39

3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3. PLANT PROFILE

3.1 AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS

3.1.1 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION / TAXONOMY38

Kingdom – Plantae

Division – Magnoliophyta

Class – Magnoliopsida

Order – Caryophyllales

Family – Amaranthaceae

Genus – Amaranthus

Species – Amaranthus caudatus

3.1.2 VERNACULAR NAMES

39

Kannada – Chilike soppu, keelu harive, keere soppu

English – Love-lies-bleeding, inca wheat, tumbleweed

Hindi – Kedari-chua, ramdana, chulai, chawli, chauli

Sanskrit – Rajadri

Telgu – Netakoora

Tamil – Punki-k-kirai, cikapputtottakkirai, cirukirai

Marathi – Raajagira, bhaji

Urdu – Tukhm chaulai surkh

3.1.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Amaranthus caudatus belongs to the family Amaranthaceae. The

Amaranthaceae family consists of hardy, weedy, herbaceous, fast-growing, cereal-like

Fig No- 3.1 Amaranthus caudatus

40

plants. Amaranth is one of those rare plants whose leaves are eaten as a vegetable

while the seeds are used as cereals40

.

Amaranth is an herbaceous annual growing to 15—100 cm tall. It was once

nearly as important a food as maize and beans in Central and South America. The

Amaranthus plants are spread throughout the world, growing under a wide range of

climatic conditions and they are able to produce grains and leafy edible vegetable41

Amaranthus caudatus occurs as erect herbs. The leaves are obovate to

rhomboid. Panicles are terminal and axillary, pendulous. Sepals and stamens are five

each, awns of bracts curved outwards. Tepals are unequal42

.

Amaranthus caudatus is a versatile plant since it can grow under a broad range

of climate, soil and cultivar systems. The most characteristic of the seeds and leaves

may be that they contain a high proportion of high quality protein43

3.1.4 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Triterpenoids, Saponins, Glycosides, linoleic, linolenic and oleic acid,

squalene, rutin, quercetin, phytosterols, quinone, flavanoids, soluble and insoluble

fiber, tannins, saponins, 20% protein, all 8 essential amino acids (high in lysine,

threonine and tryptophan), vitamin A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B17, C, E, folic acid,

Calcium, Copper, Iron, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium, Zinc, β-

carotene44,45

.

3.1.5 USES 42,46,47,48

Amaranthus caudatus is used as anti-diarrheal, anti-hemmorhagic, Astringent,

emmenagogue, nutritive, Tonic, galactogogue, diuretic. Amaranthus caudatus is also

used as anthelmintic and the mild flavored leaves are rich in vitamins and minerals.

41

It is used as vegetable for enriching iron deficiency. Nutritionally amaranth grain has

2-5 times higher biological value than a common cereal grain, while containing

substantially higher levels of proteins with 2-3 times higher lysine content.

Amaranth has been used nutritionally for infants, children, pregnant and

lactating woman, as it is comparable to the properties of milk. Amaranth aids in

countering heavy menstrual bleeding and vaginal discharge. It helps control dysentery

and diarrhea. With high lysine amaranth is an important protein source for

vegetarians.

The plant is used for purifying blood and in piles and as diuretic in stranguary.

It also given in scrofula and applied to scrofulous sores.

The roots were used to cure kidney stones and leaves used to cure cuts,

leprosy, boils, burns, fever, the decoction of the stem used in jaundice.

Amaranth Oil treatment can be effective with the other drug treatment. It

brings down adverse effect of an other drug, reduces toxicosis, makes better blood

characteristics and human health in general. The oil is also used to help heal burns,

insect bites. The exceptional qualities of amaranth oil are based on the high content

of squalene and characteristic composition of fatty acids, which represent its effective

components. Amaranth Oil contains about 77 % of non-saturated fatty acids (about 50

% of linolenic and linoleic acids), squalene and vitamin E in the rare form of

tocotriene which takes part in the biosynthesis of cholesterol.

3.1.6 MEDICINAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

Filomena conforti et al., reported invitro antioxidant effect and inhibition of α-

Amylase of two varieties of Amaranthus caudatus seeds, it deals with biological

42

properties, antioxidant and antidiabetic properties of two varieties of Amaranthus

caudatus seeds i.e. Oscar blanco and Victor red. The oil, squalene and phenolic

contents were reported to have determined and found to possess very different

levels of squalene41

.

Zeng F et al., studied the effect of rare earth element europium on amaranthin

synthesis in Amaranthus caudatus seedlings.49

Andrea Y et al., reported the Cholesterol-lowering effect of extruded amaranth

(Amaranthus caudatus L.) in hypercholesterolemic rabbits. These results reported

that the consumption of extruded amaranth reduces LDL and total cholesterol levels

and may be another option to prevent coronary heart disease50

.

