271 33 powerpoint slides chapter 6 types sources data
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Chapter
Types and Sources of Data
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Objectives
To understand
the primary and secondary types of data used in
research
the various methods of data collection, their
applicability, and limitations
how to anticipate and safeguard against the kind oferrors that infect data
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Data the quantification of tangible and intangible facts
Data may be classified
- By the purpose of collection:
1. Primary Data : Data collected specifically for thepurpose of providing information on the decisionunder question
2. Secondary Data: Data important for the decisionbeing examined, but not collected specifically forquestions related to it: socio-economic trends,industry trends, government policies or inc-
company data including earlier researchreports
Sources of Data
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cont.
- By the nature of the var iables studied :
1. Data related to past or future behaviour
2. Data related to attitudes, perceptions, beliefs,
etc.
Both types of data required for understanding currentmarket-trends and for predicting future trends
Sources of Data
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Methods of Data Collection All research requires secondary data. Most require primary
data in addition.
Data collection methods depend on the research approach:
exploratory, descriptive or causal.
Extensive studies require more than one research approach at
different stages.
Method of collecting primary data:* Observation
* Surveys
* Experiments
* Qualitative methods
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ERRORS IN DATA
SECONDARY DATA PRIMARY DATA
Outdated Data Sampling Errors Missing-Response Response Errors
Inappropriate Samples Errors
Inaccuracy Ambiguity
Guestimates Non-response Inaccuracy AmbiguityTwisting of Data Not-at-home
Time Question
Privacy Length
Prestige Question
Conflict Form
with Question
investigator wording
Investigator
Unwillingness Trans-lation
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Limitations of DataTypes of Data Methods of Data
Collection
Limitations
Secondary Data Information may
relate to adifferent periodand may not be
relevant anylonger.
Sample ,or database may bedifferent Rigour
in collecting datacannot bevouchedfor.
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contd.
Primary Data Observation
Surveys
Experiments
Cannot answer thequestionwhy
Scope forrationalizedresponses
Quality of data willvary with the skill ofthe interviewer
Cannot tap intoissues that are partof the subconscious
mind. Can study only one
dependent variableat a time.
Limitations of Data
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Qualitative
Make assumptionsthat are not alwayssustainable in reality
Difficult to replicateand therefore togeneralize from.
Results may bevitiated byenvironmentalvariables andcompetitive activity
Difficult to generalize
Quality of data highlydependent on the skillof the interviewer
Limitations of Data
TABLE 6.1: LIMITATION OF VARIOUS DATA COLLECTION METHODS
contd.
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Benefits of secondary data
Resource advantage
Accessibility of data
accuracy and stability of data
Assessment of data
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Evaluation of secondary data
Methodology check
Sampling consideration
Methodology of data
Analytical tools used and subsequentreporting
Accuracy check
Topical check
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Classification of data
Internal sources of data
Company records
Employee records
Sales data (cash register receipt,salespersons call records ,sales invoices)
Financial records
External data sources
Published data
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Published data sources
Government sources (census data ,government publications)
Other data sources
Books and periodicals
Guides
Directories and indices
Standard non-gov statistical data
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Computer stored data
Reference database
Syndicated data sources On-line database
CD-ROM database
Institutional syndicated data (Nielson,Prowess IMRB)
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Qualitative methods of data collection
Direct (non-disguised)
Observation
Focus group
Depth interviews Content analysis
Indirect (disguised- only disadvantage is privacy issue)
Projective
Association ,completion ,construction, expressive,choice
Sociometry
new
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Qualitative vs quantitative data method
Research objective
Need to explore and describe
Study is quantified and needed suitable analysis
Research design Exploratory or descriptive ,loosely structured and
open ended
Structured and measurable set of variables
Sampling plan Manageable small sample vs large representative
sample
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Continued......
Data collection
Data collection in depth and collected through more
interactive and unstructured approach Data collected is formatted and structured
Data analysis
Textual and usually non statistical
Interpretation through statistical methods Research deliverables
Intial and ultimate objective to explain findings
Findings are conclusive and demonstrate clear
indications
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ChapterDesigning Questionnairesand
Interview Guides
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Objectives
To Understand
the importance of a well-designed questionnaire
the funnel approach
the categories of questions and how to choose between them
mail, telephone, and Internet surveys
how to collect data from in-depth interviews
What to look out for when reproducing a questionnaire
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Introduction
A questionnaire acts as the means of communication
between the respondent and the researcher. Clear and
concise definition of the goals of the study make it easier to
design the questionnaire.
