3301-mgr-fl-a-87121607318
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Uniwersytet WarszawskiWydzia Neofilologii
Tomasz StajszczakNumer albumu: 255132
SKOPOS THEORY AS AN AID IN RESOLVING
CULTURE-RELATED DIFFICULTIES IN THE
TRANSLATION OF FUNCTIONAL TEXTS
Praca magisterskana kierunku filologia
w zakresie filologia angielska
Praca wykonana pod kierunkiemdr hab. Anieli Korzeniowskiej
Wydzia Neofilologii
Warszawa, maj 2011
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Owiadczenie kierujcego prac
Owiadczam, e niniejsza praca zostaa przygotowana pod moim kierunkiem i stwierdzam, espenia ona warunki do przedstawienia jej w postpowaniu o nadanie tytuu zawodowego.
Data Podpis kierujcego prac
Owiadczenie autora (autorw) pracy
wiadom odpowiedzialnoci prawnej owiadczam, e niniejsza praca dyplomowa zostaanapisana przeze mnie samodzielnie i nie zawiera treci uzyskanych w sposb niezgodny zobowizujcymi przepisami.
Owiadczam rwnie, e przedstawiona praca nie bya wczeniej przedmiotem procedurzwizanychz uzyskaniem tytuu zawodowego w wyszej uczelni.
Owiadczam ponadto, e niniejsza wersja pracy jest identyczna z zaczon wersjelektroniczn.
Data Podpis autora (autorw) pracy
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Streszczenie
Przedmiotem pracy jest analiza tumaczenia tekstw uytkowych oraz wystpujcychmidzy nimi konfliktw na tle kulturowym, dokonana z perspektywy teorii Skopos. Niniejsza
analiza czy materia teoretyczny z przykadami pochodzcymi z praktyki, natomiast jejcelem jest ukazanie przydatnoci zastosowania teorii Skopos w rozwizywaniu wyejwymienionych konfliktw. Poszczeglne rozdziay pracy s odpowiednio powicone historiiteorii Skopos i zagadnieniom, ktre zostay przez ni przedstawione, pojciu kultury wwybranych pracach badajcych proces tumaczenia oraz przykadowym opisom konfliktwkulturowych w rnych tekstach uytkowych. W wyniku analizy ustalono, i tumaczenietekstw uytkowych przeprowadzanez perspektywy teorii Skoposumoliwia efektywniejszerozwizywanie konfliktw na tle kulturowym ze wzgldu na cisy nacisk, jaki teoria takadzie na uwzgldnianie czynnikw definiujcych celowo produkowanego tumaczenia.
Sowa kluczowe
teoria Skopos, teksty uytkowe, konflikty kulturowe, funkcjonalno, celowo,
czytelnik docelowy
Dziedzina pracy (kody wg programu Socrates-Erasmus)
9.4 Translatoryka
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter One: Skopostheorya functional approach to translation................................. 7
1.1 The origin of Skopostheory .............................................................................................. 7
1.2The concepts of Skopostheory ....................................................................................... 12
1.2.1Function, aim, purpose, and intention ............................................................... 12
1.2.2The translation brief ......................................................................................... 13
1.2.3 Intertextual and intratextual coherence ............................................................. 14
1.3Skopostheory and the translation of functional texts ....................................................... 16
1.3.1Reisss source text typology ............................................................................. 16
1.3.2Nords amendmenta target text typology ...................................................... 18
1.3.3Nordsclassification of translations ................................................................. 20
Chapter Two: Culture in translation theory..................................................................... 24
2.1Defining culture from the perspective of functional translation ....................................... 24
2.2The relation between the notion of culture and translation theory ................................... 29
2.2.1Schleiermachers dichotomy of translation strategies ....................................... 30
2.2.2Humboldt and Jakobsonthe relation between language and reality ................ 33
2.2.3Nidas theory and the concept of culture .......................................................... 36
Chapter Three: Skopostheory, functional texts, and culture-specificity......................... 41
3.1Locating Skopostheory in practical functional translation .............................................. 42
3.1.1The viability of askopos-oriented approach ..................................................... 43
3.1.2Skopostheory as a utility for practical translation ............................................. 45
3.2Example studies on resolving culture-specificity issues within various domains of
functional texts .................................................................................................................... 48
3.2.1Culture-specificity in user-manual translation .................................................. 48
3.2.2Culture-specificity in translation for advertising ............................................... 51
3.2.3Culture-specificity in translation for tourism .................................................... 54
3.2.4Culture-specificity in legal translation .............................................................. 58
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 63
References .......................................................................................................................... 65
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INTRODUCTION
Many a practising translator would agree that answering one specific question related to
translation requires as much effort as completing the most challenging assignments how
should one go about translating in order to do it well? This enquiry seems to reappear
wherever translation is involved, whether it pertains to studies of literary works, translator
training, or even the moments when translators examine their newly assigned text for the first
time. Could it be the case that explaining how to translate well is difficult because there are no
practical means of accounting for the methods that enable successful translation? That is
unlikely, seeing as the question above does not in fact relate to anything abstract many
ambitious literary works become translated, various institutions teach people how to translate,
and interlingual communication effectively takes place across the globe on an everyday basis.
Translation does work; it exists in practice and its results are tangible. It cannot be stated that
explaining what makes a good translation is difficult because translators cannot define their
methods and rely purely on luck and intuition. However, the sheer multiplicity of factors that
govern translation relate to the very same problem.
