3052_c000

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

To the great pioneers in Marine and Offshore Construction who were

undeterred by violent storms and massive ice.q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface

This third editon has been intensively augmented and revised to include the latestdevelopments in this rapidly expanding field. The intensified search for oil and gas, thecatastrophic flooding of coastal regions and the demands for transportation, bridges, sub-merged tunnels and waterways have led to the continuing innovation of new technologywhich is now available for use on more conventional projects as well as those at the frontiers.

This text is intended as a guide and reference for practicing engineers and constructorsfor use in the marine environment. It is also intended as a text for graduate engineeringstudents interested in this highly challenging endeavour.q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Acknowledgments

I wish to acknowledge the help of many members of our company, Ben C. Gerwick, Inc.making available information on the current construction of marine and offshore projects,also the willing responses to my queries from other sources in the industry.

I would like to thank my administrative assistant, Michelle Yu, for her word-processingof the manuscript.q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Author

Ben C. Gerwick, Jr. is the author of Construction of Prestressed Concrete, first, second, andthird editions, and the first and second editions of Construction of Marine and OffshoreStructures.

He was born in Berkeley, California, in 1919. He received his B.S. in civil engineeringfrom the University of California at Berkeley in 1940. He joined the U.S. Navy the sameyear and served until 1946. He was assigned as commanding officer of the USS Scania(AK 40) in 1945.

He has worked in marine and offshore construction, or taught about it, for most of thetime since his discharge from the navy. He worked in Marine Construction from 1946 to1967 and from 1967 to 1971 in Offshore Construction, ending as President of Ben C.Gerwick, Inc., and Manager of Offshore Construction for Santa Fe International. From1971 to 1989, he served as Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of California,Berkeley.

He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, the National Academy ofConstruction, and an honorary member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, which

awarded him their Outstanding Engineering Lifetime Achievement Award in 2002.He has been named a fellow of the International Association of Structural and BridgeEngineers and has served as president of the International Federation of Prestressing.He was awarded the Berkeley Fellow Medal in 1989.q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 1000000

C

11111

2.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 492.2 Dense Sands ....................................................................................................................... 522.5 Glacial Till and Boulders on Seafloor............................................................................. 53

2.4 Calcareous Sands............................................................................................................... 53

2.6 Overconsolidated Silts ..................................................................................................... 542.3 Liquefaction of Soils.......................................................................................................... 521.6 Currents .............................................................................................................................. 201.7 Waves and Swells .............................................................................................................. 251.8 Winds and Storms ............................................................................................................. 311.9 Tides and Storm Surges.................................................................................................... 341.10 Rain, Snow, Fog, Spray, Atmospheric Icing, and Lightning ...................................... 361.11 Sea Ice and Icebergs .......................................................................................................... 371.12 Seismicity, Seaquakes, and Tsunamis............................................................................. 421.13 Floods .................................................................................................................................. 431.14 Scour .................................................................................................................................... 441.15 Siltation and Bed Loads ................................................................................................... 441.16 Sabotage and Terrorism.................................................................................................... 451.17 Ship Traffic.......................................................................................................................... 451.18 Fire and Smoke .................................................................................................................. 461.19 Accidental Events.............................................................................................................. 461.20 Global Warming................................................................................................................. 47

Chapter 2 Geotechnical Aspects: Seafloor and Marine Soils2.7

q 2007 b1.5.1 Marine Organisms ................................................................................................ 18.2 Geography ............................................................................................................................ 3

.3 Ecological Environment ..................................................................................................... 4

.4 Legal Jurisdiction................................................................................................................. 4

.5 Offshore Construction Relationships and Sequences.................................................... 5

.6 Typical Marine Structures and Contracts........................................................................ 8

.7 Interaction of Design and Construction .......................................................................... 9

hapter 1 Physical Environmental Aspects of Marine andOffshore Construction

.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 15

.2 Distances and Depths ....................................................................................................... 15

.3 Hydrostatic Pressure and Buoyancy .............................................................................. 16

.4 Temperature ....................................................................................................................... 17

.5 Seawater and SeaAir Interface Chemistry .................................................................. 18Contents

IntroductionSubsea Permafrost and Clathrates.................................................................................. 55

y Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2.82.92.10

3.153.16

Chap

4.14

4

q.2 Steel Structures for the Marine Environment ............................................................... 794.2.1 Steel Materials ....................................................................................................... 804.2.2 Fabrication and Welding ..................................................................................... 804.2.3 Erection of Structural Steel ................................................................................. 854.2.4 Coatings and Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures.................................. 88.3

