concerned himself with the same barometric problems as the equally short-lived Torricelli (not to mention Mariotte), but it was Pascal who finally completed the principles of hydrostatics. Not only did he clarify the transmissibility of pressure from point to point and its application to the hydraulic jack, but he also showed that the barometric (i.e., atmospheric) pressure must vary with elevation and hence that the barometer would have a zero reading in a vacuum.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650), the French scientist to whom we owe the Cartesian coordinate system, sought valiantly to reconcile the Aristotelian teachings that had been adopted by his church with the mechanics of the solar system. He thus hypothesized that the planets were carried in their orbits by a system of giant vortices endowed with a fixed "quantity of movement." His somewhat younger English contemporary Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who correctly used the principle of momentum to evaluate the orbits, held that if there were vortex material in space, the motion of the planets would be retarded. Newton even conducted a variety of experiments on the resistance (due to fluid tenacity, elasticity, want of lubricity, and inertia) encountered by bodies in motion to prove that nothing of the sort occurred in space. In the course of these studies, he formulated the speed of sound in air (except for the adiabatic constant), the basis of viscous shear, and the equation of what we now call form drag (except that he mistakenly considered shape itself to be of no importance). He also invented what he termed the theory of fluxions, now known as the calculus.

Newton's German contemporary Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716) conceived the principle of energy, though without the fraction one-half in the kinetic-energy term, and as a result his principle gave different results from Newton's momentum principle when used to describe the same phenomenon. Leibniz also developed a form of the calculus, and his colleagues and Newton's soon began to accuse the other of plagiarism, a dispute which, though largely unjustified, produced a considerable rift between the English and the German scientists.

One of the earliest mathematicians to apply Leibniz's calculus (and even to contribute some of the nomenclature still used today) was the Swiss Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748), who was also noteworthy for the mathematical training of

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` www.mechengg.nethis son Daniel (1700-82) and his son's comrade Leonhard Euler (1707-83). Johann thereafter went to Paris to collaborate with the French nobleman the Marquis de l'Hopital; Daniel became a member of the Russian academy at St. Petersburg, where he was later joined bv Euler. L'Hopital eventually published his and Johann's (largely the latter's) joint findings without due credit to his collaborator, much to Johann's chagrin. When Daniel published in 1738 the original treatise Hydrodynamica, Johann proceeded to write a book that he called Hydraulica, which -- whether through envy or bitterness over l'Hopital's failure to acknowledge his contribution -- he purposely predated a full ten years!

Daniel's work contained much that was new for example, the use of manometers, the kinetic theory of gases, and iet propulsion but nowhere in the book (or in his father's either) can one find what is known as the Bernoulli theorem. Just as its source, Leibniz's energy principle, consisted of only potential and kinetic terms, so too did the Bernoulli equation; the corresponding pressure term was evaluated separately by means of Newton's momentum equation.

In actuality, the first true Bernoulli equation was derived by Euler, an outstanding mathematician, from his equations of acceleration for the conditions of steady, irrotational flow under gravitational action. Euler also deserved credit for a number of equations of hydraulics and for inventing at least on paper a workable hydraulic turbine. Worthy of mention in the same breath as Euler and the Bernoullis was Jean Lerond d'Alembert (1717-83), best known for his coeditorship of the French encyclopedia but also a mathematician in his own right. He proved in 1752 that under steady, irrotational conditions a fluid should offer no resistance to the relative motion of an immersed body: the d'Alembert paradox. D'Alembert is also known for having been one of three French scientists to have made in 1775 what were said to have been the first towing-tank tests of ship-model drag.they were, however, preceded by some nine years by those of our own Benjamin Franklin (1706 90), himself a potential hydraulician!

Even Franklin was not the first to conduct scale-model tests, credit for which is due John Smeaton (1724-92), an English engineer who was one of the very few practical people in his country to become a member of the Royal Society in the course of the next century or so. In his prize-winning paper of 1759, "An experimental Inquiry concerning the Natural Powers of Water and Wind to turn Mills, and other Machines, depending on a Circular Motion", Smeaton described experiments on models of undershot wheels, overshot wheels, and windmills, evaluating there from the general power relationships.

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` www.mechengg.netTwo essential measuring instruments came into being at this time, the

Pitot tube and the rotating arm. The first still bears the name of its inventor, the Frenchman Henri de Pitot (1695-1771), who called it a "machine" for determining the speed of flowing water. It consisted of two vertical glass tubes connected at their top by a valve, one tube simply being open at the bottom and the other L-shaped with its open end pointing upstream; the difference in water level between the two tubes after closure of the valve and their withdrawal from the flow permitted the velocity to be computed. Use of a rotating arm to propel a body through air for its drag determination was developed bv the Englishman Benjamin Robins (1707-5 ), who also invented the ballistic pendulum.