Languages are complex entities their form is not only determined by their specific
grammar and vocabulary, but also by the reality in which they are used and the tradition and
history of the people who use them. Languages can express practically anythingfrom legal
notions to technical instructions to brief pieces of information on signs. Dealing with
languages, translation is greatly influenced by the very same diversity of factors. We translate
in order to communicate, and we do it for a variety of reasons, while the languages among
which we carry out this communication are not only different on account of their form but
also because of the varying cultural settings to which they belong. Skopos theory, whose
formulation is attributed to German translation scholar Hans Vermeer, is a framework which
combines the ideas of translation as a purposeful action and intercultural communication. The
following work investigates the application of Skopos-theory concepts to the translation of
various functional texts, thus constituting a combined study of theory and cases drawn from
practice. It is this authors belief that , as a framework specifically focused on both practice
and intercultural communication, Skopos theory holds potential for resolving translational
issues related to many culture-specific aspects of functional texts that belong to a variety of
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fields. Therefore, the purpose of the presented work is to analyse the concepts of Skopos
theory and the notion of culture in translation, establish a connection between them and the
practice of functional-text translation, and indicate how translators may benefit from applying
a Skoposperspective to actual assignments. By exploring these issues, the work also seeks to
advocate Skopostheory as a prolific foundation for further methodological development in the
field of functional-text translation.
The analysis of Skopos theory begins in chapter one, which opens with general
observations on the discipline of translation studies and proceeds to describe those ideas
pertaining to translation which were formulated prior to the frameworks emergence but
nonetheless strongly related to its overall assumptions. The chapter thus explores past ideas in
translation which directly or otherwise motivated the emergence of Skopos theory in the late
1970s. The following portion of the chapter describes some of the more prominent concepts
related to the framework. Notions such as aim, purpose, function, and translation brief are
explained and described as constant elements of the translation process. The final part of the
first chapter refers to ideas formulated by recognised translation scholars who also referred to
the concepts of Skopos theory in their works, namely Katharina Reiss, who formulated a
typology of source texts intended as an introduction of conceptual order into the subject
matter of translation and Christiane Nord who, questioning the functional merit of Reiss
typology, proposed a shift to the target text and accordingly reformulated the source text
categorisation. What is additionally mentioned in this portion of the work is Nords typology
of translation procedures, seeing as it is a notion which further encompasses the various tasks
that the translator encounters in the process of functional-text translation.
The second chapter of the work is devoted to the concept of culture in translation and
begins with an adaptation of the notion to the practice of functional translation. This is done
specifically for the purpose of providing culture with a definition which is both coherent and
relevant to the subject of this work. In order to confirm that the chosen definition is in fact
compatible with the functional approach, the first section is concluded with an attempt at
applying it to the frameworks general perception of functional translation, as presented in the
first chapter. What follows in the next section is an overview of selected considerations
pertaining to the notion of culture in translation which also relate to the idea of the
purposefulness of translation. Similarly to Skopos theory, the chosen discussions also display
that when it occurs, translation relates to the reality in which it takes place Friedrich
Schleiermachers two methods of translating, Roman Jakobson and Wilhelm von Humboldts
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thoughts on the relation between language and reality, as well as Eugene Nidas notions of
formal and dynamic equivalence.
The third and final chapter of the work combines a display of Skopos theorys
propensity for the further development of its conceptual content and a number of studies on
functional translation carried out in various fields. The first portion of the chapter presents a
discussion on the applicability of Skopostheory to the translation of functional texts as well as
a similarly-oriented dialogue between Andrew Chesterman and Emma Wagner, where the two
scholars arrive at the conclusion that Skopos theory holds a lot of promise to practising
translators and consequently present their own typologies which can be employed in practice
classifications of translation purposes, processes, commissioners, and practical methods.
The second portion of the chapter is connected with practice, seeing as it presents example
studies on resolving culture-specificity issues within various domains of functional texts.
These studies relate to areas such as the translation of instruction manuals, translation for
advertising, for the tourist industry, and the translation of legal documents. The authors
elaborate on various culture-specific elements which are found in texts belonging to these
fields and suggest methods for resolving them and assuring that the produced texts are
communicative in the target cultural setting.
For the purpose of thorough research of Skopos theory and its concepts, the thesis
makes frequent references to Christiane Nords Translating as a Purposeful Activity (1997),
which is a work devoted to this frameworks history and terminology among other notions.
Other mentionable works include Mary Snell-Hornbys studies of various concepts related to
culture and translation in The Turns of Translation Studies (2006), particularly her proposed
definition of culture which allowed for a considerable development of the works analysis.
Lastly, Andrew Chesterman and Emma Wagners discussion mentioned above, which was
taken from Can Theory Help Translators?: A Dialogue Between the Ivory Tower and the
Wordface (2002). It proved indispensible for indicating the possibilities that characterise
Skopos theory in terms of creating further concepts applicable to the practice of functional
translation.
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CHAPTER ONE
SKOPOSTHEORYA FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO TRANSLATION
One of the most notable characteristics of translation studies is the disciplines inclination
towards establishing strong and valid connections between its own theories and a vast number
of other scholarly fields. It would not even be a misconception to claim that many ideas in the
field of the translational craft would not have come into existence without the input of other
disciplines. This statement, however, is not meant to suggest that translation is in fact an
insubstantial activity, a mere element or aspect of a different field, as it is at times claimed
(Snell-Hornby 2006: 51). Rather, the essence of the above statement is that among its manygoals, the discipline of translation studies aims to establish the relation between translation
and a variety of perspectives that constitute human culture. Apart from addressing rather
obscure issues, such as whether translation is at all possible, the discipline also investigates
how the process of translation interacts with literary traditions, ideologies, history, societies,
and many other factors (Bassnett and Lefevere 1998: 1-2). The knowledge of translational
theories is indispensable to practising translators, as researching them is nothing other than an
act of expanding and improving ones repertoire of solutions to specific translation problems.
That is not to say the success of ones translational effort is fully determined by ones
knowledgeability of theories. The practice is dependent on experience, talent, and, quite often,
creativity, as in the case of many other occupations. Nevertheless, guided by specific
theoretical foundations, translators make firm, justified decisions as to why a given text
should be translated in one manner and not another. A similar kind of decision shall be made
in the following chapter of this work. By discussing the origin and nature of the Skopos
theory, an explanation shall be provided as to why this approach is best suited for functional
texts and how the knowledge of its concepts may potentially support ones translational
endeavours within that field.