2007 bSafety of the Public and Third-Party Vessels................................................................ 77Archaeological Concerns ................................................................................................. 78

ter 4 Materials and Fabrication for Marine Structures

General ................................................................................................................................ 792.11 Muds and Clays................................................................................................................. 562.11.1 Underwater Slopes in Clays ............................................................................. 572.11.2 Pile Driving Set-Up ........................................................................................ 582.11.3 Short-Term Bearing Strength ............................................................................ 582.11.4 Dredging .............................................................................................................. 582.11.5 Sampling .............................................................................................................. 582.11.6 Penetration........................................................................................................... 592.11.7 Consolidation of Clays; Improvement in Strength ....................................... 59

2.12 Coral and Similar Biogenic Soils; Cemented Soils, Cap Rock ................................. 592.13 Unconsolidated Sands ...................................................................................................... 602.14 Underwater Sand Dunes (Megadunes) ..................................................................... 622.15 Bedrock Outcrops.............................................................................................................. 622.16 Cobbles................................................................................................................................ 632.17 Deep Gravel Deposits ....................................................................................................... 642.18 Seafloor Oozes.................................................................................................................... 642.19 Seafloor Instability and Slumping; Turbidity Currents............................................... 642.20 Scour and Erosion ............................................................................................................. 652.21 Concluding Remarks ........................................................................................................ 66

Chapter 3 Ecological and Societal Impacts of Marine Construction

3.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 693.2 Oil and Petroleum Products ............................................................................................ 693.3 Toxic Chemicals ................................................................................................................. 703.4 Contaminated Soils ........................................................................................................... 713.5 Construction Wastes.......................................................................................................... 713.6 Turbidity ............................................................................................................................. 713.7 Sediment Transport, Scour, and Erosion ....................................................................... 723.8 Air Pollution....................................................................................................................... 723.9 Marine Life: Mammals and Birds, Fish, and Other Biota .......................................... 733.10 Aquifers............................................................................................................................... 743.11 Noise .................................................................................................................................... 743.12 Highway, Rail, Barge, and Air Traffic ............................................................................ 753.13 Protection of Existing Structures .................................................................................... 753.14 Liquefaction........................................................................................................................ 77Weak Arctic Silts and Clays............................................................................................. 55Ice Scour and Pingos......................................................................................................... 56Methane Gas....................................................................................................................... 564.2.5 High Performance Steels ..................................................................................... 91Structural Concrete ........................................................................................................... 91


5.10555.135.145.155.165.175.185.195.205.215.22 Speciali

Chap

6.16.2

q 2007 bter 6 Marine Operations

Towing............................................................................................................................... 161

Moorin6.2.1 M

y Taylor & Franes ................................................................................................................... 159zed Equipment ................................................................................................... 160Catamaran Barges ........................................................................................................... 146Dredges ............................................................................................................................. 147Pipe-Laying Barges ......................................................................................................... 152Supply Boats..................................................................................................................... 155Anchor-Handling Boats.................................................................................................. 156Towboats ........................................................................................................................... 156Drilling Vessels ................................................................................................................ 157Crew Boats........................................................................................................................ 158Floating Concrete Plant .................................................................................................. 158Tower C.11 Launch Barges.................................................................................................................. 144

.12Semisubmersible Barges................................................................................................. 137Jack-Up Construction Barges......................................................................................... 1404.3.1 General ................................................................................................................... 914.3.2 Concrete Mixes and Properties .......................................................................... 91

4.3.2.1 High Performance Concrete Flowing Concrete ...................... 954.3.2.2 Structural Low-Density Concrete...................................................... 964.3.2.3 Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC)..................................... 97

4.3.3 Conveyance and Placement of Concrete .......................................................... 974.3.4 Curing..................................................................................................................... 984.3.5 Steel Reinforcement.............................................................................................. 984.3.6 Prestressing Tendons and Accessories............................................................ 1024.3.7 Embedments........................................................................................................ 1054.3.8 Coatings for Marine Concrete .......................................................................... 1064.3.9 Construction Joints............................................................................................. 1064.3.10 Forming and Support ....................................................................................... 1074.3.11 Tolerances............................................................................................................ 108