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contd.
The extent to which the subject matter as well as thestructure of the questionnaire interests and involves therespondent. The funnel approach must be used for thispurpose.
The length of a questionnaire
The appropriateness of a question: the flow chart approachand similar methods minimize errors in data collection.
The purpose of the study: this influences the format andstructure of the questionnaire.
Factors Influencing Questionnaire
Design
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Questionnaires in ClinicalResearch
Much of the data in clinical research isgathered using questionnaires orinterviews.
The validity of the results depends on thequality of these instruments. Good questionnaires are difficult to construct;
bad questionnaires are difficult to analyze.
Difficult to design for several reasons: Each question must provide a valid and
reliable measure.
The questions must clearly communicate the
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Quality aims in survey research
Goal is to collect information that is:
Valid: measures the quantity or conceptthat is supposed to be measured
Reliable: measures the quantity orconcept in a consistent or reproduciblemanner
Unbiased: measures the quantity orconcept in a way that does notsystematically under- or overestimate the
true value
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Steps to design a questionnaire:
1. Write out the primary and secondaryaims of your study.
2. Write out concepts/information to becollected that relates to these aims.
3. Review the current literature to identifyalready validated questionnaires thatmeasure your specific area of interest.
4. Compose a draft of your questionnaire.
5. Revise the draft.
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Step 1: Define the aims of thestudy
Write out the problem and primary andsecondary aims using onesentence peraim. Formulate a plan for the statistical
analysis of each aim.
Make sure to define the target populationin your aim(s).
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Step 2: Define the variables to becollected
Write a detailed list of the information to be collected and theconcepts to be measured in the study. Are you trying toidentify:
Attitudes
Needs Behavior
Demographics
Some combination of these concepts
Translate these concepts into variables that can bemeasured.
Define the role of each variable in the statistical analysis:
Predictor
Confounder
Outcome
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Step 4: Compose a draft [1]:
Determine the mode of surveyadministration: face-to-face interviews,telephone interviews, self-completed
questionnaires, computer-assistedapproaches.
Write more questions than will be includedin the final draft.
Format the draft as if it were the finalversion with appropriate white space toget an accurate estimate as to its length
longer questionnaires reduce the response
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Compose a draft [2]:
Question: How many cups of coffee ortea do you drink in a day?
Principle: Ask for an answer in only onedimension.
Solution: Separate the question into two
(1) How many cups of coffee do you drinkduring a typical day?
(2) How many cups of tea do you drink during
a typical day?
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Compose a draft [3]:
Question: What brand of computer do you own? (A) IBM PC (B) Apple
Principle: Avoid hidden assumptions. Make sure toaccommodate all possible answers.
Solution: (1) Make each response a separate dichotomous item
Do you own an IBM PC? (Circle: Yes or No) Do you own an Apple computer? (Circle: Yes or No)
(2) Add necessary response categories and allow for multiple
responses. What brand of computer do you own? (Circle all that apply)
Do not own computer IBM PC Apple Other
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Compose a draft [4]:
Question: Have you had pain in the lastweek?
[ ] Never [ ] Seldom [ ] Often [ ]
Very often
Principle: Make sure question and answeroptions match.
Solution: Reword either question oranswer to match.
How often have you had pain in the last
week?
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Compose a draft [5]:
Question: Where did you grow up? Country
Farm
City Principle: Avoid questions having non-
mutually exclusive answers.
Solution: Design the question withmutually exclusive options. Where did you grow up?
House in the country
Farm in the country
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Compose a draft [6]:
Question: Are you against drug abuse?(Circle: Yes or No)
Principle: Write questions that willproduce variability in the responses.
Solution: Eliminate the question.
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Compose a draft [7]:
Question: Which one of the following do you think increasesa persons chance of having a heart attack the most? (Checkone.)