1.1 The origin of Skopostheory
The formulation of ideas characteristic to what is known as Skopostheory today was preceded
by a number of significant changes in the general orientation of translation studies. The
discipline used to be considered a subordinate of linguistics. This is for instance indicated by
the definition of translation found in theEncyclopaedia Britannica. It describes the activity as
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an act or process of rendering what is expressed in one language or set of symbols by means
of another language or set of symbols (Snell-Hornby 1995: 39). A definition such as this will
generally be accepted as a simple explanation of what the activity of translation entails.
However, in light of the developments that took place within translation studies in the second
half of the 20thcentury, it will certainly appear to be incomplete.
In the 1970s, translation scholars belonging to the German circles of the field began
introducing new views; ones that strictly opposed linguistically-oriented perspectives of
translation, as found in the encyclopaedic entry quoted above (Schffner in Baker1998: 235).
Mary Snell-Hornby summarises this trend, which at the time was innovative, under four
characteristics: first of all, the new concepts were to view translation as a process of cultural,
rather than linguistic transfer. This directly resulted in the second postulatetexts themselves,
whether source materials for translation or translations themselves, could no longer be
considered isolated products of a linguistic system. They instead had to be viewed through the
prism of constant interaction with the culture in which they had been created. Third,
translation was not meant to be considered an operation of substituting static elements. To the
proponents of this theory, it was an act of communication in which the form and tone of the
message were dependent on the reception of its addressees. Finally, the new trend sought to
dethrone the source text as the sole measurement model for the preciseness or acceptability of
the produced translation. This, arguably most radical, postulate sought to create space within
the field for discussing the variety of functions that texts fulfil. Individual functions of texts
were perceived as factors that determine the best translation strategy to be employed by the
translator (Snell-Hornby 2006: 52). It was this last concept of the new orientation that earned
it the name functionalism, while scholars who worked within its scope came to be known as
functionalists.
It is reasonable to expect that the questions addressed by functionalism had been
raised at some point prior to the emergence of the theory or even the discipline of translation
studies itself. This is in fact observed by Christiane Nord in a historical overview of
functionalist approaches that she presents in a work devoted to this translation theory. Nord
explains that the individual issues touched upon by functionalism were the subject of many
works on translation, dating back as early as the times of Roman philosopher Cicero (106-43
B.C.) who writes: If I render word for word, the result will sound uncouth, and if compelled
by necessity I alter anything in the order of wording, I shall seem to have departed from the
function of a translator (qtd. by Nord 1997: 4). Cicero considers the possibility of an
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alternative approach to translation. However, the existence of two different strategies imposes
a dilemma is a translation that introduces changes still a translation and will remaining
completely faithful to the original always result in a readable translation? Late 20thcentury
translation studies also shifted their focus to this issue. Elaborating on this matter will come
later, however, as more instances of such considerations can be found in later works.
The Bible is arguably one of the most delicate and controversial subjects known to the
translational craft of the Western world. It naturally came to be a source of considerations
dealing with faithfulness vs. readership conflicts, given the amount of detail which has been
devoted to preserving its message while simultaneously addressing the need to make it
readable to its intended audience. Many prominent figures among Bible translators such as
Jerome or Martin Luther claimed that there are passages in the Bible where the translator
must reproduce even the word-orderor keep to the letter;in other passages they believed it
was more important to render the senseor to adjust the text to the target audiences needs
and expectations (ibid.). As we can see, even when working with such delicatematerial,
devoted practitioners of translation accepted the possibility of introducing changes during the
process for the sake of intelligibly rendering the sense of the given text.
Another instance of conceptual similarity to Skopostheory can be observed in Eugene
Nidasprinciples of equivalence. In his understanding of the equivalent effect, Nida argued
for a dichotomy that discerns between equivalence on the level of the source texts formal
elements (formal equivalence) and on the level of the source texts extralinguistic
communicative effect (dynamic equivalence) (ibid.: 5). Again, we encounter a duality of
translational approaches. On the one hand, Nida discusses the relationship between source and
target texts in purely linguistic terms but on the other, he allows for a different, separate point
of view which became one of the key issues of Skopostheory only two decades laternamely
rendering texts in such a manner that both the original and the translation are equivalent with
respect to the reception, interpretations, and impressions that they evoke in their respective
audiences. Seemingly on the path to functionalism, the theory of equivalence still constrained
translation to source text fidelity and purely linguistic notions, mainly owing to the reception
it received within the linguistics-dominated discipline of the 1950s and 1960s. Due to the
popularity of conceiving the process of translation as a linguistic operation, the academic
community focused on those aspects of Nidas theory that corresponded to structuralist ideas,
leaving the notion of purpose-oriented dynamic equivalence largely insignificant (ibid.: 5-6).
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Notwithstanding, the equivalence theory was highly important to the beginnings of Skopos
theory in translation.
Interestingly enough, the first functionalism-oriented concept of translation was
largely based on Nidas equivalence theory. However, it also served as an initial response to
its linguistically-oriented limitations. In 1971, Katharina Reiss, an accomplished German
translator and scholar, introduced a model of translation criticism that evaluated translations
on the basis of their functionality. She claimed that ideal translations were equivalent to their
source texts as regards their conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative
function (ibid.: 9). What Reiss stresses here is that equivalence may refer not only to
language but also to the content and to the way that content is communicated to its audience.
Thus, translators can also relate to the source text in terms of transferring the function fulfilled
by the original onto the rendering. This observation bears significant consequences for formal
equivalence, as it accepts the possibility of faithful translation becoming an option under
certain conditions rather than a necessity at all times.
Reiss states that one such condition could be a translation that is intended to achieve a
different purpose or function than the original (ibid.). Consider for instance an advertisement
made by one company which was intended for an audience of one country. The company also
conducts its business abroad and wants to extend its campaign there. Instead of
commissioning the advertisement to be translated for the audience of that country, the
company may request for it to be translated as an explanation of its content. That way, before
commissioning its translation as an actual advertisement, the company may rely on its foreign
branch marketing experts to fundamentally revise the advertisement and avert any possible
inappropriateness or misinterpretations that may arise from releasing a literal rendering.
