27475902-aristotel-retorica.pdf

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350 BC

RHETORIC

by Aristotle

translated by W. Rhys Roberts

Book I

1

RHETORIC the conter!art o" #ialectic. Both alike are concerned $ith

sch thin%s as co&e' &ore or less' $ithin the %eneral ken o" all &en

and belon% to no de"inite science. Accordin%ly all &en &ake se'

&ore or less' o" both( "or to a certain e)tent all &en atte&!t to

discss state&ents and to &aintain the&' to de"end the&sel*es and to

attack others. Ordinary !eo!le do this either at rando& or thro%h

!ractice and "ro& ac+ired habit. Both $ays bein% !ossible' the

sb,ect can !lainly be handled syste&atically' "or it is !ossible to

in+ire the reason $hy so&e s!eakers scceed thro%h !ractice and

others s!ontaneosly( and e*ery one $ill at once a%ree that sch an

in+iry is the "nction o" an art.

-o$' the "ra&ers o" the crrent treatises on rhetoric ha*e

constrcted bt a s&all !ortion o" that art. The &odes o" !ersasion

are the only tre constitents o" the art e*erythin% else is &erely

accessory. These $riters' ho$e*er' say nothin% abot enthy&e&es' $hich

are the sbstance o" rhetorical !ersasion' bt deal &ainly $ith

non/essentials. The arosin% o" !re,dice' !ity' an%er' and si&ilar

e&otions has nothin% to do $ith the essential "acts' bt is &erely a

!ersonal a!!eal to the &an $ho is ,d%in% the case. Conse+ently i"

the rles "or trials $hich are no$ laid do$n so&e states/es!ecially in

$ell/%o*erned states/$ere a!!lied e*ery$here' sch !eo!le $old ha*e

nothin% to say. All &en' no dobt' think that the la$s shold

!rescribe sch rles' bt so&e' as in the cort o" Areo!a%s' %i*e

!ractical e""ect to their tho%hts and "orbid talk abot

non/essentials. This is sond la$ and csto&. It is not ri%ht to

!er*ert the ,d%e by &o*in% hi& to an%er or en*y or !ity/one &i%ht

as $ell $ar! a car!enters rle be"ore sin% it. A%ain' a liti%ant has

clearly nothin% to do bt to sho$ that the alle%ed "act is so or is

not so' that it has or has not ha!!ened. As to $hether a thin% is

i&!ortant or ni&!ortant' ,st or n,st' the ,d%e &st srely re"se

to take his instrctions "ro& the liti%ants he &st decide "or

hi&sel" all sch !oints as the la$/%i*er has not already de"ined "or

hi&.

-o$' it is o" %reat &o&ent that $ell/dra$n la$s shold the&sel*es

de"ine all the !oints they !ossibly can and lea*e as "e$ as &ay be

to the decision o" the ,d%es( and this "or se*eral reasons. irst' to

"ind one &an' or a "e$ &en' $ho are sensible !ersons and ca!able o"

le%islatin% and ad&inisterin% ,stice is easier than to "ind a lar%e

n&ber. -e)t' la$s are &ade a"ter lon% consideration' $hereas

decisions in the corts are %i*en at short notice' $hich &akes it hard

"or those $ho try the case to satis"y the clai&s o" ,stice and

e)!ediency. The $ei%htiest reason o" all is that the decision o" the

la$%i*er is not !articlar bt !ros!ecti*e and %eneral' $hereas

&e&bers o" the asse&bly and the ,ry "ind it their dty to decide on

de"inite cases bro%ht be"ore the&. They $ill o"ten ha*e allo$ed

the&sel*es to be so &ch in"lenced by "eelin%s o" "riendshi! or

hatred or sel"/interest that they lose any clear *ision o" the trth

and ha*e their ,d%e&ent obscred by considerations o" !ersonal

!leasre or !ain. In %eneral' then' the ,d%e shold' $e say' be

allo$ed to decide as "e$ thin%s as !ossible. Bt +estions as to

$hether so&ethin% has ha!!ened or has not ha!!ened' $ill be or $ill


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not be' is or is not' &st o" necessity be le"t to the ,d%e' since

the la$%i*er cannot "oresee the&. I" this is so' it is e*ident that

any one $ho lays do$n rles abot other &atters' sch as $hat &st

be the contents o" the introdction or the narration or any o" the

other di*isions o" a s!eech' is theori2in% abot non/essentials as

i" they belon%ed to the art. The only +estion $ith $hich these

$riters here deal is ho$ to !t the ,d%e into a %i*en "ra&e o"&ind. Abot the orators !ro!er &odes o" !ersasion they ha*e

nothin% to tell s( nothin%' that is' abot ho$ to %ain skill in

enthy&e&es.

Hence it co&es that' altho%h the sa&e syste&atic !rinci!les a!!ly

to !olitical as to "orensic oratory' and altho%h the "or&er is a

nobler bsiness' and "itter "or a citi2en' than that $hich concerns

the relations o" !ri*ate indi*idals' these athors say nothin%

abot !olitical oratory' bt try' one and all' to $rite treatises on

the $ay to !lead in cort. The reason "or this is that in !olitical

oratory there is less indce&ent to talk abot nonessentials.

olitical oratory is less %i*en to nscr!los !ractices than

"orensic' becase it treats o" $ider isses. In a !olitical debate the

&an $ho is "or&in% a ,d%e&ent is &akin% a decision abot his o$n

*ital interests. There is no need' there"ore' to !ro*e anythin% e)ce!t

that the "acts are $hat the s!!orter o" a &easre &aintains they are.

In "orensic oratory this is not eno%h( to conciliate the listener

is $hat !ays here. It is other !eo!les a""airs that are to be

decided' so that the ,d%es' intent on their o$n satis"action and

listenin% $ith !artiality' srrender the&sel*es to the dis!tants

instead o" ,d%in% bet$een the&. Hence in &any !laces' as $e ha*e said

already' irrele*ant s!eakin% is "orbidden in the la$/corts in the

!blic asse&bly those $ho ha*e to "or& a ,d%e&ent are the&sel*es $ell

able to %ard a%ainst that.

It is clear' then' that rhetorical stdy' in its strict sense' is

concerned $ith the &odes o" !ersasion. ersasion is clearly a sort

o" de&onstration' since $e are &ost "lly !ersaded $hen $e consider a

thin% to ha*e been de&onstrated. The orators de&onstration is an

enthy&e&e' and this is' in %eneral' the &ost e""ecti*e o" the &odes o"

!ersasion. The enthy&e&e is a sort o" syllo%is&' and the

consideration o" syllo%is&s o" all kinds' $ithot distinction' is

the bsiness o" dialectic' either o" dialectic as a $hole or o" one o"

its branches. It "ollo$s !lainly' there"ore' that he $ho is best

able to see ho$ and "ro& $hat ele&ents a syllo%is& is !rodced $ill

also be best skilled in the enthy&e&e' $hen he has "rther learnt $hat

its sb,ect/&atter is and in $hat res!ects it di""ers "ro& the

syllo%is& o" strict lo%ic. The tre and the a!!ro)i&ately tre are

a!!rehended by the sa&e "aclty( it &ay also be noted that &en ha*e

a s""icient natral instinct "or $hat is tre' and sally do

arri*e at the trth. Hence the &an $ho &akes a %ood %ess at trth

is likely to &ake a %ood %ess at !robabilities.

It has no$ been sho$n that the ordinary $riters on rhetoric treat o"

non/essentials( it has also been sho$n $hy they ha*e inclined &ore

to$ards the "orensic branch o" oratory.

Rhetoric is se"l 41 becase thin%s that are tre and thin%s

that are ,st ha*e a natral tendency to !re*ail o*er their o!!osites'

so that i" the decisions o" ,d%es are not $hat they o%ht to be'

the de"eat &st be de to the s!eakers the&sel*es' and they &st be

bla&ed accordin%ly. 6oreo*er' 47 be"ore so&e adiences not e*en the

!ossession o" the e)actest kno$led%e $ill &ake it easy "or $hat $e say

to !rodce con*iction. or ar%&ent based on kno$led%e i&!lies

instrction' and there are !eo!le $ho& one cannot instrct. Here'

then' $e &st se' as or &odes o" !ersasion and ar%&ent' notions

!ossessed by e*erybody' as $e obser*ed in the To!ics $hen dealin% $ith

the $ay to handle a !o!lar adience. rther' 43 $e &st be able


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to e&!loy !ersasion' ,st as strict reasonin% can be e&!loyed' on

o!!osite sides o" a +estion' not in order that $e &ay in !ractice

e&!loy it in both $ays 4"or $e &st not &ake !eo!le belie*e $hat is

$ron%' bt in order that $e &ay see clearly $hat the "acts are' and

that' i" another &an ar%es n"airly' $e on or !art &ay be able to

con"te hi&. -o other o" the arts dra$s o!!osite conclsions

dialectic and rhetoric alone do this. Both these arts dra$ o!!ositeconclsions i&!artially. -e*ertheless' the nderlyin% "acts do not

lend the&sel*es e+ally $ell to the contrary *ie$s. -o( thin%s that

are tre and thin%s that are better are' by their natre'

!ractically al$ays easier to !ro*e and easier to belie*e in. A%ain'

48 it is absrd to hold that a &an o%ht to be asha&ed o" bein%

nable to de"end hi&sel" $ith his li&bs' bt not o" bein% nable to

de"end hi&sel" $ith s!eech and reason' $hen the se o" rational s!eech

is &ore distincti*e o" a h&an bein% than the se o" his li&bs. And i"

it be ob,ected that one $ho ses sch !o$er o" s!eech n,stly &i%ht

do %reat har&' that is a char%e $hich &ay be &ade in co&&on a%ainst

all %ood thin%s e)ce!t *irte' and abo*e all a%ainst the thin%s that

are &ost se"l' as stren%th' health' $ealth' %eneralshi!. A &an can

con"er the %reatest o" bene"its by a ri%ht se o" these' and in"lict

the %reatest o" in,ries by sin% the& $ron%ly.

It is clear' then' that rhetoric is not bond ! $ith a sin%le

de"inite class o" sb,ects' bt is as ni*ersal as dialectic( it is

clear' also' that it is se"l. It is clear' "rther' that its

"nction is not si&!ly to scceed in !ersadin%' bt rather to

disco*er the &eans o" co&in% as near sch sccess as the circ&stances

o" each !articlar case allo$. In this it rese&bles all other arts.

or e)a&!le' it is not the "nction o" &edicine si&!ly to &ake a &an

+ite healthy' bt to !t hi& as "ar as &ay be on the road to

health( it is !ossible to %i*e e)cellent treat&ent e*en to those $ho

can ne*er en,oy sond health. rther&ore' it is !lain that it is

the "nction o" one and the sa&e art to discern the real and the

a!!arent &eans o" !ersasion' ,st as it is the "nction o"

dialectic to discern the real and the a!!arent syllo%is&. What &akes a

&an a so!hist is not his "aclty' bt his &oral !r!ose. In

rhetoric' ho$e*er' the ter& rhetorician &ay describe either the

s!eakers kno$led%e o" the art' or his &oral !r!ose. In dialectic

it is di""erent a &an is a so!hist becase he has a certain kind o"

&oral !r!ose' a dialectician in res!ect' not o" his &oral

!r!ose' bt o" his "aclty.

