3-D Atlas of Stars and Galaxies

Springer-Verlag London Ltd.

Richard Monkhouse and John Cox

3-D ATLAS OF STARS AN D GALAXI ES

Richard Monkhouse, MA

John Cox,MA

Frontispiece - The Hipparcos Satellite Observatory: the 'Star Machine' (Photo ESA)

ISBN 978-1-4471-1039-2

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Monkhouse, Richard, 1950-

3-D atlas of stars and galaxies 1.Stars - Atlases LTitle II. Cox, John, 1947-523.8'0223 ISBN 978-1-4471-1039-2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Monkhouse, Richard.

3-D atlas of stars and galaxieslRichard Monkhouse and John Cox. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-4471-1039-2 ISBN 978-0-85729-325-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-0-85729-325-1 1. Stars-Atlases. 2. Galaxies-Atlases. I. Cox, John, 1947- II. Title.

III. Title: Three-D atlas of stars and galaxies. QB65.M586 1999 523.8'0222'3-dc21 99-26690

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers.

© Springer-Verlag London 2000 Originally published by Springer-Verlag London Limited in 2000 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2000 The use of registered names, trademarks etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.

Typesetting: The Midlands Book Typesetting Company, Loughborough, UK

58/3830-543210 Printed on acid-free paper SPIN 10686997

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................... 6

The Near Star Maps ................................................................................... 8

The Bright Star Maps ................................................................................ 26

The Galaxy Maps ....................................................................................... 64

Special Views ............................................................................................. 90

Sources and Acknowledgements ............................................................ 95

5

Introduction

The 3-D Atlas of the Stars and Galaxies shows the stars and galaxies in th ree-dimens ional space, with the th ird dimens ion- dista nce- di re.c tl y ap parent to ste reosco pic VISion. The 3-D maps- stereographs- are accu rate representations constructed from the most recent data available.

Because our eyes are set between two and three inches (50 to 80 mm) apart our stereoscopic vision extends to only a few hundred yards (metres) at most. We use other visual clues, including our experience of how large a particular object ought to appear when observed over a particular range, in order to estimate the distance of things that are fu rther away. We have no direct experience of the size and the distance of stars, and this is why, looking up into the night sky, all the stars appear equally near.

The 3-D maps in the Atlas are unreal to the extent that our eyes are too close together to see parallax over long distances, and the distances involved are, by definition, astronomica l. However, they accurately reflect the best measurements and latest estimates of the true distances involved; they show space as it might appear to us if our eyes were very much farther apart than they are.

Distances in Space

Th ree ways of worki ng out the distance to sta rs and to galaxies are used in th is At las. They are trigonometric parallax, spectroscopic pa rallax, and redshift.

Trigonometric parallax uses the orbit of the Earth rou nd the Sun to give widely separated points of view from which the positions of nearby sta rs can be measured and compa red. When measurements are taken a few months apart, the nearer stars show small changes in appa rent position. These changes, called 'parallax; are produced by the change in the observer's position as the Earth moves round the Sun. To standardize these measures of para llax, they are adjusted to what they would be if they had been made square-on to the star from either end of a standard baseline of one astronomical unit, rough ly equivalent to the mean average distance of the Earth from the Sun, 149,600,000 km.

A star about thirty mi ll ion million kilometres distant (actually 30,857,000,000,000 km; )'26' 6 light-years) would show a parallax of one second of arc when observed in this way. One second of arc is 113,600 of a degree. Astronomers find it convenient to use a parallax of one second of arc as an expression of distance; this unit is called a parsec, abbreviated 'pc'.

6

A star at twice that distance (and showing a parallax of one-half of a second of arc) is said to be at a distance of'two parsecs'; one showing a parallax of one-tenth of a second of arc is said to be at a distance of ten parsecs, and so on (1 pc "",3·26 Iy; 10 pc ~32·6Iy).