Obviously, an explanatory translation may be more schematic and less aesthetic in form it is
not yet intended to exert its promotional influence on a group of consumers. It may also
present certain elements of information more directly than the original, actual advertisement.1
Another example presented by Reiss is when the target text is meant to address an
audience that is notably different from that for which the source text was originally intended
(ibid.). This pertains not only to (rather commonly associated with the practice of translation)
language differences between audiences. The addressees may prove diverse in various
regards. For example, certain bestsellers become translated into versions intended for
children. Such versions exhibit a variety of characteristics that are not found in regular
1More considerations on the subject of heterofunctional translation, specifically within the domain ofadvertising, available in 3.2.2 of this work.
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translations. This applies both to situations when such books are transferred into different
languages and rewritten in their original one. In fact, translations for different audiences may
very well not involve interlingual transfer at all. Consider for example Wikipedia entries
which are written in a standard coined by the website which is known as simple English.
The policy of applying it consists in rewriting English-language articles into texts with
shorter, simpler sentence structures and more common, undiversified vocabulary. This is
intended to make articles covering difficult or highly specialised topics and concepts more
accessible to users who have no higher education, experience in studying academic texts, or
interests in highly detailed information.
Reisss initial attempts to break with purely linguistic translation were taken to the
next level by her student, Hans J. Vermeer. In a work entitled A Framework for a General
Theory of Translation, written in 1978 (Snell-Hornby 2006: 51), Vermeer specifies his
general approach to translation thus:
Linguistics alone wont help us. First, because translating is not merely and not even primarily alinguistic process. Secondly, because linguistics has not yet formulated the right questions to tackleour problems. So lets look somewhere else (Nord 1997: 10).
Vermeer seeks to formulate his concept of translation without complete reliance on
linguistics, as was the case with equivalence-based theory. The somewhere else that he
decided to research was the notion of translation as an action. Vermeer conceived translation
as a type of action that involves the transfer of communicative elements. Action was, in turn,
characterised in his approach by intentionality and immersion in a particular cultural context
(ibid.: 11-12). The terms that Vermeer operates with and employs in order to introduce his
intended shift have become a visible part of the discipline. This is for instance reflected by
the theory of translational action, formulated by Justa Holz Mnttri in the 1980s, which,
among other notions, explores how translation functions as a type of communicative action
(Schffner in Baker 1998: 3; Nord 1997: 13).
Since Vermeersnotion of translational action is modified by its cultural background
and the purpose that it is meant to fulfil, it becomes impossible to judge the quality and
accuracy of translation solely by its relation to the source text the linguistically-coded
message which, consequently, constitutes only a part, and not the whole of the translation
process. The approach that Vermeer proposes instead relies on investigating the culture-
specificity of communication and how it interacts with translation as a form of purposeful
human action. Vermeer formulates the most representative aspect of his theory by stating that
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Any action has an aim, a purpose. The wordskopos, then, is a technical term for the aim
or purpose of a translation. Further: an action leads to a result, a new situation or event,
and possibly to a new object (Nord 1997: 12). Owing precisely to the Greek word skopos
that Hans Vermeer employed as a referent to the key concept of his approach, the theory
introduced in his work is known to contemporary translation studies as the Skopos theory
(Skopostheorie). In the following sections, we shall analyse its general framework and further
argue for it as a source of solutions to culturally-grounded difficulties in functional
translation.
1.2The concepts of Skopostheory
1.2.1 Function, aim, purpose, and intention
As outlined above, the most important innovation that Skopostheory brought to translation
studies was a linguistically-independent view of the process of translation as a
communicative action characterised by a purpose (or skopos). The idea of purposeful
translation is of particular consequence to practice. It appoints the functions that target texts
fulfil as well as the target readers reception as an acceptable ground for evaluating
translations. The functional and target-reader-oriented aspect of Skopos theory is most
precisely explained in a work co-authored by Reiss and Vermeer in 1984, entitled
Grundlegung einer allgemeinen Translationstheorie, where Vermeers general concepts are
integrated with Reisss notions of text typology and equivalence set in a functional
framework (Nord 1997: 27).
In order to define his theory more precisely, Vermeer proposes a segmentation of the
Skoposnotioninto the concepts of function, purpose, aim, and intention. A self-evident term
in a functional theory, function refers to what a text means or is intended to mean from the
target readers point of view (ibid.: 28). The function of a text is not something inherently
encoded within its linguistic content. Meaning is generated in an act of decoding which is
performed by the target reader. Consequently, function is not necessarily stable and will differ
between readers, especially in instances when readers belong to different cultural settings.
The relative position of function is analogous to the situation of aim. Vermeer defines
it as the final result an agent intends to achieve by means of an action (ibid.). The authors
of functional texts aim to achieve something through their creation. What that achievement is
depends on the type of text. Yet whichever means the author employs in order to achieve
his/her aim in the source culture may not work the same way when they are literally
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transposed into the target culture. Although the aim does not change, one and the same form
may be insufficient to achieve it in different situations. This notably advocates the
introduction of changes in the process of rendering and limits the dominance of formal
equivalence. Similarly to Reisss perception of the notion of equivalence, the concepts of aim
and function essentially separate translation from strict literalism.
The two remaining terms stand in a relation of dependence with the first ones. The
purpose is considered a provisional stage in the process of attaining an aim (ibid.). What
could for instance constitute purposes in reference to the process of translation is first
accepting a commission, then analysing the source text, further deciding on a translation
strategy, which would finally lead to the aim producing the target text. Intention is the
single concept which was amended by Nord for the sake of clarity. She redefines it is as the
senders or the text authors will to attain a particular aim (ibid.). In an ideal communicative
situation the function deciphered by the receiver is the same as the intention of the sender. In
an ideal translational situation the translator formulates the rendering in such a way that it
carries the source text authors intention over to a different cultural setting and achieves the
same purpose as in the original setting (or a different one should need arise).