4.4 Hybrid SteelConcrete Structures................................................................................. 1084.4.1 Hybrid Structures............................................................................................... 1094.4.2 Composite Construction.................................................................................... 109

4.5 Plastics and Synthetic Materials, Composites ............................................................ 1114.6 Titanium............................................................................................................................ 1134.7 Rock, Sand, and Asphaltic-Bituminous Materials ..................................................... 114

Chapter 5 Marine and Offshore Construction Equipment

5.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 1175.2 Basic Motions in a Seaway............................................................................................. 1185.3 Buoyancy, Draft, and Freeboard ................................................................................... 1205.4 Stability.............................................................................................................................. 1215.5 Damage Control............................................................................................................... 1245.6 Barges ................................................................................................................................ 1265.7 Crane Barges .................................................................................................................... 1305.8 Offshore Derrick Barges (Fully Revolving) ................................................................. 1345.9gs and Anchors................................................................................................... 169ooring Lines ..................................................................................................... 169

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6.76.8

Chap

77

7.3777777

Chapter 8

8.1 Genera8.2 Fabrica8.3 Transpo8.48.58.6

q 2007 bInstalling Piles.................................................................................................................. 262

MethodInsert P

y Taylor & FInstallation of Piles in Marine and Offshore Structure

l .............................................................................................................................. 255tion of Tubular Steel Piles ................................................................................. 259rtation of Piling.................................................................................................. 260Concluding Remarks ...................................................................................................... 252

.8 Scour Protection............................................................................................................... 248.9Prevention of Liquefaction............................................................................................. 248.4 Dredging and Removal of Hard Material and Rock ................................................ 235

.5 Placement of Underwater Fills...................................................................................... 240

.6 Consolidation and Strengthening of Weak Soils........................................................ 245

.7Controls for Grade and Position................................................................................... 2267.2.1 Determination of Existing Conditions............................................................. 226Seafloor Dredging, Obstruction Removal, and Leveling.......................................... 227.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 225

.26.6.6 Pumped Concrete and Mortar ......................................................................... 2136.6.7 Underbase Grout ................................................................................................ 2136.6.8 Grout for Transfer of Forces from Piles to Sleeves and

Jacket Legs ........................................................................................................... 2156.6.9 Low-Strength Underwater Concrete ............................................................... 2156.6.10 Summary............................................................................................................ 215Offshore Surveying, Navigation, and Seafloor Surveys............................................ 216Temporary Buoyancy Augmentation........................................................................... 223

ter 7 Seafloor Modifications and Improvements6.5.3 Manipulators ....................................................................................................... 2036.6 Underwater Concreting and Grouting ........................................................................ 203

6.6.1 General ................................................................................................................. 2036.6.2 Underwater Concrete Mixes............................................................................. 2046.6.3 Placement of Tremie Concrete.......................................................................... 2056.6.4 Special Admixtures for Concreting Underwater .......................................... 2096.6.5 Grout-Intruded Aggregate ................................................................................ 2126.5.2 Remote-Operated Vehicles (ROVs).................................................................. 2016.2.2 Anchors ................................................................................................................ 1706.2.2.1 Drag Anchors ..................................................................................... 1706.2.2.2 Pile Anchors........................................................................................ 1746.2.2.3 Propellant Anchors............................................................................ 1746.2.2.4 Suction Anchors ................................................................................. 1756.2.2.5 Driven-Plate Anchors........................................................................ 175

6.2.3 Mooring Systems ................................................................................................ 1756.3 Handling Heavy Loads at Sea....................................................................................... 183

6.3.1 General ................................................................................................................. 1836.4 Personnel Transfer at Sea ............................................................................................... 1906.5 Underwater Intervention, Diving, Underwater Work Systems,

Remote-Operated Vehicles (ROVs), and Manipulators ............................................ 1946.5.1 Diving................................................................................................................... 194s of Increasing Penetration............................................................................... 285iles ........................................................................................................................ 290

rancis Group, LLC

88.8 Testing8.9 Steel H8.10 Enhanc8.11 Prestres8.12 Handlin8.138.148.158.168.1788.19 Steel Sh8.20 Vibrato8.21 Microp

Chapter 9

9.1 Genera9.2 Harbor

9.2.1 T9.2.2 P9.2.2.8 Staying of Piles.................................................................................... 3249.2.2.9 Head Connections .............................................................................. 3259.2.2.10 Concrete Deck ..................................................................................... 3269.2.2.11 Fender System ..................................................................................... 327