The accuracy of measurements of parallax depends in part on the apparent brightness of the star to be measured, bu t ground-based photographic detection is routinely capable of resolutions to plus or minus eight milliarcseconds (8/3,600,000 of a degree). The satellite observatory Hipparcos made measurements to a precision of plus or minus 0·97 milliarcseconds. A star that showed one mill iarcsecond of parallax wou ld lie at a distance of 1 kpc (1,000 parsecs, about 3,262 light-years), and this sets a notional limit for distance measurements by t ri gonometric parallax. The estimated diameter of the Mi lky Way Ga laxy is about 40 kpc, and other methods of determining distance have to be used on ga lactic and intergalactic sca les.

Spectroscopic parallax rel ies on the way that the details of the colour spectrum cast by a star- its 'spectral type'-is a guide to the intrinsic brigh tness of the star. The distance can be wo rked out by comparing how bright the star seems to be, with how bright it rea lly is (or is believed to be).

Interpretation of Redshift is a third method of estimating distance. The 'redshift of a galaxy' refers to the displacement of absorption lines into the longer wavelengths at the red end of its overall light spectrum. Galaxy redshifts are assumed to be a Doppler effect produced by the speed at which distant galaxies are moving away from the observer, thei r 'recession velocity'. If the universe is expanding uniformly, the greater the recession velocity, the more distant a galaxy will be. The most redshifted objects shown on the Galaxy Ma ps are recedi ng at one-tenth of the speed of light, suggesting a distance in the range 500 Mpc.

The Maps

There are three map series in this book, showing space in three ranges: loca l space, regional space, and distant space. Coord inates are shown for epoch 2000. The Near Star Maps concentrate on stars in the sola r neighbourhood, and include a large number of active red dwarfs and inactive wh ite dwarfs, objects too fa int to be seen by the naked eye. Most of the objects shown in this map series are nea rer than 25 parsecs, eighty lig ht-yea rs.

The Bright Star Maps concentrate on the naked-eye stars, often called 'bright stars: that are seen in our region of the Milky Way Galaxy. The Sun is located about 10 kpc (about half­way) out from the centre of the Milky Way system. An extreme supergiant star of an intrinsic luminosity one million times that of the Sun might be just visible to the naked eye over the same distance (10 kpc), and this sets the outside limits of the Bright Star Maps as a 20 kpc circle half the Milky Way in diameter. Most of the objects that are shown on the Bright Star Maps are very much nearer.

The Milky Way Galaxy contains in the region of one hundred thousand million stars, and is one of a similar number of galaxies that make up the visible universe. The Galaxy Maps show the galaxies in our region of that universe out to a notional radius of one-tenth of a closed universe model, and concentrate on the structural groupings and strings of galaxies seen in this region.

The Stereographs

The stereographs of the Near Star Maps show stars as they would appear to someone with eyes about one light-year apart (5,879,000,000,000 miles; 9,460,700,000,000 km). The Bright Star Maps show stars as they might appear to someone with eyes two-and-a-half light-years apart. The Galaxy Maps show the view for someone with eyes five million light-years apart! These figures are based on the notional distance to objects shown at the plane of the page. However, the representation of distances beyond the plane of the page is progressively squeezed up. For example, objects shown on the Galaxy Maps with an assumed distance of 500 Mpc are shown a few inches beyond the plane of the stereograph page. At this range, and at the same but linear scale, a closed universe in proportion to the reader would be reduced to the size of a four-bedroom house.

If you position yourself sixteen inches (400 mm) away from the page, the effective 'depth' that you can see in a comfortable way starts at the plane of the page and extends for six to eight inches 'below' it, producing a little theatre or pocket of virtual space. To accommodate the images into that virtual space, and to get them evenly spaced out, the stereographs use a form of compression similar to a logarithmic scale. To see why this is necessary, consider the case of bright stars.

Bright stars are those visible to the naked eye. They are observed over four magnitudes of distance (distance decades): 1 to 10, 10 to 100, 100 to 1,000,1,000 to 10,000 parsecs. There are a few stars in the first decades and a few stars in the fourth decade, but most bright stars are seen in the second decade and the near end of the third, in the range ten parsecs out to two hundred. If the distribution were shown in a linear way, most of the stars would

be jammed into the first fraction of distance, bunched up into a wall of images a quarter-inch thick. To maximize the differences of distance across the maximum number of objects, the overall distribution has been smoothed out through the available space. The near end of the scale is enlarged, the effective page distance is set a little way into the range, and the distances towards the far end of the scale are progressively compressed.