The general tendency within the framework nowadays is to refer to all these concepts
simply as skopos and a similar trend shall be followed in this work. Further insight into
Vermeers terminology will clarify how he conceived his theory as a reader-oriented
framework advocating the employment of non-literal translation.
1.2.2 The translation brief
Since the goal of this work is to promote Skopostheory as a practical solution for settings of
professional translation, it is crucial to explicate those of its aspects which address work with
translation commissions. Regarding the choice of approach to individual translation
assignments, Vermeer states that one must translate, consciously and consistently with someprinciple respecting the target text. The theory does not state what the principle is: this must
be decided separately in each specific case (ibid.: 29-30). It would at first seem that the
skopos-functionalist translator is left without an answer, as the principleseemingly remains
to be specified by the translator. Christiane Nord, however, addresses the issue by asking
who decides what the principle is (ibid.: 30). And since the aim of such translations
happens to be in fact specified in the commission, she answers that it is the directives of the
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client that should be the decisive factor in selecting translation strategies. Nord describes
commission instructions that the German functionalists referred to as the translation brief:
The translation brief specifies what kind of translation is needed. This is why the initiator or theperson playing the role of initiator (who might also be the initiator) actually decides on thetranslationskopos, even though the brief as such may not be explicit about the conditions (ibid.).
The brief contains whatever information is necessary or useful to the translator
regarding the fulfilment of the commissioners expectations towards the resulting text.
However, it is to be expected that the commissioner will not provide highly specific details
that would precisely instruct the translator how the target text should be written. No less than
a client tells a mechanic how to fix the broken car or a lawyer how to defend the accused
(Nord 2006: 30). The translation brief will mostly contain technical information the
deadline, the settled payment, the form of submission, etc. It is up to the translator to inquire
about any missing key details and use them in order to derive the best approach towards a
given assignment. It is also up to the translator to negotiate the terms of the brief should he or
she disagree with the commissioner. Otherwise, the translators only other options would be
either to turn down the assignment or to refuse to be held accountable for the target text.
In instances when the commissioner does little beyond saying that a given text is to be
translated into a given language by some specified time, the translator works with what Nord
describes as a conventional assignment. In a particular culture community at a given time,
certain types of text are normally translated by certain types of translation (Nord 1997: 31).
Even with a minimal set of instructions, the translational craft follows certain default
procedures that can be easily derived as the most appropriate for a given task as an example,
it is most often the case that television-set manuals are meant to be translated as television-set
manuals and legally valid driving licences are meant to be translated as documents granting
permission to drive a vehicle that can be later assigned legal validity.
1.2.3 Intertextual and Intratextual coherence
The discussion on Skopostheory has so far led us to explain that in the process of translation
the most significant roles are played by the source-text author, the translator, the
commissioner, and the target reader. A very interesting point in that regard, however, would
be the status of the source text in such a target-reader-oriented framework; one that opposes
the dominance that used to persist in linguistics-dominated theory. Nord notes that it is in fact
the aforementioned agents and not the linguistic material of the source text that need to be
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considered firsthand when working on a translation assignment (Nord 1997: 31; Nord 2006:
33-34). In order to justify this priority, let us go back to the definition of text purpose, where
it was noted that the meaning of a text is not derived from its code but from its reception.
Texts do not exchange information when they are devoid of interpretation. In addition, texts
can be read in a variety of ways, seeing as interpretation depends on the individual readers
reception.
Different receivers (or even the same receiver at different times) find different meanings in thesame linguistic material offered by the text. We might even say that a text is as many texts asthere are receivers (Nord 1997: 31).
The exchange of information is not possible without linguistic material, hence the necessity
for the source texts existence. This, however, begs the question if translators differ from
readers in any way when they decode the text prior to the act of translation.
Vermeers definition of the source text makes the decoding performed in its translation
similar to that in regular reading. He describes it as an offer of information from which
individual receivers select the items that they find interesting and important (ibid.). The
source text plays the same part in the process of translation as it does in reception, causing the
translator to likewise act as a reader. Following this logic, we may conclude that functional
translation consists in selecting those items of information from the source text which are
deemed relevant to its function and then transferring them to the target culture where they, as
target texts, can constitute an offer of information for the target readers (ibid.: 32). This
procedure in fact reveals the in-depth mechanics of maintaining the texts function in
translation the translator decodes the purpose of the text in order to re-encode it in a new
cultural setting.
Such placement of the source texts role in Skopostheory entails two variables. Firstly,
it is generally the case that source-text materials exhibit proper placement in the source
culture situation which makes them meaningful media to their designated audience. The same
needs to characterise the translations of these materials as rewritten texts placed in a new
cultural situation. This is what Vermeer calls intratextual coherence (ibid.: 32-33). In
instances when the source text itself does not maintain such coherence and exhibits a variety
of errors inhibiting unconstrained reception, we may speak of the translators role as editor in
the rendering process. This issue, however, merits an entirely separate discussion. The second
concept, central to source- and target-text relations, is known as intertextual coherence
(ibid.: 32). This type of coherence signifies the source and target texts informational affinity
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the one single dimension where in Skopostheory there exists a link between the source and
target texts. The form of the target text, or in other words the manner in which it conveys the
information, is dependent on the skopos and the interests of the agents involved in the
translation. Nonetheless, the offers of information that both the source and target texts
constitute need to remain the same in order for the latter to be considered a translation of the
former.
Judging by the concepts associated with it, Hans Vermeers general framework serves
well as a basis for determining effective translation strategies in settings of functional-text
translation. Skopostheory highlights the importance of the target reader as the co-creatorof
the texts meaning, shifts the disciplines focus from linguistic code and equivalence to
cultural context, and, most importantly, specifies various functions that texts fulfil and
stresses the fact that they belong to the subject matter of professional translation. The last of
the notions listed above is further explored by Katharina Reiss. She introduces a theory of
text types which intends to specify a model of text-function typology. Being a link between
translation practice and the concept of the translation process proposed by Vermeer, Reisss
model will be investigated next in the discussion.