9et s no$ try to %i*e so&e accont o" the syste&atic !rinci!les

o" Rhetoric itsel"/o" the ri%ht &ethod and &eans o" scceedin% in

the ob,ect $e set be"ore s. We &st &ake as it $ere a "resh start'

and be"ore %oin% "rther de"ine $hat rhetoric is.

7

Rhetoric &ay be de"ined as the "aclty o" obser*in% in any %i*en

case the a*ailable &eans o" !ersasion. This is not a "nction o"

any other art. E*ery other art can instrct or !ersade abot its

o$n !articlar sb,ect/&atter( "or instance' &edicine abot $hat is

healthy and nhealthy' %eo&etry abot the !ro!erties o" &a%nitdes'

arith&etic abot n&bers' and the sa&e is tre o" the other arts and

sciences. Bt rhetoric $e look !on as the !o$er o" obser*in% the

&eans o" !ersasion on al&ost any sb,ect !resented to s( and that is

$hy $e say that' in its technical character' it is not concerned

$ith any s!ecial or de"inite class o" sb,ects.

O" the &odes o" !ersasion so&e belon% strictly to the art o"

rhetoric and so&e do not. By the latter I &ean sch thin%s as are

not s!!lied by the s!eaker bt are there at the otset/$itnesses'

e*idence %i*en nder tortre' $ritten contracts' and so on. By the


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"or&er I &ean sch as $e can orsel*es constrct by &eans o" the

!rinci!les o" rhetoric. The one kind has &erely to be sed' the

other has to be in*ented.

O" the &odes o" !ersasion "rnished by the s!oken $ord there are

three kinds. The "irst kind de!ends on the !ersonal character o" the

s!eaker( the second on !ttin% the adience into a certain "ra&e o"

&ind( the third on the !roo"' or a!!arent !roo"' !ro*ided by the $ordso" the s!eech itsel". ersasion is achie*ed by the s!eakers !ersonal

character $hen the s!eech is so s!oken as to &ake s think hi&

credible. We belie*e %ood &en &ore "lly and &ore readily than others

this is tre %enerally $hate*er the +estion is' and absoltely tre

$here e)act certainty is i&!ossible and o!inions are di*ided. This

kind o" !ersasion' like the others' shold be achie*ed by $hat the

s!eaker says' not by $hat !eo!le think o" his character be"ore he

be%ins to s!eak. It is not tre' as so&e $riters ass&e in their

treatises on rhetoric' that the !ersonal %oodness re*ealed by the

s!eaker contribtes nothin% to his !o$er o" !ersasion( on the

contrary' his character &ay al&ost be called the &ost e""ecti*e

&eans o" !ersasion he !ossesses. :econdly' !ersasion &ay co&e

thro%h the hearers' $hen the s!eech stirs their e&otions. Or

,d%e&ents $hen $e are !leased and "riendly are not the sa&e as $hen

$e are !ained and hostile. It is to$ards !rodcin% these e""ects' as

$e &aintain' that !resent/day $riters on rhetoric direct the $hole

o" their e""orts. This sb,ect shall be treated in detail $hen $e co&e

to s!eak o" the e&otions. Thirdly' !ersasion is e""ected thro%h

the s!eech itsel" $hen $e ha*e !ro*ed a trth or an a!!arent trth

by &eans o" the !ersasi*e ar%&ents sitable to the case in +estion.

There are' then' these three &eans o" e""ectin% !ersasion. The

&an $ho is to be in co&&and o" the& &st' it is clear' be able 41

to reason lo%ically' 47 to nderstand h&an character and %oodness in

their *arios "or&s' and 43 to nderstand the e&otions/that is' to

na&e the& and describe the&' to kno$ their cases and the $ay in $hich

they are e)cited. It ths a!!ears that rhetoric is an o""shoot o"

dialectic and also o" ethical stdies. Ethical stdies &ay "airly be

called !olitical( and "or this reason rhetoric &as+erades as

!olitical science' and the !ro"essors o" it as !olitical

e)!erts/so&eti&es "ro& $ant o" edcation' so&eti&es "ro&

ostentation' so&eti&es o$in% to other h&an "ailin%s. As a &atter o"

"act' it is a branch o" dialectic and si&ilar to it' as $e said at the

otset. -either rhetoric nor dialectic is the scienti"ic stdy o"

any one se!arate sb,ect both are "aclties "or !ro*idin%

ar%&ents. This is !erha!s a s""icient accont o" their sco!e and

o" ho$ they are related to each other.

With re%ard to the !ersasion achie*ed by !roo" or a!!arent !roo"

,st as in dialectic there is indction on the one hand and

syllo%is& or a!!arent syllo%is& on the other' so it is in rhetoric.

The e)a&!le is an indction' the enthy&e&e is a syllo%is&' and the

a!!arent enthy&e&e is an a!!arent syllo%is&. I call the enthy&e&e a

rhetorical syllo%is&' and the e)a&!le a rhetorical indction. E*ery

one $ho e""ects !ersasion thro%h !roo" does in "act se either

enthy&e&es or e)a&!les there is no other $ay. And since e*ery one $ho

!ro*es anythin% at all is bond to se either syllo%is&s or indctions

4and this is clear to s "ro& the Analytics' it &st "ollo$ that

enthy&e&es are syllo%is&s and e)a&!les are indctions. The

di""erence bet$een e)a&!le and enthy&e&e is &ade !lain by the !assa%es

in the To!ics $here indction and syllo%is& ha*e already been

discssed. When $e base the !roo" o" a !ro!osition on a n&ber o"

si&ilar cases' this is indction in dialectic' e)a&!le in rhetoric(

$hen it is sho$n that' certain !ro!ositions bein% tre' a "rther

and +ite distinct !ro!osition &st also be tre in conse+ence'

$hether in*ariably or sally' this is called syllo%is& in


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dialectic' enthy&e&e in rhetoric. It is !lain also that each o"

these ty!es o" oratory has its ad*anta%es. Ty!es o" oratory' I say

"or $hat has been said in the 6ethodics a!!lies e+ally $ell here(

in so&e oratorical styles e)a&!les !re*ail' in others enthy&e&es(

and in like &anner' so&e orators are better at the "or&er and so&e

at the latter. :!eeches that rely on e)a&!les are as !ersasi*e as the

other kind' bt those $hich rely on enthy&e&es e)cite the lodera!!lase. The sorces o" e)a&!les and enthy&e&es' and their !ro!er

ses' $e $ill discss later. Or ne)t ste! is to de"ine the

!rocesses the&sel*es &ore clearly.

A state&ent is !ersasi*e and credible either becase it is directly

sel"/e*ident or becase it a!!ears to be !ro*ed "ro& other

state&ents that are so. In either case it is !ersasi*e becase

there is so&ebody $ho& it !ersades. Bt none o" the arts theori2e

abot indi*idal cases. 6edicine' "or instance' does not theori2e

abot $hat $ill hel! to cre :ocrates or Callias' bt only abot

$hat $ill hel! to cre any or all o" a %i*en class o" !atients this

alone is bsiness indi*idal cases are so in"initely *arios that

no syste&atic kno$led%e o" the& is !ossible. In the sa&e $ay the

theory o" rhetoric is concerned not $ith $hat see&s !robable to a

%i*en indi*idal like :ocrates or Hi!!ias' bt $ith $hat see&s

!robable to &en o" a %i*en ty!e( and this is tre o" dialectic also.

#ialectic does not constrct its syllo%is&s ot o" any ha!ha2ard

&aterials' sch as the "ancies o" cra2y !eo!le' bt ot o" &aterials

that call "or discssion( and rhetoric' too' dra$s !on the re%lar

sb,ects o" debate. The dty o" rhetoric is to deal $ith sch

&atters as $e deliberate !on $ithot arts or syste&s to %ide s'

in the hearin% o" !ersons $ho cannot take in at a %lance a co&!licated

ar%&ent' or "ollo$ a lon% chain o" reasonin%. The sb,ects o" or

deliberation are sch as see& to !resent s $ith alternati*e

!ossibilities abot thin%s that cold not ha*e been' and cannot no$

or in the "tre be' other than they are' nobody $ho takes the& to

be o" this natre $astes his ti&e in deliberation.

It is !ossible to "or& syllo%is&s and dra$ conclsions "ro& the

reslts o" !re*ios syllo%is&s( or' on the other hand' "ro&

!re&isses $hich ha*e not been ths !ro*ed' and at the sa&e ti&e are so

little acce!ted that they call "or !roo". Reasonin%s o" the "or&er

kind $ill necessarily be hard to "ollo$ o$in% to their len%th' "or

$e ass&e an adience o" ntrained thinkers( those o" the latter

kind $ill "ail to $in assent' becase they are based on !re&isses that

are not %enerally ad&itted or belie*ed.

The enthy&e&e and the e)a&!le &st' then' deal $ith $hat is in the

&ain contin%ent' the e)a&!le bein% an indction' and the enthy&e&e a

syllo%is&' abot sch &atters. The enthy&e&e &st consist o" "e$

!ro!ositions' "e$er o"ten than those $hich &ake ! the nor&al

syllo%is&. or i" any o" these !ro!ositions is a "a&iliar "act'

there is no need e*en to &ention it( the hearer adds it hi&sel". Ths'

to sho$ that #ories has been *ictor in a contest "or $hich the

!ri2e is a cro$n' it is eno%h to say or he has been *ictor in the

Oly&!ic %a&es' $ithot addin% And in the Oly&!ic %a&es the !ri2e

is a cro$n' a "act $hich e*erybody kno$s.