Rinderle SJ et al., have reported the isolation and characterization of amaranthin, a

lectin present in the seeds of Amaranthus caudatus, that recognizes the T- (or cryptic

T)-antigen51

.

Bruni Ret et al., studied about the Amaranthus caudatus seed oil, a nutraceutical

resource from Ecuadorian flora. Seed oil from Ecuador was analyzed for determining

the tocopherol, fatty acid, and sterol contents52

.

el Bouyoussfi M et al., studied the location of the three disulfide bonds in an

antimicrobial peptide from Amaranthus caudatus using mass spectrometry53

.

De Bolle MF et al., studied about the antimicrobial peptides from Mirabilis jalapa

and Amaranthus caudatus its expression, processing, localization and biological

activity in transgenic tobacco54

.

43

De Bolle MF, et al., have reported on Cloning and characterization of a cDNA

encoding an antimicrobial chitin-binding protein from amaranth, Amaranthus

caudatus55

.

Broekaert WF et al., reported antimicrobial peptides from Amaranthus caudatus

seeds with sequence homology to the cysteine/glycine-rich domain of chitin- binding

proteins. The physicochemical and biological properties were characterized from the

two antimicrobial peptides (Ac-AMP1 and Ac-AMP2) which were isolated from

seeds of amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus). It was proved that the antimicrobial effect

of Ac-AMP1 and Ac-AMP2 is strongly antagonized by cations 56

.

B. Ashok Kumar et al., showed the Antinociceptive and Antipyretic Activities of

Methanol Extract Amaranthus caudatus Linn57

and Anthelmintic activity58

.

3.2 AMARANTHUS SPINOSUS

3 .2.1 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION / TAXONOMY59

:

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Plantae

Subkingdom: Viridaeplantae

Phylum: Magnoliophyta

Subphylum: Euphyllophytina

Infraphylum: Radiatopses

Class: Magnoliopsida

Subclass: Caryophyllidae

Superorder: Caryophyllanae

Order: Caryophyllales

Fig No-3.2 Amaranthus spinosus

44

Suborder: Chenopodiineae

Family: Amaranthaceae

Subfamily: Amaranthoideae

Tribe: Amarantheae

Genus: Amaranthus

Specific epithet: spinosus L.

Botanical name: Amaranthus spinosus L

3.2.2 VERNACULAR NAMES60

:

English: Spiny amaranth, Pig weed, Thorny amaranth,

Sanskrit: Meghanada

Kannada: Mulla-dantu, Mulla harave soppu

Hindi: Kantamiris, Kantabhaji

Telugu: Mundla kura, Nalladoggali

Tamil: Mud-kerrai, Mullukeerai

3.2.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION 61

Amaranthus spinosus is believed to originate from lowland tropical South

andCentral America and was introduced into other warmer parts of the world. This

weedhas a wide distribution including the United States of America, and all tropical

andsubtropical regions of Africa, Southeast Asia and India.

Amaranthus spinosus grows annually as an erect, monoecious herb

(individualflowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same

plant),upto 100-300cm tall, much branched.

45

3.2.4 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS62, 63, 64, 65

Amaranthus spinosus contains 7-p-coumaroyl apigenin 4-O-beta-

Dglucopyranoside,a new coumaroyl flavone glycoside called spinoside,xylofuranosyl

uracil, beta-D-ribofuranosyl adenine, beta-sitosterol glucoside,hydroxycinnamates,

quercetin and kemferol glycoside, betalains, betaxanthin,betacyanin, amaranthine and

isoamaranthine, gomphrenin, betanin, stigmasterol,linoleic acid, 0.15% rutin and beta-

carotene.

Structure of Spinoside

Structure of β-sitosterol

46

Structure of linoleic acid

Structure of Rutin

Structure of beta-carotene

47

3.2.5 USES:

Juice of Amaranthus spinosus is used by tribals of Kerala, to prevent swelling

around stomach.The leaves are boiled without salt and consumed for 2-3 days to cure

jaundiceand also employed to cure some kind of rheumatic pain and stomach ache66

The leaves and roots are applied as poultice to relief bruises, abscesses,

burns,wound, inflammation, menorrhagia, gonorrhoea, eczema and inflammatory

swelling 67

It is used as a sudorific, febrifuge, an antidote to snake poison and as a

Galactagogue68

Amaranthus spinosus is used to induce abortion by the Nepalese69

.

It is also used in nutritional deficiency disorders and various other diseases

inmany parts of Africa70

.