1.3 Skopostheory and the translation of functional texts
1.3.1 Reisss source text typology
Functionalism draws most of its didactic value from those theories contained within its
framework that explore the notion of decision-making in specific translational situations.
Some of these theories differentiate between translation strategies on the basis of
heterogeneous factors such as source-text types and target-text purposes. Others formulate
translation typologies in a straightforward manner and ascribe them to particular types of
assignments. The following shall provide a brief description of these notions as a means of
establishing a connection between skopos-oriented approaches and the practice of functional
translation.
In the 1984 work co-authored with Vermeer (cf. 1.2.1), Katharina Reiss proposes a
model of text classification based on the organon model of language functions. This model
was formulated by German psychologist Karl Bhler in 1934. Bhler claimed that language
fulfils three basic functions: the informative, expressive, and operative. In Reisss model,
these concepts are applied to written language and accordingly constitute three text categories
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1.3.2 Nords amendment a target-text typology
Drawing on the same model of language functions and seeking to remedy the shortcomings of
Reisss concept, the system proposed by Christiane Nord can in all respects be consid ered an
amendment of the source-text typology. Accordingly, Nord establishes three target text
functions based on Bhlers model: referential, expressive, and appellative. Nord also adds a
fourth, phatic function, that she borrows from Roman Jakobsons model of language
functions and claims is indispensible to completing the classification. Nords definitions of
text functions are similar to those presented by Reiss. However, by having those definitions
applied to produced translations, her typology inherently places focus on the reception that
the texts receive in the target culture setting. It does not attempt to stress that the best
approach for particular text types is to preserve specific communicative elements. It is a
considerable break with equivalence-oriented considerations and a step closer towards the
postulations of Skopostheory.
Comparable to Reisss approach, Nord states that the referential function of target
texts involvesa reference to the objects and phenomena of the world or a particular world2
(Nord 1997: 40). Some references within texts are constituted by denotations while others
remain implicit. When carried across cultures, both clear denotations as well as implied
information can change their meaning. With respect to the production of referential target
texts, this entails an obligation on the part of the translator to compose informative messages
in a manner that will make them comprehensible to their intended readers. It is also necessary
in such cases to avoid references to culture-specific knowledge that the intended reader will
in all likelihood not possess. Nord adds that the sub-functions of the referential category are
abundant and difficult to surmise, ranging from basically informing the audience about facts
and events to providing instructions on the use of various devices or describing entire fields
of science and scholarly disciplines.
As regards the expressive function of texts, Nord adjusts the definition to better suit
functional texts. She claims that the concept proposed by Reiss was applicable exclusively to
literary texts as it focused mainly on the aesthetic aspect . Nords understanding of the notion,
on the other hand, revolves around the senders attitude toward the objects and phenomena
of the world(ibid.: 41). This in turn means that the expressive function can be found in any
textual elements that contain the senders individual emotions, evaluations, or any other
2Nord neither excludes fictional worlds or realities fromher definition nor, incidentally, removes theexpressive function from the aesthetic value of texts.
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expressions of attitude. Nord explains that in this sense, expressive texts are sender-oriented.
The authors of these texts express themselves within the source-culture system and address
their writings to an audience that belongs to that same source culture. In translation, the
resulting target texts are addressed to an audience belonging to a different, target culture. This
makes them susceptible to changes in reception. Culture-bound expressive elements may be
presented explicitly within a text, which will make them comprehensible, albeit odd to the
target culture audience. However, in instances when culture-specific expressive markers are
implicit, the target audience may assign to them a different meaning or even a different
function. This is the factor of which translators need to be particularly mindful when
producing translations fulfilling or containing elements that fulfil the expressive function.
The appellative function of Nords system is theequivalent of Reisss operative texts.
The change in terminology, however, is not coincidental. It reflects a shift from equivalence-
oriented preservation of communicative elements to target-reader reception, in a fashion
similar to that of the aforementioned concepts. The category of appellative texts still in fact
comprises any type of documents whose main purpose is to appeal to the receivers
sensitivity or disposition to act and to induce them to respond in a particular way(ibid.:
42). They are, therefore, comprised of texts that persuade the readers either to follow
particular viewpoints or to take up specific act ions by appealing to the receivers sensitivities
and desires. Such texts would include for instance advertisements when the sender appeals to
the receivers real or imagined needs and any elements of exemplification when the sender
appeals to the receivers previous experience or knowledge (ibid.). Similarly to the problem
encountered in the case of informative texts, appellative-function markers may lose their
meaning in translation as a consequence of their culture-specific character. They may very
likely be understood differently in a new cultural setting, even if they are recognised as
appellative elements, and thus fail to achieve the desired effect as they are dependent on a
specific kind of interpretation. Nord remarks that the appellative function is like a dart thathas to hit the centre of the board to obtain a good score (ibid.: 43). It remains in the hands of
the translator to produce the target text in a manner that will make it fulfil the appellative
function when it is presented to an audience with different background knowledge.
The final component of Nords model, the innovative phatic function, is constituted by
any textual element that means to establish, maintain, or end contact between sender and
receiver (ibid.: 44). It is very often the case that this function is fulfilled by most
conventional, fixed expressions found within one cultural system ranging from the
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generally accepted forms of address to proverbs and idioms (ibid.). Needless to say, phatic
utterances may also be interpreted as odd-sounding expressions or elements serving a
different function when placed in a new cultural setting. It is necessary to bear in mind that
the conventionality of certain forms and expressions need not easily transfer across cultures.