A different distance and compression scale is used in each map series. The distance of any object can be found by measuring the separation between the red and green images and comparing it to the separations shown on the main key at the beginning of each map series.

Viewing the 3-D Images

The stereographs should be viewed through red (left eye) and green (right eye) filters, and should be viewed square-on: an imaginary line drawn horizontally across your eyes should be parallel with the width of the page. The best lighting is bright diffuse daylight, so that the page is evenly illuminated and without areas of bright reflection. The comfortable distance for viewing red-green stereographs differs quite a lot from one person to the next. Long-sighted readers may prefer greater viewing distances to those who are short-sighted.

Viewing stereographic images is something that the eyes learn how to do, and the best way is to relax the vision and let the eyes sort it out for themselves. If you have not done it before it might take two or three minutes for the first stereograph to resolve itself. It can help to view the image from a long way away, for example, six feet (2 m). The Near Star Maps are the easiest to resolve because the nearer stars are shown larger.

The overall range of depth that is used in the stereographs is set towards the maximum that an experienced viewer will find comfortable, and it is not intended (nor is it possible) that the whole field should be brought into convergence at the same time. This is no different from our ordinary way of seeing things. In ordinary perception we focus our attention on nearby objects or on far-away objects, and the objects we are not concentrating on remain unconverged. The effect is not usually noticed because we are used to it.

It is possible to move down through the depth range by focusing on one object and then on another and nearby object at a slightly greater distance, a sort of 'star-hopping'. The same method can be used to move back up through the field, and this way of viewing has the effect of relaxing the vision and deepening the subjective experience of depth. Once you have seen some part of a first image, the ability to view stereographs improves quickly, and the experience of depth becomes deeper.

7

Introduction The Near Star Maps

The Near Star Maps concentrate on stars within 25 parsecs of the Sun. In interstellar terms, this is our immediate neighbourhood.

A star lying at a distance of 25 parsecs would show 40 milliarcseconds of parallax, easily measured by modern techniques, but even within that 'nearby' range the population of stars remains largely unc3talogued. The difficulty of preparing a catalogue of the nearest stars (and from that catalogue a map) is a matter of faintness and number.

Of 25 stars identified close to the Sun, half are dwarf stars and subdwarf stars of spectral type M: we can suppose that M-type dwarf stars are the most common type of'nearby' star. A dwarf star of spectra l type MS has an absolute magnitude of 12, which means that it would have an apparent visual magnitude of 12 when observed from 10 parsecs away. There are a million stars in the range of apparent magnitude twelve or brighter: to discover all main·sequence stars down to spectral type M5 within 10 parsecs of the Sun would involve examining the parallax of a million candidate stars.

The near star plots have been made from two catalogues, the Preliminary Version of the Third Catalogue of Nearby Stars edited by W. Gliese and H. Jahreiss (1991), and the Hipparcos [atalogue (1997).

The Catalogue of Nearby Stars is a compilation of ground·based observations intended to list objects within 25 pc of the Sun. The distance information is derived from trigonometric parallax in the case of some stars and from spectroscopic parallax in the case of other stars. It lists 3,000 objects of which the dimmest are main· sequence M8 types and 'degenerate' white dwarfs. To reach completeness the catalogue might need to list more than 8,000 objects, and it would be necessary to examine the parallax of more than a hundred million candidate stars. Some objects are listed on the basis of an incomplete spectral analysis, and the catalogue is likely to include a number of distant giant stars of late spectral types mistaken for nearby dwarf stars. All objects from the catalogue are plotted, but on the annotated maps they are represented by open circles.

The completeness of Hipparcos (1997) is defined as (apparent visual magnitude) V= 7·0 - 9·0, with a limiting magnitude of

8

1 2A. Two plots have been taken, and on the annotated maps these plots are distinguished by solid circles. All objects brighter than apparent magnitude 5·25 have been plotted; many are much farther away than 25 pc, but they serve to give a useful 'background' of familiar bright stars. They have been drawn together into constellation figures on the annotated maps. A second plot from Hipparcos shows all objects with a parallax greater than 0'04, that is, all Hipparcos objects out to 25 pc. The second plot provides a number of objects not listed in Gliese and Jahreiss, and is a confirmation of a number of objects that are listed.