9.2.3 Bulkheads, Quay Walls...................................................................................... 3279.2.3.1 Description........................................................................................... 3279.2.3.2 Sheet Pile Bulkheads .......................................................................... 3279.2.3.3 Caisson Quay Walls............................................................................ 330

9.3 River Structures ............................................................................................................... 3319.3.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 3319.3.2 Sheet Pile Cellular Structures ........................................................................... 3319.3.3 Lift-In Precast Concrete ShellsIn-the-Wet Construction .................. 3359.3.4 Float-In Concrete Structures ............................................................................. 336

9.3.4.1 General ................................................................................................. 3369.3.4.2 Prefabrication ...................................................................................... 3379.3.4.3 Launching ............................................................................................ 3389.3.4.4 Installation ........................................................................................... 3399.3.4.5 Leveling Pads ...................................................................................... 3399.3.4.6 Underfill ............................................................................................... 340

9.4 Foundations for Overwater Bridge Piers .................................................................... 343q 2007 b9.2.2.6 Jetting.................................................................................................... 3239.2.2.7 Driving Through Obstructions or Very Hard Material ................ 3239.4.1 G9.4.2 O

y Taylor & FHarbor, River, and Estuary Structures

l .............................................................................................................................. 319Structures ............................................................................................................ 319ypes..................................................................................................................... 319ile-Supported Structures ................................................................................. 319

9.2.2.1 Steel Piles ............................................................................................. 3199.2.2.2 Concrete Piles ...................................................................................... 3209.2.2.3 Installation ........................................................................................... 3209.2.2.4 Batter (Raker) Piles ............................................................................. 3229.2.2.5 Pile Location ........................................................................................ 323eet Piles ............................................................................................................... 316ry Pile Hammers................................................................................................. 317iles ......................................................................................................................... 317.18 Slurry Walls, Secant Walls, and Tangent Walls .......................................................... 315Drilled and Grouted Piles .............................................................................................. 297Cast-in-Drilled-Hole Piles, Drilled Shafts ................................................................... 302Other Installation Experience ........................................................................................ 312Installation in Difficult Soils .......................................................................................... 312Other Methods of Improving the Capacity of Driven Piles..................................... 313ing into Rock or Hardpan................................................................................. 291High Capacity Piles........................................................................................... 292Piles...................................................................................................................... 293ing Stiffness and Capacity of Piles .................................................................. 293sed Concrete Cylinder Piles............................................................................. 294g and Positioning of Piles for Offshore Terminals ...................................... 296.7 Anchoreneral ................................................................................................................. 343pen Caissons .................................................................................................... 344

rancis Group, LLC

9.5

9.6

9.7

Chapter 10

10.1 Gener10.2 Ocean10.3 Breakw

10.4 Offsho

Chap

11.111.211.311.4

q 2007 bter 11 Offshore Platforms: Steel Jackets and Pin Piles

General ............................................................................................................................ 433Fabrication of Steel Jackets........................................................................................... 434

Load-ORemov

y Taylor & FSheet Pile Cellular Breakwaters.................................................................... 415re Terminals ........................................................................................................ 41610.3.1 General.............................................................................................................. 40810.3.2 Rubble-Mound Breakwaters ......................................................................... 40810.3.3 Caisson-Type Breakwaters and Caisson-Retained Islands ...................... 41410.3.4Coastal Structures

al ............................................................................................................................ 399Outfalls and Intakes.......................................................................................... 399aters .................................................................................................................... 4089.7.2 Temperature Control Devices........................................................................... 397

9.7.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 3979.5.6 Underfill and Backfill......................................................................................... 3869.5.7 Portal Connections ............................................................................................. 3869.5.8 Pile-Supported Tunnels ..................................................................................... 3869.5.9 Submerged Floating Tunnels............................................................................ 387Storm Surge Barriers....................................................................................................... 3879.6.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 3879.6.2 Venice Storm Surge Barrier............................................................................... 3889.6.3 Oosterschelde Storm Surge Barrier ................................................................. 389Flow-Control Structures ................................................................................................. 3979.5.5 Installing the Segments ..................................................................................... 3859.5.2 Prefabrication of SteelConcrete Composite Tunnel Segments .................. 3829.5.3 Prefabrication of All-Concrete Tube Segments.............................................. 3839.5.4 Preparation of Trench ........................................................................................ 3849.5.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 3819.4.11 Belled Piers ........................................................................................................ 379Submerged Prefabricated Tunnels (Tubes).................................................................. 3819.4.9.1 Steel Sheet Pile Cofferdams............................................................... 3729.4.9.2 Liquefaction During Cofferdam Construction............................... 3759.4.9.3 Cofferdams on Slope .......................................................................... 3769.4.9.4 Deep Cofferdams ................................................................................ 3769.4.9.5 Portable Cofferdams........................................................................... 378