Christiane Nords model of target text typology provides a set of categories that
concentrate a broad variety of subgenres within functional texts. Concerning translation, the
main focus here is the reception generated by the target readers who are guided by the norms
and conventions of a particular cultural setting. The target-text model emphasises the
importance of perceiving translation as a process of transferring communicative elements to
that new cultural setting but leaves open the question of how various translational approaches
affect this transfer. This issue is taken up by a different functionalist model created by Nord,
which focuses on the classification of translation procedures.
1.3.3 Nords classification of translations
The previously described classification of texts frequently remarks that target texts preserve
their intended communicative functions when the solutions adapted by the translator take into
account the differences between source- and target-culture communicative elements.
Therefore, a skopos that requires the translation of an appellative text to be read as an
appellative text in the target culture will call for adapting the texts appellative markers to
target-culture norms. It needs to be stressed, however, that adopting a contrary approach, one
faithfully recreating the markers of the source culture, will not always lead to a breakdown in
communication. Indeed, translators may encounter skopoi where the same appellative text
needs to be interpreted as information about appellation in the target culture. Reisss model
would consider such a change in function a failure to provide equivalent communicative
elements. This is a serious shortcoming on its part. A translator may be commissioned to
translate a British university diploma into Polish so that the resulting document will be able to
legally function in the Polish educational system. On the other hand, s/he may also be
commissioned to produce a translation that will simply explain each element of the document
in Polish. These translational alterations are accepted by Nords text classification, which
perceives the changes in the reception of communicative functions as a different outcome of
translation rather than a mistranslation. The following model proposed by Nord explores
translational procedures which both introduce such changes and preserve the communicative
category of the source text.
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Drawing on the notion of dual translational modes that serve either to recreate the
source texts communicative function or to render it with an entirely different one, Nord
proposes two basic categories of translation procedures: documentary and instrumental
translations. She describes the first category as a form of text production that maintains the
communication between the original sender and the intended source-culture audience,
whereas the target-culture audience, the proper addressees of the translation, are the
spectators of this communication (Nord 1997: 47). Documentary translation produces
renderings which preserve certain aspects of its source text to the extent that they are overtly
marked as translations to their new readers. Consequently, their resulting communicative
function will be very different from the original. In the case of documentary translation, the
occurring change of function causes the text to adopt what Nord describes as the metatextual
function, which reflects the translations status as a document of the source-culture
communication (ibid.). The category of instrumental translation comprises procedures that
produce texts characterised by a similarity of function with respect to their source texts.
Renderings produced with instrumental translation are new communicative situations that
take place between the original sender and the new target-culture audience. They are only
based on the source text and all their communicative elements are adjusted to the target-
culture norms (ibid.). Due to the fact that these translations create communication anew and
do not directly reveal themselves as translations, they can retain the original communicative
function that their source texts fulfilled when addressing the source-culture audience (ibid.)
The following paragraphs will outline those elements of Nords model that pertain to
functional texts, seeing as that is the main focus of this work.
Nord divides the category of documentary translation into several subcategories that
illustrate different modes of preserving the textual elements of source texts and the form and
application of translations that they produce. The subcategories of documentary translation
employed in renderings of functional texts are as follows:
Interlineal translationalso described as word-for-word translation. Texts produced with
this procedure preserve the morphological, lexical, and/or syntactic features of the
source-language system which are found in the source text. It is most often used in
academic works devoted to comparative linguistics or in language encyclopaedias,
where the aim is to show the structural features of one language by means of another
(ibid.).
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Literal translationthis mode of translation preserves the lexical units of the source text
while adapting all remaining linguistic elements to the norms of the target-language
system (ibid.: 48-49). Nord remarks that literal translations have multiple applications,
ranging from explication of foreign vocabulary in language classes or within the field of
intercultural studies to translation of quotations in scholarly works and citing foreign-
language speakers in the media.
Philological translation such translations reflect their source text rather literally but
provide footnotes, glossaries, or any other explanation as regards certain culture-specific
peculiarities found within them (ibid.: 49). Nord remarks that this procedure is mostly
employed in the translation of ancient or culturally-distant literary texts but it may very
well be employed in any functional texts where a semi-literary mode of discourse is
employedfor instance in some tourism texts, where references to notions exclusive to a
specific culture are likely to be found.
Instrumental translation comprises modes of translation which aim at different degrees
of preserving the communicative effect that takes place between the sender and source-
culture audience and redirecting it to the target-culture audience. Two of these procedures are
of particular relevance to functional texts:
Equifunctional translation this type of translation is best employed in circumstances
when the target-culture audience does not need to be aware of the fact that it is reading a
translation. Equifunctional translations perfectly adapt every communicative element
found in the source text to target-culture standards and constitute the exact same kind of
communicative interaction between the sender and the target-culture readers that the
original maintained with the source-culture readers. This type of rendering is employed
in a vast range of functional translations. Among some, Nord enumerates instruction
manuals, recipes, tourist information texts, and information on products
(ibid.: 50).
Heterofunctional translation this mode of translation relates to texts whose cultural
remoteness does not enable the complete re-creation of all their communicative functions
(ibid.: 50-51). It may be for example the case that a translator is commissioned to render
an advertisement whose referential function consists in relating to imagery which is
recognised as positive in the source culture. That reference allows the advertisement to
fulfil its appellative function, namely, to convince the intended audience to buy the
product. The same imagery may not have positive associations in the target culture which
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obliges the translator to choose a different kind of imagery, one that does agree with this
requirement. This is also an example of a change in the referential function for the
purpose of preserving the appellative function.
Skopos theory gathers translational approaches which are strictly contrary to the
fields early 20th-century assumptions; they strive to terminate the hegemony of the source
text as the ultimate measure of translational accuracy and grant more importance to the
remaining participants of the translation process. The concepts which have been successively
developed within the theory prioritise, among others, the purpose of the translated text, the
terms of the commission, and the cultural context of both source and target text. Skopos
theory discerns various categories of functional texts and specifies modes of translation that
best serve individual goals. It elaborates on the problems encountered in the practice of
functional translation and how to approach them in order for the target text to achieve its
intended effect. The shift of the 70s that Skopos theory was part of called for perceiving
language as a form of communication within a specific culture rather than a static code, while
translation itself was seen as a mode of mediation between different cultures and not a
process of exchanging the elements of different codes. In order to establish how translation
studies precisely interact with the concept of culture, the following chapter will explore the
status of this notion within the discipline.