[ ] Smoking [ ] Being overweight [ ] Stress
Principle: Encourage the respondent to consider eachpossible response to avoid the uncertainty of whether amissing item may represent either an answer that does notapply or an overlooked item.
Solution: Which of the following increases the chance ofhaving a heart attack?
Smoking: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
Being overweight: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
Stress: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
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Compose a draft [8]:
Question:
(1) Do you currently have a life insurancepolicy? (Circle: Yes or No)
If no, go to question 3.
(2) How much is your annual life insurancepremium?
Principle: Avoid branching as much aspossible to avoid confusing respondents.
Solution: If possible, write as one
question.
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Step 5: Revise
Shorten the set of questions for the study.If a question does not address one of youraims, discard it.
Refine the questions included and theirwording by testing them with a variety ofrespondents.
Ensure the flow is natural.
Verify that terms and concepts are familiarand easy to understand for your target
audience.
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Step 6: Assemble the final questionnaire[1]:
Decide whether you will format the questionnaire yourself oruse computer-based programs for assistance:
SurveyMonkey.com
Adobe Live Cycle Designer 7.0
GCRC assistance At the top, clearly state:
The purpose of the study
How the data will be used
Instructions on how to fill out the questionnaire Your policy on confidentiality
Include identifying data on each page of a multi-page, paper-based questionnaire such as a respondent ID number in casethe pages separate.
bl h f l
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Assemble the final questionnaire[2]:
Group questions concerning major subjectareas together and introduce them byheading or short descriptive statements.
Order questions in order to stimulaterecall.
Order and format questions to ensure
unbiased and balanced results.
bl h f l
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Assemble the final questionnaire[3]:
Include white space to make answersclear and to help increase response rate.
Space response scales widely enough so
that it is easy to circle or check the correctanswer without the mark accidentallyincluding the answer above or below. Open-ended questions: the space for the
response should be big enough to allowrespondents with large handwriting to writecomfortably in the space.
Closed-ended questions: line up answersvertically and precede them with boxes or
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Enhance response rate
When writing questions and assemblingthe final questionnaire, edit with a viewtowards saliency: apparent relevance,
importance, and interest of the survey tothe respondent
Consider either pre-notifying those in your
sample or sending reminders to those whoreceived the survey (if self-administered).Studies have shown that making contact
with the sampled individuals increases the
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Non-responders
Understanding the characteristics of thosewho did not respond to the survey isimportant to quantify what, if any, bias
exists in the results.
To quantify the characteristics of the non-responders to postal surveys, Moser and
Kalton suggest tracking the length of timeit takes for surveys to be returned. Thosewho take the longest to return the survey
are most like the non-responders. This
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Conclusions
You need plenty of time!
Design your questionnaire from researchhypotheses that have been carefully studied
and thought out. Discuss the research problem with colleagues
and subject matter experts is critical todeveloping good questions.
Review, revise and test the questions on aniterative basis.
Examine the questionnaire as a whole for flow
and presentation.
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References
Designing Clinical Research, Stephen B.Hulley, et. al.
www.statpac.com/surveys
Design and use of questionnaires: areview of best practice applicable tosurveys of health service staff and
patients, Health Technology Assessment,2001. Vol.5, No. 31.
Moser CA, Kalton G. Survey methods in
social investigation. 2nded. Aldershot:
http://www.statpac.com/surveyshttp://www.statpac.com/surveys -
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Answer key [1]:
Question: How many cups of coffee ortea do you drink in a day?
Principle: Ask for an answer in only onedimension.
Solution: Separate the question into two
(1) How many cups of coffee do you drinkduring a typical day?
(2) How many cups of tea do you drink during
a typical day?
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46
Answer key [2]:
Question: What brand of computer do you own? (A) IBM PC (B) Apple
Principle: Avoid hidden assumptions. Make sure toaccommodate all possible answers.
Solution: (1) Make each response a separate dichotomous item
Do you own an IBM PC? (Circle: Yes or No) Do you own an Apple computer? (Circle: Yes or No)
(2) Add necessary response categories and allow for multiple
responses. What brand of computer do you own? (Circle all that apply) Do not own computer IBM PC Apple Other
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47
Answer key [3]:
Question: Have you had pain in the lastweek?