9.4.10 Protective Structures for Bridge Piers............................................................ 3789.4.6.2 Prestressed Concrete Tubular Piles.................................................. 3679.4.7 Connection of Piles to Footing Block (Pile Cap) ........................................... 3709.4.8 CIDH Drilled Shafts (Piles)............................................................................... 3719.4.9 Cofferdams........................................................................................................... 3719.4.3 Pneumatic Caissons ........................................................................................... 3459.4.4 Gravity-Base Caissons (Box Caissons) ............................................................ 3469.4.5 Pile-Supported Box Caissons............................................................................ 3579.4.6 Large-Diameter Tubular Piles .......................................................................... 360

9.4.6.1 Steel Tubular Piles .............................................................................. 360ut, Tie-Down, and Transport .......................................................................... 435al of Jacket from Transport Barge; Lifting; Launching ............................... 444

rancis Group, LLC

12.312.412.512.6

13.4 Construction and Launching ...................................................................................... 54113.513.611111111

q3.7 Semi-Submersibles ........................................................................................................ 5453.8 Barges .............................................................................................................................. 5453.9 Floating Airfields........................................................................................................... 5473.10 Structures for Permanently Floating Service ............................................................ 5483.11 Marinas............................................................................................................................ 5493.12 Piers for Berthing Large Ships .................................................................................... 549

3.133.14

2007 bFloating Concrete Bridges............................................................................................ 544Floating Tunnels ............................................................................................................ 544Chapter 13 Permanently Floating Structures

13.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 53313.2 Fabrication of Concrete Floating Structures.............................................................. 53713.3 Concrete Properties of Special Importance to Floating Structures ....................... 54012.2.7 Stage 7Towing to Deep-Water Mating Site ............................................ 50512.2.8 Stage 8Construction of Deck Structure ................................................... 50512.2.9 Stage 9Deck Transport ............................................................................... 50712.2.10 Stage 10Submergence of Substructure for Deck Mating ..................... 50912.2.11 Stage 11Deck Mating ................................................................................. 51012.2.12 Stage 12Hookup ......................................................................................... 51312.2.13 Stage 13Towing to Installation Site ......................................................... 51312.2.14 Stage 14Installation at Site ....................................................................... 51412.2.15 Stage 15Installation of Conductors .......................................................... 524Alternative Concepts for Construction...................................................................... 525Sub-Base Construction.................................................................................................. 529Platform Relocation....................................................................................................... 530Hybrid Concrete-Steel Platforms ................................................................................ 53011.5 Upending of Jacket ........................................................................................................ 45211.6 Installation on the Seafloor .......................................................................................... 45511.7 Pile and Conductor Installation .................................................................................. 45811.8 Deck Installation ............................................................................................................ 46111.9 Examples ......................................................................................................................... 464

11.9.1 Example 1Hondo ........................................................................................ 46411.9.2 Example 2Cognac........................................................................................ 47211.9.3 Example 3Cerveza ...................................................................................... 476

Chapter 12 Concrete Offshore Platforms: Gravity-Base Structures

12.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 47912.2 Stages of Construction.................................................................................................. 483

12.2.1 Stage 1Construction Basin ........................................................................ 48312.2.2 Stage 2Construction of Base Raft ............................................................ 48712.2.3 Stage 3Float-Out ......................................................................................... 49012.2.4 Stage 4Mooring at Deep-Water Construction Site ............................... 49112.2.5 Stage 5Construction at Deep-Water Site ................................................ 49212.2.6 Stage 6Shaft Construction ......................................................................... 501Floating Breakwaters .................................................................................................... 549Mating Afloat ................................................................................................................. 549


14.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 553114.314.414.5

14.9 Offshore Wind-Power Foundations............................................................................ 580

15.12 Directional Drilling (Horizontal Drilling) ................................................................. 6161111Chapter 16 Plastic and Composite Pipelines and Cables