3.2.6 MEDICINAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

Lin B et al., have reported that dichloromethane extract ofAmaranthus spinosus

(2mg/ml) moderately inhibit Blastocystis hominis, a common human protozoan. The

reference anti-protozoan agent, metronidazole(40μg/ml) killed 97% of the protozoan

and inhibited all protozoan samples atconcentrations of 1.25-20 μg/ml71

.

Olufemi B.E et al., have reported that Amaranthus spinosus extract exhibit a highly

specific prostaglandin synthesis inhibitory activity in vitro in an anti-inflammatory

model test system, indicating its anti-inflammatory properties72

.

Mandal M et al., have reported Immuno-modulatory effect by the aqueous extract of

Amaranthus spinosus leaves by stimulating splenocyte proliferation in primary

splenocytes from female BALB/c mice73

.

48

Ashok Kumar B.S et al., reported the effect on gastrointestinal tract motility.

Aqueous extract of Amaranthus spinosus was evaluated in mice by using charcoal

meal method. Results showed gastrointestinal motility at 100 mg/kg dose of A.

Spinosus74

.

Rahman A.H.M.M et al., reported that juice made from Amaranthus spinosus whole

plants are used in the treatment of asthma and cold fever75

.

Muthukumar T et al., showed the antifungal activity of the roots of Amaranthus

spinosus76

.

Prusti A.B et al., have reported that the juice of Amaranthus spinosusleaves are

applied locally in snake-bite77

.

Anisuzzaman M et al., have reported that root paste of Amaranthus spinosus is

slightly warmed and applied on locally for boils78

.

Li S et al., have reported that whole plant of Amaranthus spinosus is used against

pruritus, abscess bleeding, hemorrhoids bleeding, eczema andscabies79

.

Paridhavi M et al., have reported anti-ulcer and anti-inflammatory activity80

.

Sikdar M et al., have reported that stem and roots of Amaranthus spinosus are used

as antidote against snakebite, given to cow to increase the flow of milk, root is good

for menorrhagia and gonorrhea81

.

Parveen et al., have reported that whole plant and roots of Amaranthus spinosus are

used topically and orally. Root paste is applied externally on boils, decoction of herb

is used for mouth wash for toothache82

.

49

Hussain Z et al., have reported antinociceptive activity of Amaranthus spinosus. 50%

of ethanolic extract of Amaranthus spinosus (whole plant) has been evaluated for

antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities83

.

Hussain Z et al., reported the hepatoprotective and antioxidant activity of 50%

ethanolic extract of whole plant of Amaranthus spinosus84

.

Suryavanshi V.L et al., have reported simple and efficient reverse phase high

performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of rutin in whole

plant powder of Amaranthus spinosus Linn62

.

Azhar U.H et al., have reported spinoside, new coumaroyl flavones glycoside,

isolated from the n-butanol fraction of the methanolic extract of the whole plant of

Amaranthus spinosus and assigned the structure 7- pcoumaroyl apigenin 4-O-β-D-

glucopyranoside55 on the basis of spectroscopic techniques including 1D and 2D

NMR spectroscopy. In addition α- xylofuranosyl uracil56 β-D-ribofuranosyl

adenine57 and β- sitosterol glucoside58have also been isolated for the first time from

this species65

.

Florian C.S et al., showed the characterization with respect to the phenolic profile

including the betalains85

.

Pundir C.S et al., have reported the purification and properties of amembrane bound

oxalate oxidase from Amaranthus spinosus leaves86

.

Sheela K et al., reported the proximate composition of underutilized green leaf,

Amaranthus spinosus in Southern Karnataka87

.

Ashok Kumar.B.S et al., studied the Estimation of Rutin and Quercetin in

Amaranthus spinosus,88

Antioxidant activity by Non-Enzymatic

50

Haemoglycosylation,89

analgesic activity90

and studied effect of Amaranthus Spinosus

Linn, leaf Extract on Gastrointestinal Tract.91

3.3 AMARANTHUS VIRIDIS

3.3.1 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION / TAXONOMY 92

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Plantae

Subkingdom: Viridaeplantae

Phylum: Tracheophyta

Subphylum: Euphyllophytina

Infraphylum: Radiatopses

Class: Magnoliopsida

Subclass: Caryophyllidae

Superorder: Caryophyllanae

Order: Caryophyllales

Suborder: Chenopodiineae

Family: Amaranthaceae

Subfamily: Amaranthoideae

Tribe: Amarantheae

Genus: Amaranthus

Specific epithet: viridis - L.

Botanical name: Amaranthus viridis

Fig No 3.3: Amaranthus viridis

51

3.3.2 VERNACULAR NAMES93, 94

:

Hindi: chauraiya

Kannada: Chelakeerae soppu, Dagglisoppu, keere soppu.

Malayalam: Cerhiraa, Mullanchira.

Sanskrit: Thanduliya.

Tamil: Kuppaikkeerai.