[ ] Never [ ] Seldom [ ] Often [ ]
Very often
Principle: Make sure question and answeroptions match.
Solution: Reword either question oranswer to match.
How often have you had pain in the last
week?
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48
Answer key [4]:
Question: Where did you grow up? Country
Farm
City Principle: Avoid questions having non-
mutually exclusive answers.
Solution: Design the question withmutually exclusive options. Where did you grow up?
House in the country
Farm in the country
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49
Answer key [5]:
Question: Are you against drug abuse?(Circle: Yes or No)
Principle: Write questions that willproduce variability in the responses.
Solution: Eliminate the question.
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50
Answer key [6]:
Question: Which one of the following do you think increasesa persons chance of having a heart attack the most? (Checkone.)
[ ] Smoking [ ] Being overweight [ ] Stress
Principle: Encourage the respondent to consider eachpossible response to avoid the uncertainty of whether amissing item may represent either an answer that does notapply or an overlooked item.
Solution: Which of the following increases the chance ofhaving a heart attack?
Smoking: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
Being overweight: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
Stress: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
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Answer key [7]:
Question:
(1) Do you currently have a life insurancepolicy? (Circle: Yes or No)
If no, go to question 3.
(2) How much is your annual life insurancepremium?
Principle: Avoid branching as much aspossible to avoid confusing respondents.
Solution: If possible, write as one
question.
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Designing the Questionnaire
The process of questionnaire design depends on
The management dilemma
Definition of the marketing research problem
The research design: the sample, the specific interview
approach and the medium of data collection including type of
questions to be asked
The process of questionnaire design:
Contd.
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Designing the QuestionnaireThe process of questionnaire design:
Definition of MR Problem
Hypotheses
Objectives / Areas of Enquiry
Definition of Sample
Decision about Data-Collection Approach
Flow -Chart for Questions
Identification Questions
Research Questions
Classificatory Questions
Errors in Questionnaire Design and
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Errors in Questionnaire Design and
the Flow Chart
Questionnaire design must consider:
Type of questions : structured vs. unstructured; closed- vs.open-ended; scales
Order of questions: the funnel approach from general tospecific
The use of a flow-chart helpful for ensuring the order ofquestions
Content of questions: governed by
a) the purpose of the question,b) the extent to which it needs to be disguised,c) the scope of the questiond) the wording of the question -- respondents ability and
willingness to answer it.
.contd.
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Errors in Questionnaire Design andthe Flow Chart
Pre-testing the questionnaire: - administration of thequestionnaire to a
small sample prior toits finalisation
- purpose: to check forsuitability of the type ofquestions, their order,content, and length
- sample: 15 for a simplequestionnaire; 25 for a
complex questionnaire
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Questionnaires for Telephone and
Internet Surveys Factors to be taken into consideration:
i. use structured questions as far as possible
ii. frequent use of graphics, specially for attitudinal/
perception related questions
iii. extensive use of multiple-choice or dichotomousquestions
iv. short questions
v. limited use of whyquestionsvi. brief questionnaire
.contd.
Q ti i f T l h d
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Questionnaires for Telephone andInternet Surveys
Advantages of non-personal survey methods:
i. Anonymity that provides privacy
ii. The ability to answer at leisureiii. Lower per unit cost than personal interviews
Disadvantages of non-personal survey methods:
i. Low response rates in the absence of controlii. Biased sample because of non-response from those not
interested
P j ti T h i d I t i
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Projective Techniques and InterviewGuides
Projective techniques useful when respondent unwilling or unableto share information.
In-depth interviews require interview guidelines that do notinclude formal, structured, complete questions, but only a list ofthe areas of enquiry.
The interview guideline used in projective techniques and in-depth interviews aims at obtaining information on all relevantissues, without being restricted to a predetermined order orstructure of questions.
The interview may at times require going back and forth on oneissue, thus repeating inquiry through differently wordedquestions each time.
Projective techniques particularly useful for interviewing children: retain their interest and encourage spontaneity.
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Physical quality and visual appeal secondary but impact
making characteristic of the interviewing instrument .
Good production and paper quality important.
Errorfree typing and design essential.
Accurate and easy-to-understand translation crucial in mult
lingual countries like India.
Reproduction of the Questionnaire