16.1 Submarine Pipelines of Composite Materials and Plastics .................................... 62716.1.1 High Density Polyethylene Pipelines .......................................................... 62716.1.2 Fiber-Reinforced Glass Pipes ........................................................................ 62916.1.3 Composite Flexible Pipelines and Risers .................................................... 630

16.2 Cable Laying .................................................................................................................. 631

Chapter 17 Topside Installation

17.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 633

17.2

q 2007 b5.13 Laying Under Ice........................................................................................................... 6175.14 Protection of Pipelines: Burial and Covering with Rock........................................ 6175.15 Support of Pipelines...................................................................................................... 6245.16 Cryogenic Pipelines for LNG and LPG ..................................................................... 62514.10 Wave-Power Structures ................................................................................................ 58014.11 Tidal Power Stations ..................................................................................................... 58114.12 Barrier Walls ................................................................................................................... 58114.13 Breakwaters .................................................................................................................... 582

Chapter 15 Installation of Submarine Pipelines

15.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 58315.2 Conventional S-Lay Barge............................................................................................ 58615.3 Bottom-Pull Method...................................................................................................... 60315.4 Reel Barge ....................................................................................................................... 61015.5 Surface Float ................................................................................................................... 61215.6 Controlled Underwater Flotation (Controlled Subsurface Float).......................... 61315.7 Controlled Above-Bottom Pull.................................................................................... 61315.8 J-Tube Method from Platform ..................................................................................... 61515.9 J-Lay from Barge............................................................................................................ 61515.10 S-Curve with Collapsible Floats ................................................................................. 61615.11 Bundled Pipes ................................................................................................................ 61614.6 Cable Arrays, Moored Buoys, and Seafloor Deployment ...................................... 57314.7 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion ........................................................................... 57414.8 Offshore Export and Import Terminals for Cryogenic GasLNG and LPG...... 576

14.8.1 General.............................................................................................................. 576Articulated Columns..................................................................................................... 557Seafloor Templates ........................................................................................................ 566Underwater Oil Storage Vessels.................................................................................. 5724.2 Single-Point Moorings .................................................................................................. 554Chapter 14 Other Applications of Marine and OffshoreConstruction TechnologyModule Erection ............................................................................................................ 633


Chap

21.121.2222

q1.3 Principles of Constructibility....................................................................................... 6861.4 Facilities and Methods for Fabrication ...................................................................... 6871.5 Launching ....................................................................................................................... 6872007 bter 21 Constructibility

General ............................................................................................................................ 681Construction Stages for Offshore Structures............................................................. 68217.3 Hookup ........................................................................................................................... 63617.4 Giant Modules and Transfer of Complete Deck ...................................................... 63717.5 Float-Over Deck Structures.......................................................................................... 638

17.5.1 Delivery and Installation ............................................................................... 63817.5.2 Hi-Deck Method.............................................................................................. 64017.5.3 French "Smart" System................................................................................... 64017.5.4 The Wandoo Platform .................................................................................... 64117.5.5 Other Methods ................................................................................................ 641

Chapter 18 Repairs to Marine Structures

18.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 64318.2 Principles Governing Repairs...................................................................................... 64418.3 Repairs to Steel Structures ........................................................................................... 64518.4 Repairs to Corroded Steel Members .......................................................................... 64818.5 Repairs to Concrete Structures.................................................................................... 64818.6 Repairs to Foundations................................................................................................. 65318.7 Fire Damage ................................................................................................................... 65518.8 Pipeline Repairs ............................................................................................................. 655

Chapter 19 Strengthening Existing Structures

19.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 65919.2 Strengthening of Offshore Platforms, Terminals, Members

and Assemblies .............................................................................................................. 65919.3 Increasing Capacity of Existing Piles for Axial Loads ............................................ 66019.4 Increasing Lateral Capacity of Piles and Structures

in SoilStructure Interaction ........................................................................................ 66619.5 Penetrations Through Concrete Walls ....................................................................... 66719.6 Seismic Retrofit .............................................................................................................. 669

Chapter 20 Removal and Salvage

20.1 Removal of Offshore Platforms................................................................................... 67120.2 Removal of Piled Structures (Terminals, Trestles,