The diameter of the symbol size seen in the plots is inversely proportional to the distance of the object. There are no set conventions for mapping nearby stars and this way of representing dista nce is, figuratively speaking, direct. It produces an immediate picture of the location of the nearest stars, at the cost of having the plots of a few more distant objects hidden by the plots of nearer objects.

The annotation of the maps concentrates on nearby objects. Bayer designations are used where possible. Flamsteed numbers (for example, 61 Cygml are preferred to other catalogue numberings. The prefixes of catalogue numbers drawn from Gliese and Jahreiss (1991) and shown on the maps have been truncated: prefix 'GI' (standing for 'Gliese') has been shortened to prefix G; prefix 'GJ' shortened to J; prefix 'NN' shortened to N; and prefix 'Wo' shortened to W. Prefix Hshown on map numberings denotes the Hipparcos Catalogue number. Spectral types are taken from Gliese and Jahreiss, and in multiple stars follow the order: A, B, C. An asterisk (. ) indicates that no typing is found for a particular component. Among heterogeneous typings, prefix 'sd' stands for 'subdwarf' (meta l· deficient and in theory very old stars), and prefix '0' stands for 'degenerate' (stars in which nuclear fusion reactions are believed to have ceased).

Some Interesting Stars

The nearest star to the Sun is Proxima Centauri (Near Star Map 6). in many ways a typical nearby staLin Gliese and Jahreiss it is listed as a red dwarf of spectral type M5·5Ve

(which means: subtype half-way between M5 and M6, luminosity class V-a main-sequence dwarf star-with peculiarity 'e', emission lines in the spectrum). It is also a member of a multiple-star system. The primary star of that system is Alpha Centauri, 'Rigil Kent', itself a double star of which the 'A' component is of the same spectral class as the Sun, G2V. The less massive 'B' companion is a KOV star that reaches an elongation of 17 arcseconds. Observed over a distance of '·35 pc this separation implies that the A and B components are 23 AU (about 3·4 thousand million km) apart, a similar distance to that of the Sun from planet Uranus. Proxima Centauri is separated from Alpha Centauri by more than 2° of arc, corresponding to a distance of more than'O,OOO AU. If Proxima Centauri marks the edge of the system, then the edge extends about 5% of the total distance from Alpha Centauri back to the Sun.

In orbital models of multiple-star systems the strong gravity fields throw out low-mass components. It seems that planets are unlikely to be found within multiple-star systems. They are more likely to be found orbiting single stars.

Trying to observe a planet close to another star is like trying to see a pea suspended in front of an arc light, so the usual method of planet searching is to look for small and regular changes in a star's position, indicating unseen companions. A recent such candidate is Upsilon Andromeda (map 2), distance 13·5 pc, spectral type F8V, a star not unlike the Sun. However, unseen companions inferred on the basis of a regular wobble in star positions are necessarily more massive than Earth, ranging from about the mass of Jupiter up to so-called 'brown

stars' bordering on the 0·08 solar masses needed to start the fusion reactions that power a true star.

Barnard's Star (map 5), a red dwarf type M5, distance 1·8 pc, visual magnitude 9·5, holds the 'angular speed record' of more than ten arcseconds a year (just passing through!). At present it is the fourth closest star to the Sun, and perturbations in its track suggest an unseen companion or companions of two to three Jupiter masses.

61 Cygni, a naked-eye object of combined magnitude 4·6, is the twelfth closest system, distance 3-5 pc. The major elements are listed in Gliese and Jahreiss as K5Ve and K7Ve, but there is at least one invisible companion at about ten Jupiter masses, perhaps a brown star.