There are "e$ "acts o" the necessary ty!e that can "or& the

basis o" rhetorical syllo%is&s. 6ost o" the thin%s abot $hich $e &ake

decisions' and into $hich there"ore $e in+ire' !resent s $ith

alternati*e !ossibilities. or it is abot or actions that $e

deliberate and in+ire' and all or actions ha*e a contin%ent

character( hardly any o" the& are deter&ined by necessity. A%ain'

conclsions that state $hat is &erely sal or !ossible &st be

dra$n "ro& !re&isses that do the sa&e' ,st as necessary conclsions

&st be dra$n "ro& necessary !re&isses( this too is clear to s "ro&

the Analytics. It is e*ident' there"ore' that the !ro!ositions "or&in%


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the basis o" enthy&e&es' tho%h so&e o" the& &ay be necessary'

$ill &ost o" the& be only sally tre. -o$ the &aterials o"

enthy&e&es are robabilities and :i%ns' $hich $e can see &st

corres!ond res!ecti*ely $ith the !ro!ositions that are %enerally and

those that are necessarily tre. A robability is a thin% that sally

ha!!ens( not' ho$e*er' as so&e de"initions $old s%%est' anythin%

$hate*er that sally ha!!ens' bt only i" it belon%s to the classo" the contin%ent or *ariable. It bears the sa&e relation to

that in res!ect o" $hich it is !robable as the ni*ersal bears to

the !articlar. O" :i%ns' one kind bears the sa&e relation to the

state&ent it s!!orts as the !articlar bears to the ni*ersal' the

other the sa&e as the ni*ersal bears to the !articlar. The

in"allible kind is a co&!lete !roo" 4tek&erhio( the "allible

kind has no s!eci"ic na&e. By in"allible si%ns I &ean those on $hich

syllo%is&s !ro!er &ay be based and this sho$s s $hy this kind o"

:i%n is called co&!lete !roo" $hen !eo!le think that $hat they ha*e

said cannot be re"ted' they then think that they are brin%in% "or$ard

a co&!lete !roo"' &eanin% that the &atter has no$ been

de&onstrated and co&!leted 4!e!erhas&eo( "or the $ord !erhas

has the sa&e &eanin% 4o" end or bondary as the $ord tek&arh in

the ancient ton%e. -o$ the one kind o" :i%n 4that $hich bears to

the !ro!osition it s!!orts the relation o" !articlar to ni*ersal

&ay be illstrated ths. :!!ose it $ere said' The "act that :ocrates

$as $ise and ,st is a si%n that the $ise are ,st. Here $e certainly

ha*e a :i%n( bt e*en tho%h the !ro!osition be tre' the ar%&ent

is re"table' since it does not "or& a syllo%is&. :!!ose' on the

other hand' it $ere said' The "act that he has a "e*er is a si%n that

he is ill' or' The "act that she is %i*in% &ilk is a si%n that she

has lately borne a child. Here $e ha*e the in"allible kind o" :i%n'

the only kind that constittes a co&!lete !roo"' since it is the

only kind that' i" the !articlar state&ent is tre' is irre"table.

The other kind o" :i%n' that $hich bears to the !ro!osition it

s!!orts the relation o" ni*ersal to !articlar' &i%ht be illstrated

by sayin%' The "act that he breathes "ast is a si%n that he has a

"e*er. This ar%&ent also is re"table' e*en i" the state&ent abot

the "ast breathin% be tre' since a &an &ay breathe hard $ithot

ha*in% a "e*er.

It has' then' been stated abo*e $hat is the natre o" a robability'

o" a :i%n' and o" a co&!lete !roo"' and $hat are the di""erences

bet$een the&. In the Analytics a &ore e)!licit descri!tion has been

%i*en o" these !oints( it is there sho$n $hy so&e o" these

reasonin%s can be !t into syllo%is&s and so&e cannot.

The e)a&!le has already been described as one kind o" indction(

and the s!ecial natre o" the sb,ect/&atter that distin%ishes it

"ro& the other kinds has also been stated abo*e. Its relation to the

!ro!osition it s!!orts is not that o" !art to $hole' nor $hole to

!art' nor $hole to $hole' bt o" !art to !art' or like to like. When

t$o state&ents are o" the sa&e order' bt one is &ore "a&iliar than

the other' the "or&er is an e)a&!le. The ar%&ent &ay' "or instance'

be that #ionysis' in askin% as he does "or a body%ard' is sche&in%

to &ake hi&sel" a des!ot. or in the !ast eisistrats ke!t askin% "or

a body%ard in order to carry ot sch a sche&e' and did &ake

hi&sel" a des!ot as soon as he %ot it( and so did Thea%enes at 6e%ara(

and in the sa&e $ay all other instances kno$n to the s!eaker are

&ade into e)a&!les' in order to sho$ $hat is not yet kno$n' that

#ionysis has the sa&e !r!ose in &akin% the sa&e re+est all these

bein% instances o" the one %eneral !rinci!le' that a &an $ho asks

"or a body%ard is sche&in% to &ake hi&sel" a des!ot. We ha*e no$

described the sorces o" those &eans o" !ersasion $hich are !o!larly

s!!osed to be de&onstrati*e.

There is an i&!ortant distinction bet$een t$o sorts o" enthy&e&es


7/85

that has been $holly o*erlooked by al&ost e*erybody/one that also

sbsists bet$een the syllo%is&s treated o" in dialectic. One sort o"

enthy&e&e really belon%s to rhetoric' as one sort o" syllo%is&

really belon%s to dialectic( bt the other sort really belon%s to

other arts and "aclties' $hether to those $e already e)ercise or to

those $e ha*e not yet ac+ired. 6issin% this distinction' !eo!le

"ail to notice that the &ore correctly they handle their !articlarsb,ect the "rther they are %ettin% a$ay "ro& !re rhetoric or

dialectic. This state&ent $ill be clearer i" e)!ressed &ore "lly. I

&ean that the !ro!er sb,ects o" dialectical and rhetorical syllo%is&s

are the thin%s $ith $hich $e say the re%lar or ni*ersal 9ines o"

Ar%&ent are concerned' that is to say those lines o" ar%&ent that

a!!ly e+ally to +estions o" ri%ht condct' natral science'

!olitics' and &any other thin%s that ha*e nothin% to do $ith one

another. Take' "or instance' the line o" ar%&ent concerned $ith

the &ore or less. On this line o" ar%&ent it is e+ally easy to

base a syllo%is& or enthy&e&e abot any o" $hat ne*ertheless are

essentially disconnected sb,ects/ri%ht condct' natral science' or

anythin% else $hate*er. Bt there are also those s!ecial 9ines o"

Ar%&ent $hich are based on sch !ro!ositions as a!!ly only to

!articlar %ro!s or classes o" thin%s. Ths there are !ro!ositions

abot natral science on $hich it is i&!ossible to base any

enthy&e&e or syllo%is& abot ethics' and other !ro!ositions abot

ethics on $hich nothin% can be based abot natral science. The sa&e

!rinci!le a!!lies thro%hot. The %eneral 9ines o" Ar%&ent ha*e no

s!ecial sb,ect/&atter' and there"ore $ill not increase or

nderstandin% o" any !articlar class o" thin%s. On the other hand'

the better the selection one &akes o" !ro!ositions sitable "or

s!ecial 9ines o" Ar%&ent' the nearer one co&es' nconsciosly' to

settin% ! a science that is distinct "ro& dialectic and rhetoric. One

&ay scceed in statin% the re+ired !rinci!les' bt ones science $ill

be no lon%er dialectic or rhetoric' bt the science to $hich the

!rinci!les ths disco*ered belon%. 6ost enthy&e&es are in "act based

!on these !articlar or s!ecial 9ines o" Ar%&ent( co&!arati*ely

"e$ on the co&&on or %eneral kind. As in the there"ore' so in this

$ork' $e &st distin%ish' in dealin% $ith enthy&e&es' the s!ecial and

the %eneral 9ines o" Ar%&ent on $hich they are to be "onded. By

s!ecial 9ines o" Ar%&ent I &ean the !ro!ositions !ecliar to each

se*eral class o" thin%s' by %eneral those co&&on to all classes alike.

We &ay be%in $ith the s!ecial 9ines o" Ar%&ent. Bt' "irst o" all'

let s classi"y rhetoric into its *arieties. Ha*in% distin%ished

these $e &ay deal $ith the& one by one' and try to disco*er the

ele&ents o" $hich each is co&!osed' and the !ro!ositions each &st

e&!loy.

3

Rhetoric "alls into three di*isions' deter&ined by the three classes

o" listeners to s!eeches. or o" the three ele&ents in

s!eech/&akin%//s!eaker' sb,ect' and !erson addressed//it is the

last one' the hearer' that deter&ines the s!eechs end and ob,ect. The

hearer &st be either a ,d%e' $ith a decision to &ake abot thin%s

!ast or "tre' or an obser*er. A &e&ber o" the asse&bly decides abot

"tre e*ents' a ,ry&an abot !ast e*ents $hile those $ho &erely

decide on the orators skill are obser*ers. ro& this it "ollo$s

that there are three di*isions o" oratory/41 !olitical' 47 "orensic'

and 43 the cere&onial oratory o" dis!lay.

olitical s!eakin% r%es s either to do or not to do so&ethin% one

o" these t$o corses is al$ays taken by !ri*ate consellors' as $ell

as by &en $ho address !blic asse&blies. orensic s!eakin% either

attacks or de"ends so&ebody one or other o" these t$o thin%s &st


8/85

al$ays be done by the !arties in a case. The cere&onial oratory o"

dis!lay either !raises or censres so&ebody. These three kinds o"

rhetoric re"er to three di""erent kinds o" ti&e. The !olitical

orator is concerned $ith the "tre it is abot thin%s to be done

herea"ter that he ad*ises' "or or a%ainst. The !arty in a case at

la$ is concerned $ith the !ast( one &an accses the other' and the

other de"ends hi&sel"' $ith re"erence to thin%s already done. Thecere&onial orator is' !ro!erly s!eakin%' concerned $ith the !resent'

since all &en !raise or bla&e in *ie$ o" the state o" thin%s

e)istin% at the ti&e' tho%h they o"ten "ind it se"l also to

recall the !ast and to &ake %esses at the "tre.

Rhetoric has three distinct ends in *ie$' one "or each o" its

three kinds. The !olitical orator ai&s at establishin% the

e)!ediency or the har&"lness o" a !ro!osed corse o" action( i" he

r%es its acce!tance' he does so on the %rond that it $ill do %ood(

i" he r%es its re,ection' he does so on the %rond that it $ill do

har&( and all other !oints' sch as $hether the !ro!osal is ,st or

n,st' honorable or dishonorable' he brin%s in as sbsidiary and

relati*e to this &ain consideration. arties in a la$/case ai& at

establishin% the ,stice or in,stice o" so&e action' and they too

brin% in all other !oints as sbsidiary and relati*e to this one.

Those $ho !raise or attack a &an ai& at !ro*in% hi& $orthy o" honor

or the re*erse' and they too treat all other considerations $ith

re"erence to this one.