The matter of fluid resistance is probably the most important one in the field of hydraulics. Until the latter part of the eighteenth century, little was known about the phenomenon, whether in connection with flow through conduits or around immersed bodies. The d'Alembert paradox, obviously, was of little engineering use. On the other hand, d'Alembert's contemporary Antoine Chezy (1718-98) discovered a simple resistance relationship for streams which is now known by his name. Unfortunately, his report to the Corps des Ponts et Chaussees on the supply of water to Paris was lost in the files, not to be discovered and publicized till late in the last century bv the American Clemens Herschel (1842-1930). On the other hand, Chezy's fellow countryman Pierre Louis George Du Buat (1734-1809) not only conducted a wide variety of experiments but also wrote an excellent textbook on hvdraulics which in spite of his being forced to flee during the revolution went through three successively enlarged editions. Du Buat formulated perceptively the resistance of closed conduits and was the first to show that the drag of immersed bodies resulted more from the suction produced at the rear than from the pressure exerted at the front.

Granted thatthe Italians, Germans, and to some degree the English made notable contributions in the course of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the leadership was definitely French, mainly through the influence of the Corps des Ponts et Chaussees, which had been functioning effectively since its founding in 1719. For example, in 1822 Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785-1836), a bridge engineer, was the first to attempt the extension of the Euler equations of acceleration to include the flow of a viscous fluid. Though he did not comprehend the essential mechanism of viscous action, his results were mathematically correct. The same equations were developed with groater comprehension somewhat later by the mathematician Baron Augustin Louis de Cauchy (1789-1857), next by the mechanician Simeon Denis Poisson (1781-1840), and finally in 1845 by the Cambridge professor George Gabriel Stokes (1819 1903 ), the latter eventually

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` www.mechengg.netapplying the equations to the resistance of small spheres. It is significant, however, that in the meantime (1843) a more general form of the equations was developed by Jean-Claude Barre de Saint-Venant (1797-1886) and later found to be applicable not only to the laminar phase of viscous flow bnt also to that known as fluid turbulence

In the first half of the nineteenth century, the German Gotthilf Ludwig Hagen (1797-1884) condncted in 1839 some very meticu lous measurements of the flow of water in small-diameter tubes, utilizing the water temperature instead of the viscosity as one of the parameters. A few years later the French physician Jean Louis Poiseuille (1799-1869) repeated the experiments independently using even liner tubes to simulate blood vessels, and oil and mercury in addition to water. Except in Germany, the phenomenon is known as Poiseuille flow, even though neither Poiseuille nor Hagen really understood the mathematics of the phenomenon. Hagen, however, had remarked in an 1854 paper that the flow was not always laminar, the efflux jet sometimes being clear and sometimes frosty; similarly, sawdust suspended in the water sometimes moved in straight lines and sometimes very irregularly; in the latter instances he noted that his resistance equation no longer applied.

Though countless contributors to hydraulic science of this period are to be found in the ever-growing literature, only a few can be mentioned at this point. These include the Italian Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746-1822) and the Germans Johann Albert Eytelwein (1764-1848) and Julius Weisbach (1806-71).In addition to Bernoulli, the men whose names are now best known in hydraulics were two Englishmen who lived in the latter part of the last century. One was the Manchester professor Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912), who in 1873 also experimented with flow through tubes, introducing the viscosity to form a parameter marking the borderline between laminar and turbulent flow. now known as the Reynolds number. Reynolds also showed bv the injection of dye the difference be tween the two states of motion, for which he is given the credit really due Hagen for his work 20 years earlier.

William Froude (1810-79) was a somewhat older contemporary of Reynolds whose interests lay in the field of naval architecture. Froude built himself a towing tank on his own property and in part with his own funds, for the operation of which he had formulated a similarity law for flows under the influence of gravity. This law has come to be known under Froude's name, although it had actually been announced at least 20 years earlier by Ferdinand Reech (1805 80), an Alsatian teaching in a naval college at Paris. But Froude was the first to note the

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` www.mechengg.netdevelopment along the hull of ships of what came to be known as the boundary layer, a phenomenon of viscous shear which eventually was shown to be a function of the Reynolds number. It is hence only fair to note that Reynolds was the first to utilize the Froude law of similarity in model tests of tidal action in the Mersey estuary.

At the time that hydraulics was becoming an applied science, mathematicians were developing its theoretical counterpart known as hydrodynamics. Ably begun by Euler and d'Alembert, the practice was continued by such equally famous men as Lagrange (1736-1813), Laplace (1749-1827), Helmholtz (1821-94), Kelvin (1824-1907), and Rayleigh (1842-1919), as recorded in the many editions of the treatise Hydrodymimic by the Manchester professor Horace Lamb (1849-1934). However, although presumably dealing with the same fluids, the two subjects were far apart, for hydraulics still lacked mathematical rigor, and hydrodynamics, sufficient contact with reality. Thus, when human flight became a likelihood, neither hydraulics nor hydrodynamics could provide a useful scientific basis for the understanding of aerodynamic lift if not of drag.