The fifth closest system is Sirius, distance 2·6 pc. Sirius A, spectral type A lV, is a 'dwarf' star, meaning that the star is seen in an early and compact condition (in some remote future Sirius A will expand to become a diffuse 'giant'). Sirius A is the brightest star in the night sky, but this is because it is observed at a close distance: in other respects it is a typical bright star. Its companion is the famous Sirius B, the first white-dwarf star to be seen (proposed by Bessel in 1844, observed by Clark in 1862), spectral type DA2. White dwarfs are 'degenerate' stars that have ceased nuclear fusion, but continue to radiate light from their reserves of conserved heat. White dwarfs have an absolute magnitude in the range 10 to 15, making them difficult objects to observe. The nearby star Procyon (map 3) is another system with a white-dwarf component, Procyon B.

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Introduction The Bright Star Maps

The Bright Star Maps are plotted from the Hipparcos Catalogue (1998) to a limit at visual magnitude 6-49. Non-stellar objects to a limit at magnitude 6·49 have been shown on the annotated maps and are plotted from the catalogue NGC 2000.0 (1989). Non-stellar objects are not shown on the stereographs.

The European Space Agency satellite Hipparcos was launched by Ariane 4 on August 8th 1989 and made between 100 and 150 separate observations of the positions of more than 100,000 stars in the period November 1989 to March 1993. The satellite made observations free of the distorting effects of the Earth's atmosphere, and made them in two directions at the same time to give an independent frame of reference for the measurements. The reported median precision was plus or minus 0·97 milliarcseconds.

Hipparcos measurements are taken into the stereographs without intervention. There is a distance scale next to the 'North' and 'South' circles at the beginning of the map series (a colour photocopy of this key would make a useful bookmark). Sample distances given on the annotated maps are rounded out to two figures. They allow another way of readi ng off the distance shown in the stereograph s. The milliarcsecond error that remains in the Hipparcos measurements means that the distances shown or quoted to remote stars shou ld be regarded with caution.

The page distance of the stereographs is set at 5 pc. You may notice that there is considerable compression of depth for objects represented at distances greater than 100 pc. In the annotated maps, Bayer designations are preferred where possible, and Flamsteed numbers are preferred to Argelander alphanumerics.

Some Interesting Objects

A point often made about the depth distribution of stars is that constellation groupings are for the most part imaginary, that the stars of a seeming group like the Big Dipper are at different distances and have no association in three­dimensional space. As it happens, the stars of the Big Dipper

26

do not illustrate this effect (Bright Star Map 1). The five central stars, Zeta, EpSilon, Delta, Gamma, Beta, are all A-type main­sequence stars at distances close to 2S pc, a remarkable coincidence of star type and distance.

Undisputed associations in three-dimensional space are observed in open clusters such as the Hyades and the Pleiades (map 4). The Hyades themselves are a lovely example of a moving cluster (see special view on p. 91), with Aldebaran a false member, moving across the field half-way between the Sun and the true grouping.

A looser kind of grouping is seen in the depiction of stars in the Milky Way. The plane of the Milky Way galaxy is represented by the Galactic Equator, with the centre of the galaxy in direction 0° of the galactic equator beyond the stars of Sagittarius (maps 13 and14), and with the edge of the galaxy lyi ng in direction 180° beyond the stars of Auriga (maps 4 and 5).lt is established that the galaxy has the shape of a flattened spiral with a number of curving arms defined by dust clouds, star-formation, and dense populations of highly luminous young stars. Star clouds produce a noticeable thickening along the line of the galactic plane that can be seen crossing some part of most of the maps. They represent the near part of the major arms of the galaxy region, with the 'Sag ittarius Arm' lying about 2 kpc towards the centre of the galaxy, and the 'Perseus Arm' lying about 2 kpc towards the edge.

The Sun is located south of the galactic plane, and a trailing arm-like element, the 'Orion Arm: is seen separated from the galactic plane in the region of Perseus and along a line through the Pleiades, the Hyades, and Orion (map 4). Particularly clear areas of galactic structure are seen in the galactic plane through Centaurus and Vela (maps 11, 12, 13 and 16) with the suggestion of a spur-like grouping in Lupus (maps 13 and 16). A clear break in the line of the Milky Way caused by a dust cloud is seen half-way through Vela (map 16). Other seeming voids in the Milky Way produced by dust clouds are seen close to Acrux (map 16) and close to Deneb (map 8). with the southern end of the 'Cygnus Rift' well defined in the region west of Altair (also map 8).