That the three kinds o" rhetoric do ai& res!ecti*ely at the three

ends $e ha*e &entioned is sho$n by the "act that s!eakers $ill

so&eti&es not try to establish anythin% else. Ths' the liti%ant

$ill so&eti&es not deny that a thin% has ha!!ened or that he has

done har&. Bt that he is %ilty o" in,stice he $ill ne*er ad&it(

other$ise there $old be no need o" a trial. :o too' !olitical orators

o"ten &ake any concession short o" ad&ittin% that they are

reco&&endin% their hearers to take an ine)!edient corse or not to

take an e)!edient one. The +estion $hether it is not n,st "or a

city to ensla*e its innocent nei%hbors o"ten does not troble the& at

all. In like &anner those $ho !raise or censre a &an do not

consider $hether his acts ha*e been e)!edient or not' bt o"ten &ake

it a %rond o" actal !raise that he has ne%lected his o$n interest to

do $hat $as honorable. Ths' they !raise Achilles becase he

cha&!ioned his "allen "riend atrocls' tho%h he kne$ that this &eant

death' and that other$ise he need not die yet $hile to die ths $as

the nobler thin% "or hi& to do' the e)!edient thin% $as to li*e on.

It is e*ident "ro& $hat has been said that it is these three

sb,ects' &ore than any others' abot $hich the orator &st be able to

ha*e !ro!ositions at his co&&and. -o$ the !ro!ositions o" Rhetoric are

Co&!lete roo"s' robabilities' and :i%ns. E*ery kind o" syllo%is&

is co&!osed o" !ro!ositions' and the enthy&e&e is a !articlar kind o"

syllo%is& co&!osed o" the a"oresaid !ro!ositions.

:ince only !ossible actions' and not i&!ossible ones' can e*er

ha*e been done in the !ast or the !resent' and since thin%s $hich ha*e

not occrred' or $ill not occr' also cannot ha*e been done or be

%oin% to be done' it is necessary "or the !olitical' the "orensic' and

the cere&onial s!eaker alike to be able to ha*e at their co&&and

!ro!ositions abot the !ossible and the i&!ossible' and abot

$hether a thin% has or has not occrred' $ill or $ill not occr.

rther' all &en' in %i*in% !raise or bla&e' in r%in% s to acce!t or

re,ect !ro!osals "or action' in accsin% others or de"endin%

the&sel*es' atte&!t not only to !ro*e the !oints &entioned bt also to

sho$ that the %ood or the har&' the honor or dis%race' the ,stice or

in,stice' is %reat or s&all' either absoltely or relati*ely( and

there"ore it is !lain that $e &st also ha*e at or co&&and

!ro!ositions abot %reatness or s&allness and the %reater or the


9/85

lesser/!ro!ositions both ni*ersal and !articlar. Ths' $e &st be

able to say $hich is the %reater or lesser %ood' the %reater or lesser

act o" ,stice or in,stice( and so on.

:ch' then' are the sb,ects re%ardin% $hich $e are ine*itably bond

to &aster the !ro!ositions rele*ant to the&. We &st no$ discss

each !articlar class o" these sb,ects in trn' na&ely those dealt

$ith in !olitical' in cere&onial' and lastly in le%al' oratory.

8

irst' then' $e &st ascertain $hat are the kinds o" thin%s' %ood or

bad' abot $hich the !olitical orator o""ers consel. or he does

not deal $ith all thin%s' bt only $ith sch as &ay or &ay not take

!lace. Concernin% thin%s $hich e)ist or $ill e)ist ine*itably' or

$hich cannot !ossibly e)ist or take !lace' no consel can be %i*en.

-or' a%ain' can consel be %i*en abot the $hole class o" thin%s $hich

&ay or &ay not take !lace( "or this class incldes so&e %ood thin%s

that occr natrally' and so&e that occr by accident( and abot these

it is seless to o""er consel. Clearly consel can only be %i*en on

&atters abot $hich !eo!le deliberate( &atters' na&ely' that

lti&ately de!end on orsel*es' and $hich $e ha*e it in or !o$er to

set %oin%. or $e trn a thin% o*er in or &ind ntil $e ha*e

reached the !oint o" seein% $hether $e can do it or not.

-o$ to en&erate and classi"y accrately the sal sb,ects o"

!blic bsiness' and "rther to "ra&e' as "ar as !ossible' tre

de"initions o" the& is a task $hich $e &st not atte&!t on the !resent

occasion. or it does not belon% to the art o" rhetoric' bt to a &ore

instrcti*e art and a &ore real branch o" kno$led%e( and as it is'

rhetoric has been %i*en a "ar $ider sb,ect/&atter than strictly

belon%s to it. The trth is' as indeed $e ha*e said already' that

rhetoric is a co&bination o" the science o" lo%ic and o" the ethical

branch o" !olitics( and it is !artly like dialectic' !artly like

so!histical reasonin%. Bt the &ore $e try to &ake either dialectic

rhetoric not' $hat they really are' !ractical "aclties' bt sciences'

the &ore $e shall inad*ertently be destroyin% their tre natre( "or

$e shall be re/"ashionin% the& and shall be !assin% into the re%ion o"

sciences dealin% $ith de"inite sb,ects rather than si&!ly $ith

$ords and "or&s o" reasonin%. E*en here' ho$e*er' $e $ill &ention

those !oints $hich it is o" !ractical i&!ortance to distin%ish' their

"ller treat&ent "allin% natrally to !olitical science.

The &ain &atters on $hich all &en deliberate and on $hich

!olitical s!eakers &ake s!eeches are so&e "i*e in n&ber $ays and

&eans' $ar and !eace' national de"ence' i&!orts and e)!orts' and

le%islation.

As to Ways and 6eans' then' the intendin% s!eaker $ill need to

kno$ the n&ber and e)tent o" the contrys sorces o" re*ene' so

that' i" any is bein% o*erlooked' it &ay be added' and' i" any is

de"ecti*e' it &ay be increased. rther' he shold kno$ all the

e)!enditre o" the contry' in order that' i" any !art o" it is

s!er"los' it &ay be abolished' or' i" any is too lar%e' it &ay be

redced. or &en beco&e richer not only by increasin% their e)istin%

$ealth bt also by redcin% their e)!enditre. A co&!rehensi*e *ie$ o"

these +estions cannot be %ained solely "ro& e)!erience in ho&e

a""airs( in order to ad*ise on sch &atters a &an &st be keenly

interested in the &ethods $orked ot in other lands.

As to eace and War' he &st kno$ the e)tent o" the &ilitary

stren%th o" his contry' both actal and !otential' and also the

&atre o" that actal and !otential stren%th( and "rther' $hat $ars

his contry has $a%ed' and ho$ it has $a%ed the&. He &st kno$ these

"acts not only abot his o$n contry' bt also abot nei%hborin%

contries( and also abot contries $ith $hich $ar is likely' in order


10/85

that !eace &ay be &aintained $ith those stron%er than his o$n' and

that his o$n &ay ha*e !o$er to &ake $ar or not a%ainst those that

are $eaker. He shold kno$' too' $hether the &ilitary !o$er o" another

contry is like or nlike that o" his o$n( "or this is a &atter that

&ay a""ect their relati*e stren%th. With the sa&e end in *ie$ he &st'

besides' ha*e stdied the $ars o" other contries as $ell as those

o" his o$n' and the $ay they ended( si&ilar cases are likely toha*e si&ilar reslts.

With re%ard to -ational #e"ence he o%ht to kno$ all abot the

&ethods o" de"ence in actal se' sch as the stren%th and character

o" the de"ensi*e "orce and the !ositions o" the "orts/this last

&eans that he &st be $ell ac+ainted $ith the lie o" the contry/in

order that a %arrison &ay be increased i" it is too s&all or re&o*ed

i" it is not $anted' and that the strate%ic !oints &ay be %arded $ith

s!ecial care.

With re%ard to the ood :!!ly he &st kno$ $hat otlay $ill &eet

the needs o" his contry( $hat kinds o" "ood are !rodced at ho&e

and $hat i&!orted( and $hat articles &st be e)!orted or i&!orted.

This last he &st kno$ in order that a%ree&ents and co&&ercial

treaties &ay be &ade $ith the contries concerned. There are'

indeed' t$o sorts o" state to $hich he &st see that his contry&en

%i*e no case "or o""ence' states stron%er than his o$n' and states

$ith $hich it is ad*anta%eos to trade.

Bt $hile he &st' "or secritys sake' be able to take all this

into accont' he &st be"ore all thin%s nderstand the sb,ect o"

le%islation( "or it is on a contrys la$s that its $hole $el"are

de!ends. He &st' there"ore' kno$ ho$ &any di""erent "or&s o"

constittion there are( nder $hat conditions each o" these $ill

!ros!er and by $hat internal de*elo!&ents or e)ternal attacks each

o" the& tends to be destroyed. When I s!eak o" destrction thro%h

internal de*elo!&ents I re"er to the "act that all constittions'

e)ce!t the best one o" all' are destroyed both by not bein% !shed "ar

eno%h and by bein% !shed too "ar. Ths' de&ocracy loses its

*i%or' and "inally !asses into oli%archy' not only $hen it is not

!shed "ar eno%h' bt also $hen it is !shed a %reat deal too "ar(

,st as the a+iline and the snb nose not only trn into nor&al noses

by not bein% a+iline or snb eno%h' bt also by bein% too

*iolently a+iline or snb arri*e at a condition in $hich they no

lon%er look like noses at all. It is se"l' in "ra&in% la$s' not only

to stdy the !ast history o" ones o$n contry' in order to nderstand

$hich constittion is desirable "or it no$' bt also to ha*e a

kno$led%e o" the constittions o" other nations' and so to learn "or

$hat kinds o" nation the *arios kinds o" constittion are sited.

ro& this $e can see that books o" tra*el are se"l aids to

le%islation' since "ro& these $e &ay learn the la$s and csto&s o"

di""erent races. The !olitical s!eaker $ill also "ind the researches

o" historians se"l. Bt all this is the bsiness o" !olitical

science and not o" rhetoric.

These' then' are the &ost i&!ortant kinds o" in"or&ation $hich the

!olitical s!eaker &st !ossess. 9et s no$ %o back and state the

!re&isses "ro& $hich he $ill ha*e to ar%e in "a*or o" ado!tin% or

re,ectin% &easres re%ardin% these and other &atters.

5

It &ay be said that e*ery indi*idal &an and all &en in co&&on ai&

at a certain end $hich deter&ines $hat they choose and $hat they

a*oid. This end' to s& it ! brie"ly' is ha!!iness and its

constitents. 9et s' then' by $ay o" illstration only' ascertain

$hat is in %eneral the natre o" ha!!iness' and $hat are the

ele&ents o" its constitent !arts. or all ad*ice to do thin%s or


11/85

not to do the& is concerned $ith ha!!iness and $ith the thin%s that

&ake "or or a%ainst it( $hate*er creates or increases ha!!iness or

so&e !art o" ha!!iness' $e o%ht to do( $hate*er destroys or ha&!ers

ha!!iness' or %i*es rise to its o!!osite' $e o%ht not to do.