Shallow-Water Platforms) ............................................................................................ 67220.3 Removal of Pile-Supported Steel Platforms.............................................................. 67320.4 Removal of Concrete Gravity: Base Offshore Platforms......................................... 67620.5 New Developments in Salvage Techniques .............................................................. 67920.6 Removal of Harbor Structures .................................................................................... 67920.7 Removal of Coastal Structures .................................................................................... 68021.5.1 Launch Barges ................................................................................................. 68721.5.2 Lifting for Transport....................................................................................... 688


21.1621.1721.18

Chap

23.123.223.323.423.523.623.723.8

q 2007 bter 23 Arctic Marine Structures

General ............................................................................................................................ 751Sea Ice and Icebergs ...................................................................................................... 752Atmospheric Conditions .............................................................................................. 755Arctic Seafloor and Geotechnics ................................................................................. 756Oceanographic ............................................................................................................... 758Ecological Considerations ............................................................................................ 759Chapter 22 Construction in the Deep Sea

22.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 71722.2 Considerations and Phenomena for Deep-Sea Operations .................................... 71822.3 Techniques for Deep-Sea Construction...................................................................... 71922.4 Properties of Materials for the Deep Sea................................................................... 72122.5 Platforms in the Deep Sea: Compliant Structures ................................................... 726

22.5.1 Description....................................................................................................... 72622.5.2 Guyed Towers ................................................................................................. 72722.5.3 Compliant (Flexible) Tower........................................................................... 73022.5.4 Articulated Towers ......................................................................................... 733

22.6 Tension-Leg Platforms (TLPs) .................................................................................... 73322.7 SPARS .............................................................................................................................. 73522.8 Ship-Shaped FPSOs....................................................................................................... 73522.9 Deep-Water Moorings................................................................................................... 73622.10 Construction Operations on the Deep Seafloor........................................................ 74022.11 Deep-Water Pipe Laying .............................................................................................. 74322.12 Seafloor Well Completions .......................................................................................... 74622.13 Deep-Water Bridge Piers .............................................................................................. 746Contingency Planning .................................................................................................. 707Manuals........................................................................................................................... 708On-Site Instruction Sheets............................................................................................ 710Risk and Reliability Evaluation................................................................................... 71121.5.3 Construction in a Graving Dock or Drydock............................................. 68821.5.4 Construction in a Basin.................................................................................. 68821.5.5 Launching from a Ways or a Launch Barge............................................... 68921.5.6 Sand Jacking .................................................................................................... 69021.5.7 Rolling-In.......................................................................................................... 69121.5.8 Jacking Down .................................................................................................. 69121.5.9 Barge Launching by Ballasting..................................................................... 691

21.6 Assembly and Jointing Afloat ..................................................................................... 69221.7 Material Selection and Procedures ............................................................................. 69321.8 Construction Procedures .............................................................................................. 69521.9 Access .............................................................................................................................. 70121.10 Tolerances ....................................................................................................................... 70221.11 Survey Control ............................................................................................................... 70321.12 Quality Control and Assurance .................................................................................. 70421.13 Safety ............................................................................................................................... 70521.14 Control of Construction: Feedback and Modification............................................. 70621.15Logistics and Operations.............................................................................................. 760Earthwork in the Arctic Offshore ............................................................................... 762


23.9 Ice Structures.................................................................................................................. 76623.10 Steel and Concrete Structures for the Arctic............................................................. 768

23.10.1 Steel Tower Platforms .................................................................................. 76823.10.2 Caisson-Retained Islands............................................................................. 76823.10.3 Shallow-Water Gravity-Base Caissons ...................................................... 76923.10.4 Jack-Up Structures ........................................................................................ 77023.10.5 Bottom-Founded Deep-Water Structures.................................................. 77023.10.6 Floating Structures........................................................................................ 77223.10.7 Well Protectors and Seafloor Templates.................................................... 773

23.11 Deployment of Structures in the Arctic ..................................................................... 77423.12 Installation at Site .......................................................................................................... 77623.13 Ice Condition Surveys and Ice Management............................................................ 78623.14 Durability........................................................................................................................ 78723.15 Constructibility .............................................................................................................. 78923.16 Pipeline Installation ...................................................................................................... 79023.17 Current Arctic Developments ..................................................................................... 791

References ..................................................................................................................... 793


Construction of Marine and offshore StructureHalf TitleTitleCopyrightDedicationPrefaceAcknowledgmentsAuthorContents

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