The same Cygnus region provides one of the best examples of an identification group of stars that are entirely disassociated in three-dimensional space, the delta wing grouping in Cygnus. The distance given by trigonometric parallax (tr) from Hipparcos makes a most interesting comparison with an estimate by spectroscopic parallax (sp): Alpha, tr 990 pc (V 1.25, A2Ia) sp 520 pc; Gamma, tr 470 pc (V 2.20, F8Ib) sp 240 pc; Delta, tr 52 pc (V 2.86, B9.5111) sp 50 pc; Epsilon, tr 22 pc (V 2.46, KOIII) sp 22 pc. The convergence at the near end of

the range is striking, and both methods produce the same ranking nearest to farthest, but the different measures to the remote and rare supergiants Alpha and Gamma are the point of most interest. No weight can be placed on such a small sample, but it may be remarked that spectroscopic parallax is a derived method of estimating distance that ultimately depends on the yardstick of direct measurement, trigonometric parallax. The distances to very remote objects that are found by either method must be treated with great caution.

27

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Introduction The Galaxy Maps

The Galaxy Maps are plotted from the 1998 September 16th version of the (fA Redshift Survey and Catalogue of Galaxies. The key to the maps assumes a Hubble (onstant Ho = 65·202 km per second per Mpc, such that each kilometre per second of recession velocity equates to a separation of 15.337 pc.

Outside of a general recession all galaxies have their own individual motions relative to other galaxies, A small number of galaxies close to the Milky Way show negative velocities­they are getting nearer rather than farther away. Because objects with negative velocity cannot be plotted on maps where distance is related to redshift, these galaxies have been excluded from the maps (examples are M98 and M86). These exclusions highlight the fact that redshift is not a reliable indicator of distance for the nearest galaxies, The large and Small Magellanic Clouds (LMe, SMC) are not shown on the stereographs, but they are shown on the annotated maps to give a location.

The Galaxy Maps are shown in a projection centred on the so· called 'galactic poles' (elsewhere shown as NGP and SGP on Bright Star Maps 6 and 9). The galactic poles are found at 90" to the Galactic Equator, the plane of the Milky Way Galaxy itself. The Sun and Solar System is located within the plane of the Milky Way Galaxy, about 10 kpc out from the galactic centre observed in the direction of Sagittarius, galactic longitude 0". Most visible stars and obscuring clouds of gas and dust local to our Galaxy are found in the galactic plane. They shut out the light of more distant galaxies to form a 'plane of obscuration' 40" to 60" deep, seen along the foot of maps 2- 5 and the head of maps 6- 9. The seeming rarity of galaxies in this region is an illusion, an artifact created by the conditions of observation.

The (fA Redshift Catalogue is compiled from more than fifty sources. Individual observatories and observation programmes observe galaxies in particular areas of the sky to different limits and criteria of measurement and recording, so the completeness of the catalogue varies.

After removal of disallowed sources, and with the exception of objects listed from four other sources, the maps plot all objects in the 1998 version of the catalogue to a magnitude limit of

64

15·99. The galaxy fields from the four source catalogues numbered 27, 36, 40, and 51 all appearto have been surveyed to an untypicallevel of completeness. The boundaries of the survey fields matched declination bands on trial plots, and risked producing observation artifacts that could be mistaken for the contours of natural clustering. For this reason, objects listed from these source catalogues have been restricted to magnitude 14·99. Other congregations of object plots seen on the maps might represent observation artifacts, might describe real clusters, or might be some combination of the two. Right ascension and declination coordinates are given for the approximate centre of some of these plot groupings.

A feature of the annotated maps is the conventional constellation boundaries, which give a sense of the more familiar celestial coordinate system, and allow the major clusters of galaxies to be located against the regions of the sky after which they are frequently named. However, the dedicated naming of individual galaxies and clusters of galaxies is restricted to a few well·established examples. A limited annotation concentrates on brighter and nearer objects. Numbers without prefix are NGC numbers; prefix '1(' denotes Index Catalogue numbers, prefix 'M' denotes Messier numbers, and prefix 'R' (fA Redshift Catalogue numbers. The compression used in the representation of depth follows a logarithmic curve. The page distance is set at 10 Mpc.