We &ay de"ine ha!!iness as !ros!erity co&bined $ith *irte( or as

inde!endence o" li"e( or as the secre en,oy&ent o" the &a)i&& o"

!leasre( or as a %ood condition o" !ro!erty and body' to%ether $iththe !o$er o" %ardin% ones !ro!erty and body and &akin% se o"

the&. That ha!!iness is one or &ore o" these thin%s' !retty $ell

e*erybody a%rees.

ro& this de"inition o" ha!!iness it "ollo$s that its constitent

!arts are/%ood birth' !lenty o" "riends' %ood "riends' $ealth' %ood

children' !lenty o" children' a ha!!y old a%e' also sch bodily

e)cellences as health' beaty' stren%th' lar%e statre' athletic

!o$ers' to%ether $ith "a&e' honor' %ood lck' and *irte. A &an

cannot "ail to be co&!letely inde!endent i" he !ossesses these

internal and these e)ternal %oods( "or besides these there are no

others to ha*e. 4;oods o" the sol and o" the body are internal.

;ood birth' "riends' &oney' and honor are e)ternal. rther' $e

think that he shold !ossess resorces and lck' in order to &ake

his li"e really secre. As $e ha*e already ascertained $hat

ha!!iness in %eneral is' so no$ let s try to ascertain $hat o"

these !arts o" it is.

-o$ %ood birth in a race or a state &eans that its &e&bers are

indi%enos or ancient that its earliest leaders $ere distin%ished

&en' and that "ro& the& ha*e s!rn% &any $ho $ere distin%ished "or

+alities that $e ad&ire.

The %ood birth o" an indi*idal' $hich &ay co&e either "ro& the &ale

or the "e&ale side' i&!lies that both !arents are "ree citi2ens' and

that' as in the case o" the state' the "onders o" the line ha*e

been notable "or *irte or $ealth or so&ethin% else $hich is hi%hly

!ri2ed' and that &any distin%ished !ersons belon% to the "a&ily'

&en and $o&en' yon% and old.

The !hrases !ossession o" %ood children and o" &any children

bear a +ite clear &eanin%. A!!lied to a co&&nity' they &ean that its

yon% &en are n&eros and o" %ood a +ality %ood in re%ard to bodily

e)cellences' sch as statre' beaty' stren%th' athletic !o$ers( and

also in re%ard to the e)cellences o" the sol' $hich in a yon% &an

are te&!erance and cora%e. A!!lied to an indi*idal' they &ean that

his o$n children are n&eros and ha*e the %ood +alities $e ha*e

described. Both &ale and "e&ale are here inclded( the e)cellences

o" the latter are' in body' beaty and statre( in sol'

sel"/co&&and and an indstry that is not sordid. Co&&nities as $ell

as indi*idals shold lack none o" these !er"ections' in their $o&en

as $ell as in their &en. Where' as a&on% the 9acedae&onians' the state

o" $o&en is bad' al&ost hal" o" h&an li"e is s!oilt.

The constitents o" $ealth are !lenty o" coined &oney and

territory( the o$nershi! o" n&eros' lar%e' and beati"l estates(

also the o$nershi! o" n&eros and beati"l i&!le&ents' li*e stock'

and sla*es. All these kinds o" !ro!erty are or o$n' are secre'

%entle&anly' and se"l. The se"l kinds are those that are

!rodcti*e' the %entle&anly kinds are those that !ro*ide en,oy&ent. By

!rodcti*e I &ean those "ro& $hich $e %et or inco&e( by

en,oyable' those "ro& $hich $e %et nothin% $orth &entionin% e)ce!t

the se o" the&. The criterion o" secrity is the o$nershi! o"

!ro!erty in sch !laces and nder sch Conditions that the se o" it

is in or !o$er( and it is or o$n i" it is in or o$n !o$er to

dis!ose o" it or kee! it. By dis!osin% o" it I &ean %i*in% it a$ay

or sellin% it. Wealth as a $hole consists in sin% thin%s rather

than in o$nin% the&( it is really the acti*ity/that is' the se/o"

!ro!erty that constittes $ealth.


12/85


13/85

the &ost i&!ortant' o" those %ood thin%s $hich are de to lck. :o&e

o" the thin%s that are de to lck &ay also be de to arti"icial

contri*ance( bt &any are inde!endent o" art' as "or e)a&!le those

$hich are de to natre/tho%h' to be sre' thin%s de to lck &ay

actally be contrary to natre. Ths health &ay be de to arti"icial

contri*ance' bt beaty and statre are de to natre. All sch %ood

thin%s as e)cite en*y are' as a class' the otco&e o" %ood lck.9ck is also the case o" %ood thin%s that ha!!en contrary to

reasonable e)!ectation as $hen' "or instance' all yor brothers are

%ly' bt yo are handso&e yorsel"( or $hen yo "ind a treasre

that e*erybody else has o*erlooked( or $hen a &issile hits the ne)t

&an and &isses yo( or $hen yo are the only &an not to %o to a

!lace yo ha*e %one to re%larly' $hile the others %o there "or the

"irst ti&e and are killed. All sch thin%s are reckoned !ieces o" %ood

lck.

As to *irte' it is &ost closely connected $ith the sb,ect o"

Elo%y' and there"ore $e $ill $ait to de"ine it ntil $e co&e to

discss that sb,ect.

<

It is no$ !lain $hat or ai&s' "tre or actal' shold be in

r%in%' and $hat in de!reciatin%' a !ro!osal( the latter bein% the

o!!osite o" the "or&er. -o$ the !olitical or deliberati*e orators ai&

is tility deliberation seeks to deter&ine not ends bt the &eans

to ends' i.e. $hat it is &ost se"l to do. rther' tility is a %ood

thin%. We o%ht there"ore to assre orsel*es o" the &ain "acts

abot ;oodness and =tility in %eneral.

We &ay de"ine a %ood thin% as that $hich o%ht to be chosen "or

its o$n sake( or as that "or the sake o" $hich $e choose so&ethin%

else( or as that $hich is so%ht a"ter by all thin%s' or by all thin%s

that ha*e sensation or reason' or $hich $ill be so%ht a"ter by any

thin%s that ac+ire reason( or as that $hich &st be !rescribed "or

a %i*en indi*idal by reason %enerally' or is !rescribed "or hi& by

his indi*idal reason' this bein% his indi*idal %ood( or as that

$hose !resence brin%s anythin% into a satis"actory and

sel"/s""icin% condition( or as sel"/s""iciency( or as $hat !rodces'

&aintains' or entails characteristics o" this kind' $hile !re*entin%

and destroyin% their o!!osites. One thin% &ay entail another in either

o" t$o $ays/41 si&ltaneosly' 47 sbse+ently. Ths learnin%

entails kno$led%e sbse+ently' health entails li"e si&ltaneosly.

Thin%s are !rodcti*e o" other thin%s in three senses "irst as

bein% healthy !rodces health( secondly' as "ood !rodces health(

and thirdly' as e)ercise does/i.e. it does so sally. All this

bein% settled' $e no$ see that both the ac+isition o" %ood thin%s and

the re&o*al o" bad thin%s &st be %ood( the latter entails "reedo&

"ro& the e*il thin%s si&ltaneosly' $hile the "or&er entails

!ossession o" the %ood thin%s sbse+ently. The ac+isition o" a

%reater in !lace o" a lesser %ood' or o" a lesser in !lace o" a

%reater e*il' is also %ood' "or in !ro!ortion as the %reater e)ceeds

the lesser there is ac+isition o" %ood or re&o*al o" e*il. The

*irtes' too' &st be so&ethin% %ood( "or it is by !ossessin% these

that $e are in a %ood condition' and they tend to !rodce %ood $orks

and %ood actions. They &st be se*erally na&ed and described

else$here. leasre' a%ain' &st be a %ood thin%' since it is the

natre o" all ani&als to ai& at it. Conse+ently both !leasant and

beati"l thin%s &st be %ood thin%s' since the "or&er are

!rodcti*e o" !leasre' $hile o" the beati"l thin%s so&e are

!leasant and so&e desirable in and "or the&sel*es.

The "ollo$in% is a &ore detailed list o" thin%s that &st be %ood.

Ha!!iness' as bein% desirable in itsel" and s""icient by itsel"'


14/85

and as bein% that "or $hose sake $e choose &any other thin%s. Also

,stice' cora%e' te&!erance' &a%nani&ity' &a%ni"icence' and all

sch +alities' as bein% e)cellences o" the sol. rther' health'

beaty' and the like' as bein% bodily e)cellences and !rodcti*e o"

&any other %ood thin%s "or instance' health is !rodcti*e both o"

!leasre and o" li"e' and there"ore is tho%ht the %reatest o"

%oods' since these t$o thin%s $hich it cases' !leasre and li"e'are t$o o" the thin%s &ost hi%hly !ri2ed by ordinary !eo!le. Wealth'

a%ain "or it is the e)cellence o" !ossession' and also !rodcti*e

o" &any other %ood thin%s. riends and "riendshi! "or a "riend is

desirable in hi&sel" and also !rodcti*e o" &any other %ood thin%s.

:o' too' honor and re!tation' as bein% !leasant' and !rodcti*e o"

&any other %ood thin%s' and sally acco&!anied by the !resence o" the

%ood thin%s that case the& to be besto$ed. The "aclty o" s!eech

and action( since all sch +alities are !rodcti*e o" $hat is %ood.

rther/%ood !arts' stron% &e&ory' rece!ti*eness' +ickness o"

intition' and the like' "or all sch "aclties are !rodcti*e o" $hat

is %ood. :i&ilarly' all the sciences and arts. And li"e since' e*en

i" no other %ood $ere the reslt o" li"e' it is desirable in itsel".

And ,stice' as the case o" %ood to the co&&nity.

The abo*e are !retty $ell all the thin%s ad&ittedly %ood. In dealin%

$ith thin%s $hose %oodness is dis!ted' $e &ay ar%e in the

"ollo$in% $ays/That is %ood o" $hich the contrary is bad. That is

%ood the contrary o" $hich is to the ad*anta%e o" or ene&ies( "or

e)a&!le' i" it is to the !articlar ad*anta%e o" or ene&ies that $e

shold be co$ards' clearly cora%e is o" !articlar *ale to or

contry&en. And %enerally' the contrary o" that $hich or ene&ies

desire' or o" that at $hich they re,oice' is e*idently *alable. Hence

the !assa%e be%innin%

:rely $old ria& e)lt.

This !rinci!le sally holds %ood' bt not al$ays' since it &ay $ell

be that or interest is so&eti&es the sa&e as that o" or ene&ies.