Telugu: Chilaka thota koora.

.

3.3.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION94, 95

:

Amaranthus viridis is probably originated from America, found throughout India

in waste places. It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is

a cosmopolitan weed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, also

penetrating far into temperate regions (e.g. in Europe, North America, Asia and

Australia). In tropical Africa it is also a widespread and common weed.

Amaranthus viridis grows annually as an erect, monoecious herb (individual

flowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same plant), up

to 100-300cm tall, much branched. Leaves are alternate, simple, petiolate, base

tapering (markedly attenuate), margins entire (sometimes sinuate), apex acute or

obtuse or retuse or emarginate (and often mucronulate), Blade glabrous.

3.3.4 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS94,96,97,98,99

:

The powdered leaves yield tannin, with some reducing sugar and resin but no

alkaloids.

Identification of spinosterol (24-ethyl-22-dehydrolathosterol) as major component

along with 24-methyllathosterol 24- ethyllathosterol, 24-methyl-22-

52

dehydrolathosterol, 24-ethyl cholesterol and 24-ethyl-22-dehydrocholesterol as minor

components in sterol fraction. It contains flavonoids, rutin and quercetin. The roots of

the plant contains amasterol ( 24-methylene-20-hydroxycholesta-5,7-dien-3β-ol) a

steroidal constituent.

O

OH

OH

O

OH

OH

OH

3.3.5 USES:

The herb is used as astringent, emollient, in dysentery, inflammation100

,

constipation101

, eczema, bronchitis, antidiabetic101

, anaemia and leprosy, Plant is used

as sag for cooking and fodder plant. Leaves are emollient and anthelmintic102

. Roots/

shoots are used to control excessive menstruation, blood purifier101, 103

, digesting

agent, piles104

.

The Negrios of the Philippines apply the bruised leaves directly to eczema,

psoriasis, and rashes with good results. The leaves make a good emollient preparation

available in some of the Filipino villages for insect bites, sunburn, and regular

burns105

.The reddish-brown fibre from the leaves are soaked and use for eye

treatments. The decoction of young roots is used for the treatment of respiratory

complaints, asthma106

.

Quercetin

53

3.3.6 MEDICINAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITY:

Narong Chungsamarnyart et al., studied the antiviral activity against the Foot and

Mouth Disease virus (FMDV) type O, local strain KPS/005/2545 of forty-seven

ethanol crude-extracts of 42 plants. The leaves and stem extracts of Amaranthus

viridis were used. The concentration 0.024µg/µl of Amaranthus viridis L. leaves and

stems inhibited the FMDV concentration 1X102.44

TCID50. It has antiviral proteins

against tobacco mosaic virus107

.

Navjot Kaur et al., has purified lectin from the seeds of Amaranthus viridis Linn

Anti-Proliferative Effect. Amaranthus lectin was found inhibitory to HB-98 cells and

partially to PD-388D1 cell lines108

.

Kwon S.Y et al., has purified an antiviral protein from the leaves of Amaranthus

viridis was named amaranthin109

.

Jana Kalinova et al., studies were conducted to confirm the presence of rutin, one of

the most common quercetin glycosides, and other quercetin derivatives in plants of

genus Amaranthus110

.

Liu D et al ., studied the effects of different concentrations (10(-6)M, 10(-5)M and

10(-4)M) of K2Cr2O7Cr(VI) on some minerals (Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn), lipid

peroxidation, activities of antioxidant enzymes, photosynthetic function, and

chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics were investigated in hydroponically grown

Amaranthus viridis L. Results indicated that chromium was accumulated primarily in

roots111

.

Kwon S.Y et al., acDNA library was constructed in Uni-ZAP XL vector with poly(A)

RNA purified from leaves of Amaranthus viridis112

.

54

Zain-ul-Abedin M et al., were able to develop cultures from the cut-end parts of

this plant tissue. The commonly used media were modified to achieve good and fast

growth. Results have been obtained on the techniques, histology, chromosomal, and

biochemical studies which indicate that the plant could be useful as a research tool to

study problems in crop improvement at the cellular level113

.

Simone Mendonca et al., studied amaranth’s protein cholesterol-lowering effect and

investigates its mechanisms hypercholesterolemia was induced in male hamsters

through diet rich in casein (300 g/kg diet) containing regular levels of cholesterol

(0.5 kg/g) fed during 3 weeks. They suggested that amaranth protein has a metabolic

effect on endogenous cholesterol metabolism114

.

B.S.Ashok Kumar et al., showed the Invitro anthelmintic propertiy of methanol

extract of Amaranthus viridis linn,115

Antinociceptive and antipyretic Activities116

and

estimation of Bioflavonoids in Amaranthus viridis Linn By HPLC117

.