Fortunately, a new science, the mechanics of fluids, came into being at the hands of Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953), a German mechanical engineer teaching at the University of Gottingen. He reasoned as early as 1904 that relative motion between a fluid and a streamlined boundary could be analyzed in two parts: a thin layer at the boundary providing the viscous resistance to motion, and the fluid outside the boundary layer providing, in accordance with the principles of irrotational flow, the normal forces producing lift. Prandtl, and the many students who passed through his hands, proceeded to formulate the essential principles of airfoil and propeller operation. At the same time, the general principles of fluid mechanics became the basis of related fields, including hydraulics. In fact, Paul Richard Heinrich Blasius (1873-1970), one of Prandtl's earliest students, not only provided a mathematical basis for boundary-layer drag but also showed as early as 1911 that the resistance to flow through smooth pipes could be expressed in terms of the Reynolds number for both laminar and turbulent flow, and an other Johann Nikuradse (1894-1979) experimented extensively on the resistance of rough pipes as well as smooth.

Except for BenFranklin's miniature towing-tank experiments, all of the advances described in the foregoing pages were made by Europeans. As recounted elsewhere , American hydraulicians gradually became aware of English, French, and eventually German discoveries, utilizing their coefficients and later repeating and extending their experiments. But it was really not until early in the

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` www.mechengg.netpresent century that America began to contribute much that was new. To be sure, Professor Felix Klein of Gottingen is said to have been so deeply impressed by the shops and laboratories of our land-grant institutions that he began to employ men as practical as Prandtl. Much of America's accomplishment, however, came about through the Yankee engineer John R. Freeman (1855-1932), who not only stimulated the foundation of two federal hydraulics laboratories but also established traveling scholarships with three of the leading engineering societies. Most of the Freeman scholars followed the practice of the German civil engineers, who adhered to small-scale model studies based primarily on the Froude criterion of similitude, but three or four gave heed to the teachings of the Prandtl school and stressed the principles of fluid mechanics. America's prime contribution was in fact the broadening of hydraulics science to include both a reasonable degree of analytical rigor and experimental verification of the physical analysis. The advent of wartime exigencies led to an intensification of laboratory activity in at least two institutions, the California Institute of Technology and The University of Iowa, where those who had studied in Europe under Freeman's auspices were in positions of responsibility. Their experiments ranged from torpedo cavitation to ship drag, from the diffusion of smoke and gas by wind to fog dispersal over airplane landing fields, from the throw of fire streams to atmospheric turbulence.

Freeman's indirectrole in advancing the science in America was directly abetted by the influence of two naturalized immigrants, Boris Alexandrovitch Bakhmeteff (1880-1951) and Theodor von Kfirmfin (1881-1963). A Russian professor and consulting engineer, Bakhmeteff was sent to the United States as ambassador by Kerensky, after whose fall he formed, with a number of other White Russians, a profitable match factory and taught hydraulics part-time at Columbia University; he also published as an Engineering Societies Monograph an extended translation of his St. Petersburg dissertation on open-channel flow. A native Hungarian, von Karmfin was one of Prandtl's earliest doctoral students and later a very productive professor at Aachen, Germany; with the rise of Hitler, he migrated to Cal Teeh at Pasadena, and then to Washington as air force consultant during the war; he was the first to receive from President Kennedy the new National Medal of Science, and his autobiography The Wind and Beyond (not to mention the five volumes of his col lected writings) makes for absorbing reading.

I had the distinct privilege of knowing all three of these very effective engineering scientists. Not long after the war, moreover, I encouraged one of our own graduate students at Iowa, Simon Ince, to undertake as his doctoral dissertation a review of the developments described in the foregoing pages. This he did; his 1959, dissertation was entitled "'A History of Hydraulics to the End of the

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` www.mechengg.netEighteenth Century." Later that year I received an appointment as Fulbright research scholar at Grenoble, France, where Pierre Danel, director of the hydraulics laboratory at the Etablissements Neyrpic, had developed a magnificent library that included many of the historical works mentioned herein. With such material at hand, I rewrote and greatly expanded Ince's dissertation, bringing it up to the middle of the present century. This was published as a bilingual supplement to La Houille Blanche, a journal of which Danel was editor, under the title History of Hydraulics and thereafter in book form by the Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Besearch.

So strong an impression had Danel's collection of source material made upon me that I soon began to purchase similar works for the institute, with the collaboration of the late Frank Hanlin, bibliographer of The University of Iowa Libraries, using funds acquired through the sale of the History and other books written by the institute staff. These were placed in the University Libraries' Special Collections, and at present a catalog of the collection is being prepared for publication. Essentially all of the books cited in these pages are included therein. In fact, some 350 individual items are now at hand the finest collection that I know to exist on the history of hydraulics.

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Chapter 5

REFERENCES

SOURCES USED

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` www.mechengg.net These are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication. Nonmilitary Publications Hydraulics. Deere and Company Service Publications, Moline, Illinois. 1997. Industrial Hydraulics Manual. Vickers Training Center, Rochester Hills,

Michigan. 1993.

DOCUMENTS NEEDED These documents must be available to the users of this publication; Department of the Army Forms DA Form 2028. Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms.

February 197

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