Hence it is said that e*ils dra$ &en to%ether( that is' $hen the

sa&e thin% is hrt"l to the& both.

rther that $hich is not in e)cess is %ood' and that $hich is

%reater than it shold be is bad. That also is %ood on $hich &ch

labor or &oney has been s!ent( the &ere "act o" this &akes it see&

%ood' and sch a %ood is ass&ed to be an end/an end reached thro%h a

lon% chain o" &eans( and any end is a %ood. Hence the lines be%innin%

And "or ria& 4and Troy/to$ns "olk shold

they lea*e behind the& a boast(

and

Oh' it $ere sha&e

To ha*e tarried so lon% and retrn e&!ty/handed

as erst $e ca&e(

and there is also the !ro*erb abot breakin% the !itcher at the

door.

That $hich &ost !eo!le seek a"ter' and $hich is ob*iosly an

ob,ect o" contention' is also a %ood( "or' as has been sho$n' that

is %ood $hich is so%ht a"ter by e*erybody' and &ost !eo!le is taken

to be e+i*alent to e*erybody. That $hich is !raised is %ood'

since no one !raises $hat is not %ood. :o' a%ain' that $hich is

!raised by or ene&ies >or by the $orthless? "or $hen e*en those $ho

ha*e a %rie*ance think a thin% %ood' it is at once "elt that e*ery one

&st a%ree $ith the&( or ene&ies can ad&it the "act only becase it

is e*ident' ,st as those &st be $orthless $ho& their "riends censre


15/85

and their ene&ies do not. 4or this reason the Corinthians concei*ed

the&sel*es to be inslted by :i&onides $hen he $rote

A%ainst the Corinthians hath Ili& no co&!laint.

A%ain' that is %ood $hich has been distin%ished by the "a*or o"

a discernin% or *irtos &an or $o&an' as Odysses $as distin%ishedby Athena' Helen by Theses' aris by the %oddesses' and Achilles by

Ho&er. And' %enerally s!eakin%' all thin%s are %ood $hich &en

deliberately choose to do( this $ill inclde the thin%s already

&entioned' and also $hate*er &ay be bad "or their ene&ies or %ood

"or their "riends' and at the sa&e ti&e !racticable. Thin%s are

!racticable in t$o senses 41 it is !ossible to do the&' 47 it

is easy to do the&. Thin%s are done easily $hen they are done either

$ithot !ain or +ickly the di""iclty o" an act lies either in its

!ain"lness or in the lon% ti&e it takes. A%ain' a thin% is %ood i" it

is as &en $ish( and they $ish to ha*e either no e*il at an or at least

a balance o" %ood o*er e*il. This last $ill ha!!en $here the !enalty

is either i&!erce!tible or sli%ht. ;ood' too' are thin%s that are a

&ans *ery o$n' !ossessed by no one else' e)ce!tional( "or this

increases the credit o" ha*in% the&. :o are thin%s $hich be"it the

!ossessors' sch as $hate*er is a!!ro!riate to their birth or

ca!acity' and $hate*er they "eel they o%ht to ha*e bt lack/sch

thin%s &ay indeed be tri"lin%' bt none the less &en deliberately &ake

the& the %oal o" their action. And thin%s easily e""ected( "or these

are !racticable 4in the sense o" bein% easy( sch thin%s are those in

$hich e*ery one' or &ost !eo!le' or ones e+als' or ones in"eriors

ha*e scceeded. ;ood also are the thin%s by $hich $e shall %rati"y or

"riends or annoy or ene&ies( and the thin%s chosen by those $ho& $e

ad&ire and the thin%s "or $hich $e are "itted by natre or

e)!erience' since $e think $e shall scceed &ore easily in these

and those in $hich no $orthless &an can scceed' "or sch thin%s brin%

%reater !raise and those $hich $e do in "act desire' "or $hat $e

desire is taken to be not only !leasant bt also better. rther' a

&an o" a %i*en dis!osition &akes chie"ly "or the corres!ondin% thin%s

lo*ers o" *ictory &ake "or *ictory' lo*ers o" honor "or honor'

&oney/lo*in% &en "or &oney' and so $ith the rest. These' then' are the

sorces "ro& $hich $e &st deri*e or &eans o" !ersasion abot ;ood

and =tility.

@

:ince' ho$e*er' it o"ten ha!!ens that !eo!le a%ree that t$o thin%s

are both se"l bt do not a%ree abot $hich is the &ore so' the

ne)t ste! $ill be to treat o" relati*e %oodness and relati*e tility.

A thin% $hich sr!asses another &ay be re%arded as bein% that

other thin% !ls so&ethin% &ore' and that other thin% $hich is

sr!assed as bein% $hat is contained in the "irst thin%. -o$ to call a

thin% %reater or &ore al$ays i&!lies a co&!arison o" it $ith one

that is s&aller or less' $hile %reat and s&all' &ch and

little' are ter&s sed in co&!arison $ith nor&al &a%nitde. The

%reat is that $hich sr!asses the nor&al' the s&all is that

$hich is sr!assed by the nor&al( and so $ith &any and "e$.

-o$ $e are a!!lyin% the ter& %ood to $hat is desirable "or its o$n

sake and not "or the sake o" so&ethin% else( to that at $hich all

thin%s ai&( to $hat they $old choose i" they cold ac+ire

nderstandin% and !ractical $isdo&( and to that $hich tends to !rodce

or !reser*e sch %oods' or is al$ays acco&!anied by the&. 6oreo*er'

that "or the sake o" $hich thin%s are done is the end 4an end bein%

that "or the sake o" $hich all else is done' and "or each

indi*idal that thin% is a %ood $hich "l"ils these conditions in


16/85

re%ard to hi&sel". It "ollo$s' then' that a %reater n&ber o" %oods is

a %reater %ood than one or than a s&aller n&ber' i" that one or

that s&aller n&ber is inclded in the cont( "or then the lar%er

n&ber sr!asses the s&aller' and the s&aller +antity is sr!assed as

bein% contained in the lar%er.

A%ain' i" the lar%est &e&ber o" one class sr!asses the lar%est

&e&ber o" another' then the one class sr!asses the other( and i"one class sr!asses another' then the lar%est &e&ber o" the one

sr!asses the lar%est &e&ber o" the other. Ths' i" the tallest &an is

taller than the tallest $o&an' then &en in %eneral are taller than

$o&en. Con*ersely' i" &en in %eneral are taller than $o&en' then the

tallest &an is taller than the tallest $o&an. or the s!eriority o"

class o*er class is !ro!ortionate to the s!eriority !ossessed by

their lar%est s!eci&ens. A%ain' $here one %ood is al$ays acco&!anied

by another' bt does not al$ays acco&!any it' it is %reater than the

other' "or the se o" the second thin% is i&!lied in the se o" the

"irst. A thin% &ay be acco&!anied by another in three $ays' either

si&ltaneosly' sbse+ently' or !otentially. 9i"e acco&!anies

health si&ltaneosly 4bt not health li"e' kno$led%e acco&!anies the

act o" learnin% sbse+ently' cheatin% acco&!anies sacrile%e

!otentially' since a &an $ho has co&&itted sacrile%e is al$ays ca!able

o" cheatin%. A%ain' $hen t$o thin%s each sr!ass a third' that $hich

does so by the %reater a&ont is the %reater o" the t$o( "or it &st

sr!ass the %reater as $ell as the less o" the other t$o. A thin%

!rodcti*e o" a %reater %ood than another is !rodcti*e o" is itsel" a

%reater %ood than that other. or this conce!tion o" !rodcti*e o"

a %reater has been i&!lied in or ar%&ent. 9ike$ise' that $hich is

!rodced by a %reater %ood is itsel" a %reater %ood( ths' i" $hat

is $holeso&e is &ore desirable and a %reater %ood than $hat %i*es

!leasre' health too &st be a %reater %ood than !leasre. A%ain' a

thin% $hich is desirable in itsel" is a %reater %ood than a thin%

$hich is not desirable in itsel"' as "or e)a&!le bodily stren%th

than $hat is $holeso&e' since the latter is not !rsed "or its o$n

sake' $hereas the "or&er is( and this $as or de"inition o" the

%ood. A%ain' i" one o" t$o thin%s is an end' and the other is not' the

"or&er is the %reater %ood' as bein% chosen "or its o$n sake and not

"or the sake o" so&ethin% else( as' "or e)a&!le' e)ercise is chosen

"or the sake o" !hysical $ell/bein%. And o" t$o thin%s that $hich

stands less in need o" the other' or o" other thin%s' is the %reater

%ood' since it is &ore sel"/s""icin%. 4That $hich stands less in

need o" others is that $hich needs either "e$er or easier thin%s.

:o $hen one thin% does not e)ist or cannot co&e into e)istence $ithot

a second' $hile the second can e)ist $ithot the "irst' the second

is the better. That $hich does not need so&ethin% else is &ore

sel"/s""icin% than that $hich does' and !resents itsel" as a

%reater %ood "or that reason. A%ain' that $hich is a be%innin% o"

other thin%s is a %reater %ood than that $hich is not' and that

$hich is a case is a %reater %ood than that $hich is not( the

reason bein% the sa&e in each case' na&ely that $ithot a case and

a be%innin% nothin% can e)ist or co&e into e)istence. A%ain' $here

there are t$o sets o" conse+ences arisin% "ro& t$o di""erent

be%innin%s or cases' the conse+ences o" the &ore i&!ortant be%innin%

or case are the&sel*es the &ore i&!ortant( and con*ersely' that

be%innin% or case is itsel" the &ore i&!ortant $hich has the &ore

i&!ortant conse+ences. -o$ it is !lain' "ro& all that has been

said' that one thin% &ay be sho$n to be &ore i&!ortant than another

"ro& t$o o!!osite !oints o" *ie$ it &ay a!!ear the &ore i&!ortant 41

becase it is a be%innin% and the other thin% is not' and also 47

becase it is not a be%innin% and the other thin% is/on the %rond

that the end is &ore i&!ortant and is not a be%innin%. :o 9eoda&as'

$hen accsin% Callistrats' said that the &an $ho !ro&!ted the deed


17/85

$as &ore %ilty than the doer' since it $old not ha*e been done i" he

had not !lanned it. On the other hand' $hen accsin% Chabrias he

said that the doer $as $orse than the !ro&!ter' since there $old ha*e

been no deed $ithot so&e one to do it( &en' said he' !lot a thin%

only in order to carry it ot.

rther' $hat is rare is a %reater %ood than $hat is !lenti"l.

Ths' %old is a better thin% than iron' tho%h less se"l it isharder to %et' and there"ore better $orth %ettin%. Re*ersely' it &ay

be ar%ed that the !lenti"l is a better thin% than the rare'

becase $e can &ake &ore se o" it. or $hat is o"ten se"l sr!asses

$hat is seldo& se"l' $hence the sayin%

The best o" thin%s is $ater.