Some Interesting Structures

The most fascinating thing about illustrating galaxies in 3·0 is the way it shows up elements of structure in the way that the galaxies are distributed. Such structure is particularly easy to see among clusters of fainter and (by implication) more distant objects. In preparing the maps it was possible to show objects to a fair degree of completeness, perhaps magnitude 14, and lose some of the structure, or else to show as much structure as possible and lose completeness. We chose the second option.

The dominant feature of the northern galactic region is the line of galaxies running from Ursa Major to Centaurus (seen

running diagonally across the North Circle map), and concentrated in the region running through Virgo (map 1). This line of galaxies has been given various names, including 'The Great Wall' and 'The Supergalactic Equator'. The concentration of galaxies along this axis is undeniable, although the limit of representation at one-tenth the speed of light means that this area represents what is still a comparatively small volume of space in the universe.

The major structure in the southern region is equally obvious. A line of galaxies runs in an arc from Perseus (map 8) through Andromeda and Pegasus to Lacerta (map 7). Another filament runs from Cetus (map 7) through Pisces, with a nearer cluster between the two filaments in Pegasus. How many filaments are there? Richard Monkhouse sees three strands along the northern side and favours the name 'Twisted Rope' to describe this particular element. John Cox favours the name 'Southern Wall' to cover the whole of the larger grouping. There are elements of bridging structures running through Aires and (celestial) east Pisces (map 8); in some ways the overall structure resembles a short piece of model DNA. The south side of the structure has a clean finish, a chasm, another filament, then a void with concentrated clusters in Phoenix.

Beside these major structures, the maps abound with smaller­scale groupings and filaments. One such filament appears to run from behind the Coma Berenices cluster down to a cluster in Corona Borealis. There mayor may not be a string running across to a cluster in Serpens.

When viewing the stereographs, you should bear in mind that the depth scale is extremely compressed. What can look like layers or shells in the perspective of the stereographs could in reality be radial structures, streaming away from the observer's viewpoint to a much greater extent than wrapping around. There is no getting around this flattening effect, and the reader has to develop a sense of logarithmic depth to allow for it.

The observer's viewpoint in the stereographs is the Milky Way Galaxy, whose obscuring effect has already been mentioned. What the Milky Way hides can only be guessed at. The Milky Way is itself a member of a so-called 'Local Group' that is lost in the present projection, and that group is in its turn an outlying member of the Virgo Cluster (map 1). By viewing this area in a relaxed way the reader will find a small fraction breaks away and floats upwards, these galaxies forming our connection to the larger grouping beyond.

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> 1

Special Views

The eight 'special view' sterographs shown below concentrate on three subjects, prper motion in stars, comprehensive views, and galaxy cluster detail. They have been prepared from a variety of sources.

Views 1-3 show proper motion in stars, and have been plotted from the Yale Bright Star Catalogue (1991), with distances calculated from spectroscopic parallax. The circular object symbol shows the position of the star (epoch 2000). The line running into the object plot is extrapolated back from the current proper motion data, and shows the notional track of the star's proper motion over the last 100 000 years had it been moving through space in a straight Ine on its current course and at its current speed over that period.

View 1 shows the proper motion of objects in the Hyades (at about 50 pc) abd the Pleiades (at about 100 pc) star clusters. A method of distance determination nort otherwise discussed in the present work is the 'moving cluster' technique, that assumes the objects in a star cluster such as the Hyades are moving on parallel tracks, and calculates the distance from the perspective, the degree of apparent divergence on convergence seen in those parallel tracks. That the orange giant star Aldebaran is not a member of the Hyades cluster is apparent from its nearer distance and quite different track.