6ore %enerally the hard thin% is better than the easy' becase it

is rarer and re*ersely' the easy thin% is better than the hard' "or

it is as $e $ish it to be. That is the %reater %ood $hose contrary

is the %reater e*il' and $hose loss a""ects s &ore. ositi*e %oodness

and badness are &ore i&!ortant than the &ere absence o" %oodness and

badness "or !ositi*e %oodness and badness are ends' $hich the &ere

absence o" the& cannot be. rther' in !ro!ortion as the "nctions

o" thin%s are noble or base' the thin%s the&sel*es are %ood or bad

con*ersely' in !ro!ortion as the thin%s the&sel*es are %ood or bad'

their "nctions also are %ood or bad( "or the natre o" reslts

corres!onds $ith that o" their cases and be%innin%s' and con*ersely

the natre o" cases and be%innin%s corres!onds $ith that o" their

reslts. 6oreo*er' those thin%s are %reater %oods' s!eriority in

$hich is &ore desirable or &ore honorable. Ths' keenness o" si%ht is

&ore desirable than keenness o" s&ell' si%ht %enerally bein% &ore

desirable than s&ell %enerally( and si&ilarly' nsally %reat lo*e o"

"riends bein% &ore honorable than nsally %reat lo*e o" &oney'

ordinary lo*e o" "riends is &ore honorable than ordinary lo*e o"

&oney. Con*ersely' i" one o" t$o nor&al thin%s is better or nobler

than the other' an nsal de%ree o" that thin% is better or nobler

than an nsal de%ree o" the other. A%ain' one thin% is &ore

honorable or better than another i" it is &ore honorable or better

to desire it( the i&!ortance o" the ob,ect o" a %i*en instinct

corres!onds to the i&!ortance o" the instinct itsel"( and "or the sa&e

reason' i" one thin% is &ore honorable or better than another' it

is &ore honorable and better to desire it. A%ain' i" one science is

&ore honorable and *alable than another' the acti*ity $ith $hich

it deals is also &ore honorable and *alable( as is the science' so

is the reality that is its ob,ect' each science bein% athoritati*e in

its o$n s!here. :o' also' the &ore *alable and honorable the

ob,ect o" a science' the &ore *alable and honorable the science

itsel" is/in conse+ence. A%ain' that $hich $old be ,d%ed' or

$hich has been ,d%ed' a %ood thin%' or a better thin% than

so&ethin% else' by all or &ost !eo!le o" nderstandin%' or by the

&a,ority o" &en' or by the ablest' &st be so( either $ithot

+ali"ication' or in so "ar as they se their nderstandin% to "or&

their ,d%e&ent. This is indeed a %eneral !rinci!le' a!!licable to all

other ,d%e&ents also( not only the %oodness o" thin%s' bt their

essence' &a%nitde' and %eneral natre are in "act ,st $hat kno$led%e

and nderstandin% $ill declare the& to be. Here the !rinci!le is

a!!lied to ,d%e&ents o" %oodness' since one de"inition o" %ood

$as $hat bein%s that ac+ire nderstandin% $ill choose in any %i*en

case "ro& $hich it clearly "ollo$s that that thin% is hetter $hich

nderstandin% declares to be so. That' a%ain' is a better thin%

$hich attaches to better &en' either absoltely' or in *irte o" their

bein% better( as cora%e is better than stren%th. And that is a

%reater %ood $hich $old be chosen by a better &an' either absoltely'


18/85


19/85

In ti&e !ast' hearin% a oke on &y sholders'

o" $ood nsha*en'

I carried &y loads o" "ish "ro&' Ar%os to Te%ea to$n.

:o I!hicrates sed to e)tol hi&sel" by describin% the lo$ estate

"ro& $hich he had risen. A%ain' $hat is natral is better than $hat isac+ired' since it is harder to co&e by. Hence the $ords o" Ho&er

I ha*e learnt "ro& none bt &ysell.

And the best !art o" a %ood thin% is !articlarly %ood( as $hen

ericles in his "neral oration said that the contrys loss o" its

yon% &en in battle $as as i" the s!rin% $ere taken ot o" the year.

:o $ith those thin%s $hich are o" ser*ice $hen the need is !ressin%(

"or e)a&!le' in old a%e and ti&es o" sickness. And o" t$o thin%s

that $hich leads &ore directly to the end in *ie$ is the better. :o

too is that $hich is better "or !eo!le %enerally as $ell as "or a

!articlar indi*idal. A%ain' $hat can be %ot is better than $hat

cannot' "or it is %ood in a %i*en case and the other thin% is not. And

$hat is at the end o" li"e is better than $hat is not' since those

thin%s are ends in a %reater de%ree $hich are nearer the end. What

ai&s at reality is better than $hat ai&s at a!!earance. We &ay

de"ine $hat ai&s at a!!earance as $hat a &an $ill not choose i" nobody

is to kno$ o" his ha*in% it. This $old see& to sho$ that to recei*e

bene"its is &ore desirable than to con"er the&' since a &an $ill

choose the "or&er e*en i" nobody is to kno$ o" it' bt it is not the

%eneral *ie$ that he $ill choose the latter i" nobody kno$s o" it.

What a &an $ants to be is better than $hat a &an $ants to see&' "or in

ai&in% at that he is ai&in% &ore at reality. Hence &en say that

,stice is o" s&all *ale' since it is &ore desirable to see& ,st

than to be ,st' $hereas $ith health it is not so. That is better than

other thin%s $hich is &ore se"l than they are "or a n&ber o"

di""erent !r!oses( "or e)a&!le' that $hich !ro&otes li"e' %ood

li"e' !leasre' and noble condct. or this reason $ealth and health

are co&&only tho%ht to be o" the hi%hest *ale' as !ossessin% all

these ad*anta%es. A%ain' that is better than other thin%s $hich is

acco&!anied both $ith less !ain and $ith actal !leasre( "or here

there is &ore than one ad*anta%e( and so here $e ha*e the %ood o"

"eelin% !leasre and also the %ood o" not "eelin% !ain. And o" t$o

%ood thin%s that is the better $hose addition to a third thin% &akes a

better $hole than the addition o" the other to the sa&e thin% $ill

&ake. A%ain' those thin%s $hich $e are seen to !ossess are better than

those $hich $e are not seen to !ossess' since the "or&er ha*e the

air o" reality. Hence $ealth &ay be re%arded as a %reater %ood i"

its e)istence is kno$n to others. That $hich is dearly !ri2ed is

better than $hat is not/the sort o" thin% that so&e !eo!le ha*e only

one o"' tho%h others ha*e &ore like it. Accordin%ly' blindin% a

one/eyed &an in"licts $orse in,ry than hal"/blindin% a &an $ith t$o

eyes( "or the one/eyed &an has been robbed o" $hat he dearly !ri2ed.

The %ronds on $hich $e &st base or ar%&ents' $hen $e are

s!eakin% "or or a%ainst a !ro!osal' ha*e no$ been set "orth &ore or

less co&!letely.

The &ost i&!ortant and e""ecti*e +ali"ication "or sccess in

!ersadin% adiences and s!eakin% $ell on !blic a""airs is to

nderstand all the "or&s o" %o*ern&ent and to discri&inate their

res!ecti*e csto&s' instittions' and interests. or all &en are

!ersaded by considerations o" their interest' and their interest lies


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in the &aintenance o" the established order. rther' it rests $ith

the s!re&e athority to %i*e athoritati*e decisions' and this *aries

$ith each "or& o" %o*ern&ent( there are as &any di""erent s!re&e

athorities as there are di""erent "or&s o" %o*ern&ent. The "or&s o"

%o*ern&ent are "or/de&ocracy' oli%archy' aristocracy' &onarchy. The

s!re&e ri%ht to ,d%e and decide al$ays rests' there"ore' $ith either

a !art or the $hole o" one or other o" these %o*ernin% !o$ers. A #e&ocracy is a "or& o" %o*ern&ent nder $hich the citi2ens

distribte the o""ices o" state a&on% the&sel*es by lot' $hereas nder

oli%archy there is a !ro!erty +ali"ication' nder aristocracy one

o" edcation. By edcation I &ean that edcation $hich is laid do$n by

the la$( "or it is those $ho ha*e been loyal to the national

instittions that hold o""ice nder an aristocracy. These are bond to

be looked !on as the best &en' and it is "ro& this "act that this

"or& o" %o*ern&ent has deri*ed its na&e 4the rle o" the best.

6onarchy' as the $ord i&!lies' is the constittion a in $hich one

&an has athority o*er all. There are t$o "or&s o" &onarchy kin%shi!'

$hich is li&ited by !rescribed conditions' and tyranny' $hich is not

li&ited by anythin%.

We &st also notice the ends $hich the *arios "or&s o" %o*ern&ent

!rse' since !eo!le choose in !ractice sch actions as $ill lead to

the reali2ation o" their ends. The end o" de&ocracy is "reedo&( o"

oli%archy' $ealth( o" aristocracy' the &aintenance o" edcation and

national instittions( o" tyranny' the !rotection o" the tyrant. It is

clear' then' that $e &st distin%ish those !articlar csto&s'

instittions' and interests $hich tend to reali2e the ideal o" each

constittion' since &en choose their &eans $ith re"erence to their

ends. Bt rhetorical !ersasion is e""ected not only by

de&onstrati*e bt by ethical ar%&ent( it hel!s a s!eaker to

con*ince s' i" $e belie*e that he has certain +alities hi&sel"'

na&ely' %oodness' or %ood$ill to$ards s' or both to%ether. :i&ilarly'

$e shold kno$ the &oral +alities characteristic o" each "or& o"

%o*ern&ent' "or the s!ecial &oral character o" each is bond to

!ro*ide s $ith or &ost e""ecti*e &eans o" !ersasion in dealin% $ith

it. We shall learn the +alities o" %o*ern&ents in the sa&e $ay as

$e learn the +alities o" indi*idals' since they are re*ealed in

their deliberate acts o" choice( and these are deter&ined by the end

that ins!ires the&.

We ha*e no$ considered the ob,ects' i&&ediate or distant' at $hich

$e are to ai& $hen r%in% any !ro!osal' and the %ronds on $hich $e

are to base or ar%&ents in "a*or o" its tility. We ha*e also

brie"ly considered the &eans and &ethods by $hich $e shall %ain a %ood

kno$led%e o" the &oral +alities and instittions !ecliar to the

*arios "or&s o" %o*ern&ent/only' ho$e*er' to the e)tent de&anded by

the !resent occasion( a detailed accont o" the sb,ect has been %i*en

in the olitics.

We ha*e no$ to consider Dirte and Dice' the -oble and the Base'

since these are the ob,ects o" !raise and bla&e. In doin% so' $e shall

at the sa&e ti&e be "indin% ot ho$ to &ake or hearers take the

re+ired *ie$ o" or o$n characters/or second &ethod o" !ersasion.