The 'proper motion' of a star is a measurement of apparent motion from two different sources, the motion of of the star and the motion of the Sun. That the Sun has its own individual proper motion in one direction (towards Ophiuchus) is seen from the way other stars show an apparent motion in the

90

opposite overall direction. This apparent proper motion is most. visible at about ninety degrees to the direction of the Sun's motion, in a 'left hand window' towards Perseus (view 2) and in a 'right hand window' towards Crux (view 3).

Views 4 and 5 combine stars, galactic non-stellar objects, and external galaxies, with representation of morphological type. Stars to a limit at apparent magnitude 4.49 are shown with symbol size representing nearness, and are plotted from the Yale Bright Star Catalogue (1991). External galaxies are plotted from the (fA Redshift Catalogue (1998). Galactic and Magellanic non-stellar objects are plotted from a hybrid catalogue prepared by the authors from a variety of sources. Of all the sterographs in the present work, views 4 and 5 cover the greatest distance range and the widest range of objects. Te star-plots represent objects at a close range, external galaxies are objects at a far distant range, and the galactic non-stellar objects are seen in the near to intermediate range, for the most part distributed along the nearby arms in the spiral structure of the Milky Way.

Views 6-8 show groupings of external galaxies at a slightly enlarged scle to those seen in the main series of galactic maps: view 6 shows the cluster in Coma Berenices (galaxy map 1), view 7a detail from the filament structure across Andromeda (maps 7 and 8), view 8 shows the cluster in Centaurus (map 5.) The special views differ from the main series of galaxy maps by using a greater distance to the plane of the page, 50 Mpc in place of 10 Mpc. This opens up the particular fields shown in the sterographs, and enables them to be seen in grater separation and detail.

Sources

The Bright Star Catalogue, ed. Dorrit Hoffleit, Carlos Jaschek and Wayne Warren Jr, 5th edition (machine readable), Department of Astronomy, Yale University, 1991

(fA Redshift Catalogue of Galaxies, ed. John Huchra, M. Geiler et al. (machine readable), Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge Mass., 1998

The Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues (machine readable), European Space Agency, ESTEC, Noordwijk, 1997

NGC 2000.0, The Complete New General Catalogue and Index Catalogues of Nebulae and Star Clusters by J.L.E. Dreyer, ed. Roger W. Sinnott (machine readable), Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge Mass., 1989

Preliminary Version of the Third Catalogue of Nearby Stars, ed. W. Gliese and H. Jahreiss (machine readable), Astron. Rechen­Institut, Heidelburg, 1991

Sky Catalogue 2000.0, Volume 7: Stars to magnitude 8.0, ed. Alan Hirshfeld and Roger W. Sinnot, Cambridge University Press/Sky Publishing Corporation, 1981

Sky Catalogue 2000.0, Volume 2: Double Stars, Variable Stars and Nonstellar Objects, ed. Alan Hirshfeld and Roger W. Sinnot, Cambridge University Press/Sky Publishing Corporation, 1985

A Supplement to the Bright Star Catalogue, ed. Dorrit Hoffleit, Michael Saladyga and Peter Wlasuk (machine readable), Yale University Observatory, 1983

Eugene Delaporte, Delimitation Scientifique des Constellations (Tables et Cartes) [The Report of Commission 3], International Research Council, International Astronomical Union, Cambridge University Press, 1930

James B. Kaler, Stars and their Spectra, Cambridge University Press, 1989

Paul Kunitzsch and Tim Smart, Short Guide to Modern Star Names and their Derivations, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1986

Hugh C. Maddocks, Deep-Sky Name Index 2000.0, Foxon Maddocks Associates, Reston, Va., 1991

A. P. Norton, Norton's Star Atlas, 18th edition, ed. Ian Ridpath, Longman, Harlow, 1989

Wil Tirion, Sky Atlas 2000.0, Cambridge University Press/Sky Publishing Corporation, 1981

R. Brent Tully and J. Richard Fisher, Nearby Galaxies Atlas, Cambridge University Press, 1987

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Stephen Adamson, Eunice Cox, Dr F. van Leeuwen, Dr Robert Massey, Dr Paul Murdin, Caroline Rayner, and the Library at the Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, for their help and assistance in preparing this Atlas. Responsibility for errors remains with the authors.

95