The $ays in $hich to &ake the& trst the %oodness o" other !eo!le

are also the $ays in $hich to &ake the& trst or o$n. raise'

a%ain' &ay be serios or "ri*olos( nor is it al$ays o" a h&an or

di*ine bein% bt o"ten o" inani&ate thin%s' or o" the h&blest o"

the lo$er ani&als. Here too $e &st kno$ on $hat %ronds to ar%e' and

&st' there"ore' no$ discss the sb,ect' tho%h by $ay o"

illstration only.

The -oble is that $hich is both desirable "or its o$n sake and


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also $orthy o" !raise( or that $hich is both %ood and also !leasant

becase %ood. I" this is a tre de"inition o" the -oble' it "ollo$s

that *irte &st be noble' since it is both a %ood thin% and also

!raise$orthy. Dirte is' accordin% to the sal *ie$' a "aclty o"

!ro*idin% and !reser*in% %ood thin%s( or a "aclty o" con"errin%

&any %reat bene"its' and bene"its o" all kinds on all occasions. The

"or&s o" Dirte are ,stice' cora%e' te&!erance' &a%ni"icence'&a%nani&ity' liberality' %entleness' !rdence' $isdo&. I" *irte is

a "aclty o" bene"icence' the hi%hest kinds o" it &st be those

$hich are &ost se"l to others' and "or this reason &en honor &ost

the ,st and the cora%eos' since cora%e is se"l to others in $ar'

,stice both in $ar and in !eace. -e)t co&es liberality( liberal

!eo!le let their &oney %o instead o" "i%htin% "or it' $hereas other

!eo!le care &ore "or &oney than "or anythin% else. stice is the

*irte thro%h $hich e*erybody en,oys his o$n !ossessions in

accordance $ith the la$( its o!!osite is in,stice' thro%h $hich

&en en,oy the !ossessions o" others in de"iance o" the la$. Cora%e is

the *irte that dis!oses &en to do noble deeds in sitations o"

dan%er' in accordance $ith the la$ and in obedience to its co&&ands(

co$ardice is the o!!osite. Te&!erance is the *irte that dis!oses s

to obey the la$ $here !hysical !leasres are concerned( incontinence

is the o!!osite. 9iberality dis!oses s to s!end &oney "or others

%ood( illiberality is the o!!osite. 6a%nani&ity is the *irte that

dis!oses s to do %ood to others on a lar%e scale( >its o!!osite is

&eanness o" s!irit?. 6a%ni"icence is a *irte !rodcti*e o"

%reatness in &atters in*ol*in% the s!endin% o" &oney. The o!!osites o"

these t$o are s&allness o" s!irit and &eanness res!ecti*ely.

rdence is that *irte o" the nderstandin% $hich enables &en to co&e

to $ise decisions abot the relation to ha!!iness o" the %oods and

e*ils that ha*e been !re*iosly &entioned.

The abo*e is a s""icient accont' "or or !resent !r!ose' o"

*irte and *ice in %eneral' and o" their *arios "or&s. As to

"rther as!ects o" the sb,ect' it is not di""iclt to discern the

"acts( it is e*ident that thin%s !rodcti*e o" *irte are noble' as

tendin% to$ards *irte( and also the e""ects o" *irte' that is' the

si%ns o" its !resence and the acts to $hich it leads. And since the

si%ns o" *irte' and sch acts as it is the &ark o" a *irtos &an

to do or ha*e done to hi&' are noble' it "ollo$s that all deeds or

si%ns o" cora%e' and e*erythin% done cora%eosly' &st be noble

thin%s( and so $ith $hat is ,st and actions done ,stly. 4-ot'

ho$e*er' actions ,stly done to s( here ,stice is nlike the other

*irtes( ,stly does not al$ays &ean nobly( $hen a &an is

!nished' it is &ore sha&e"l that this shold be ,stly than n,stly

done to hi&. The sa&e is tre o" the other *irtes. A%ain' those

actions are noble "or $hich the re$ard is si&!ly honor' or honor

&ore than &oney. :o are those in $hich a &an ai&s at so&ethin%

desirable "or so&e one elses sake( actions %ood absoltely' sch as

those a &an does "or his contry $ithot thinkin% o" hi&sel"(

actions %ood in their o$n natre( actions that are not %ood si&!ly "or

the indi*idal' since indi*idal interests are sel"ish. -oble also are

those actions $hose ad*anta%e &ay be en,oyed a"ter death' as o!!osed

to those $hose ad*anta%e is en,oyed drin% ones li"eti&e "or the

latter are &ore likely to be "or ones o$n sake only. Also' all

actions done "or the sake o" others' since less than other actions are

done "or ones o$n sake( and all sccesses $hich bene"it others and

not onesel"( and ser*ices done to ones bene"actors' "or this is ,st(

and %ood deeds %enerally' since they are not directed to ones o$n

!ro"it. And the o!!osites o" those thin%s o" $hich &en "eel asha&ed'

"or &en are asha&ed o" sayin%' doin%' or intendin% to do sha&e"l

thin%s. :o $hen Alcacs said


22/85

:o&ethin% I "ain $old say to thee'

Only sha&e restraineth &e'

:a!!ho $rote

I" "or thin%s %ood and noble tho $ert yearnin%'

I" to s!eak baseness $ere thy ton%e not brnin%' -o load o" sha&e $old on thine eyelids $ei%h(

What tho $ith honor $ishest tho $oldst say.

Those thin%s' also' are noble "or $hich &en stri*e an)iosly'

$ithot "eelin% "ear( "or they "eel ths abot the %ood thin%s $hich

lead to "air "a&e. A%ain' one +ality or action is nobler than another

i" it is that o" a natrally "iner bein% ths a &ans $ill be

nobler than a $o&ans. And those +alities are noble $hich %i*e &ore

!leasre to other !eo!le than to their !ossessors( hence the nobleness

o" ,stice and ,st actions. It is noble to a*en%e onesel" on ones

ene&ies and not to co&e to ter&s $ith the&( "or re+ital is ,st'

and the ,st is noble( and not to srrender is a si%n o" cora%e.

Dictory' too' and honor belon% to the class o" noble thin%s' since

they are desirable e*en $hen they yield no "rits' and they !ro*e

or s!eriority in %ood +alities. Thin%s that deser*e to be

re&e&bered are noble' and the &ore they deser*e this' the nobler

they are. :o are the thin%s that contine e*en a"ter death( those

$hich are al$ays attended by honor( those $hich are e)ce!tional(

and those $hich are !ossessed by one !erson alone/these last are

&ore readily re&e&bered than others. :o a%ain are !ossessions that

brin% no !ro"it' since they are &ore "ittin% than others "or a

%entle&an. :o are the distincti*e +alities o" a !articlar !eo!le'

and the sy&bols o" $hat it s!ecially ad&ires' like lon% hair in

:!arta' $here this is a &ark o" a "ree &an' as it is not easy to

!er"or& any &enial task $hen ones hair is lon%. A%ain' it is noble

not to !ractise any sordid cra"t' since it is the &ark o" a "ree &an

not to li*e at anothers beck and call. We are also to ass&e $hen

$e $ish either to !raise a &an or bla&e hi& that +alities closely

allied to those $hich he actally has are identical $ith the&( "or

instance' that the catios &an is cold/blooded and treacheros' and

that the st!id &an is an honest "ello$ or the thick/skinned &an a

%ood/te&!ered one. We can al$ays ideali2e any %i*en &an by dra$in%

on the *irtes akin to his actal +alities( ths $e &ay say that

the !assionate and e)citable &an is ots!oken( or that the

arro%ant &an is s!erb or i&!ressi*e. Those $ho rn to e)tre&es

$ill be said to !ossess the corres!ondin% %ood +alities( rashness

$ill be called cora%e' and e)tra*a%ance %enerosity. That $ill be $hat

&ost !eo!le think( and at the sa&e ti&e this &ethod enables an

ad*ocate to dra$ a &isleadin% in"erence "ro& the &oti*e' ar%in%

that i" a &an rns into dan%er needlessly' &ch &ore $ill he do so

in a noble case( and i" a &an is o!en/handed to any one and e*ery

one' he $ill be so to his "riends also' since it is the e)tre&e "or&

o" %oodness to be %ood to e*erybody.

We &st also take into accont the natre o" or !articlar adience

$hen &akin% a s!eech o" !raise( "or' as :ocrates sed to say' it is

not di""iclt to !raise the Athenians to an Athenian adience. I" the

adience estee&s a %i*en +ality' $e &st say that or hero has that

+ality' no &atter $hether $e are addressin% :cythians or :!artans

or !hiloso!hers. E*erythin%' in "act' that is estee&ed $e are to

re!resent as noble. A"ter all' !eo!le re%ard the t$o thin%s as &ch

the sa&e.

All actions are noble that are a!!ro!riate to the &an $ho does the&

i"' "or instance' they are $orthy o" his ancestors or o" his o$n

!ast career. or it &akes "or ha!!iness' and is a noble thin%' that he


23/85

shold add to the honor he already has. E*en ina!!ro!riate actions

are noble i" they are better and nobler than the a!!ro!riate ones

$old be( "or instance' i" one $ho $as ,st an a*era%e !erson $hen all

$ent $ell beco&es a hero in ad*ersity' or i" he beco&es better and

easier to %et on $ith the hi%her he rises. Co&!are the sayin% o"

l!hicrates' Think $hat I $as and $hat I a&( and the e!i%ra& on the

*ictor at the Oly&!ic %a&es'

In ti&e !ast' bearin% a yoke on &y sholders'

o" $ood nsha*en'

and the enco&i& o" :i&onides'

A $o&an $hose "ather' $hose hsband' $hose

brethren $ere !rinces all.

:ince $e !raise a &an "or $hat he has actally done' and "ine

actions are distin%ished "ro& others by bein% intentionally %ood'

$e &st try to !ro*e that or heros noble acts are intentional.

This is all the easier i" $e can &ake ot that he has o"ten acted so

be"ore' and there"ore $e &st assert coincidences and accidents to

ha*e been intended. rodce a n&ber o" %ood actions' all o" the

sa&e kind' and !eo!le $ill think that they &st ha*e been intended'

and that they !ro*e the %ood +alities o" the &an $ho did the&.

raise is the e)!ression in $ords o" the e&inence o" a &ans %ood

+alities' and there"ore $e &st dis!lay his actions as the !rodct o"

sch +alities. Enco&i& re"ers to $hat he has actally done( the

&ention o" accessories' sch as %ood birth and edcation' &erely hel!s

to &ake or story credible/%ood "athers are likely to ha*e %ood

sons' and %ood trainin% is likely to !rodce %ood character. Hence

it is only $hen a &an has already done so&ethin% that $e besto$

enco&i&s !on hi&. et the actal deeds are e*idence o" the doers

character e

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