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CHAPTER TWO
CULTURE IN TRANSLATION THEORY
The previous chapter of the given work included numerous references to the notion of culture,
a term which has proven to be necessary for even the most basic descriptions of various
concepts introduced by Skopos theory and, as such, an inherent element of functional
translation. Likewise, the notion of culture is a crucial element in many other theories coming
from various stages of the development of translation studies. In the light of these two facts, it
becomes feasible to assume that a broad range of the fields theories expose close connections
to, or possibly provide certain foundations for functionalist ideas. Since the aim of this workis to investigate how Skopos theory resolves translational issues arising from cultural
differences, it is necessary here to investigate this possibly long-lived connection by
examining the role that the notion of culture plays in the general scope of translation theory.
The following chapter shall first discuss the meaning of culture in reference to functional
translation and secondly provide an overview of some of a few selected concepts pertaining to
culture in translation. The description of these concepts shall serve to elaborate on the impact
that the notion of culture has on both theories of translation and the practice of functional
translation.
2.1 Defining culture from the perspective of functional translation
Until now the discussion has followed a slightly intuitive understanding of what culture
comprises. The variety of perspectives that constitute human culture which have been
mentioned in the opening paragraph of the previous chapter (cf. 1.0) may basically refer to all
elements of life, both common and rare, negligible and grand, as well as good and bad. This
collection serves as an instrument of defining who we are as individuals, members of groups,
and members of societies and how different we are from other people on each of these levels.
In a slightly abstract manner, one could name people as products of culture. Applying the
same to written texts, the dominant subject matter of translation, would actually be far more
tangible. They are in fact products of culture in the very same sense, seeing as all texts, in
various ways and to various degrees, constitute a reflection of human identities. In the process
of explaining how Skopostheory perceives the workings of texts in translation, the discussion
has referred to terms such as target culture, source culture, culture-specificity, and the transfer
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of texts across cultures. In translation theory, particularly in the functional approach, these
notions already hint at a determined perception of culture, namely that if texts reflect culture,
it would not be possible to speak of their meaning independently of it.
In its broadest sense, culture envelops the totality and diversity of human heritage.
Determining the link between the concept of culture and translation studies in this sense
would be indeed a Herculean task, as we are not provided with a single theoretical approach
that would encompass such a great scope and practically serve as a general theory of
everything for more specialised theories. This fact is pointed out by Peeter Torop in his
research devoted to the cultural influence of translated texts: although there are several
disciplines engaged in the study of culture, we can speak of neither a methodologically
unified research into culture, nor of a general theory of culture. As an object of study culture
allows for too many different definitions for this to be possible (Torop 2002: 594). Nor can
every element of this scope be regarded as relevant to translation studies. To illustrate this,
Kate James points out that the definition of culture as given in the Concise Oxford
Dictionaryvaries from descriptions of the Artsto plant and bacteria cultivation and includes
a wide range of intermediary aspects (James 2002). Some scho lars question whether there is
a point to defining culture at all, as in the case of Ned Seleeye who comments: I know of no
way to better ensure having nothing productive happen than for a language department to
begin its approach to culture by a theoretical concern for defining the term (qtd. by Katan
1999: 16).
Fortunately, the translation scholars work belongs to a field which constructively
incorporates other disciplines (cf. 1.1) and this allows for such an effort to be in fact
productive. Here the issue at hand is resolved by a significant similarity between the foci of
cultural and translation studies. A likely-minded remark regarding this is made by Torop:
comparing the two fields, especially projecting the development problems of translation
studies upon cultural theory, comes most naturally. Translation studies attempt to solve,
although on a smaller scale, the same problems that have been facing cultural theory for some
time already (Torop 2002: 593-594). Incidentally, placing focus on a scope of culture which
comprises the interests of a specific field often becomes the prerequisite for conducting
studies within that field: if we define culture as a particular civilization at a particular
period, then we will teach history if, on the other hand w define culture in terms of the
artistic and social pursuits, expressions and tastes valued by a society or class we will be
teaching national sports, pursuits, and hobbies (Katan 1999: 16-17). Thus, what can be done
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with translational issues in mind is to narrow the immense scope of culture down to a level
where it overlaps with the mechanics of translation instead of generalising about the concept.
For this purpose, Mary Snell-Hornby refers to a definition of culture drawn by Heinz Ghring
from a concept first formulated by the American ethnologist Ward H. Goodenough:
Culture is everything one needs to know, master and feel in order to judge where peoplesbehaviour conforms to or deviates from what is expected from them in their social roles, and inorder to make ones own behaviour conform to the expectations of the society concerned unlessone is prepared to take the consequences of deviant behaviour. (qtd. by Snell-Hornby 1995: 40)
Ghrings proposed adaptation of Goodenoughs definition specifically aimed to address the
process of translation (Nord 1997: 24). Snell-Hornby points out that its core significance in
this regard is found in three points: firstly, the concept of culture as a totality of knowledge,
proficiency, and perception; secondly, its immediate connection with behaviour (or action)
and events, and thirdly, its dependence on expectations and norms, whether those of social
behaviour or those accepted in language usage. She additionally stresses that these
characteristics are highly relevant in particular to Vermeers approach to translation (Snell-
Hornby 1995: 42). In order to confirm whether there exists a legitimate connection between
Skopos theory and the above definition, let us turn back to the fundamental assumptions of
functionalism and apply to them the primary aspects of Goodenoughs concept.
The assumption which pictures culture from the translational perspective as acollection of all knowledge and norms that condition linguistic behaviour makes it impossible
to speak of language as some form of a standalone code system, independent of any element
that originates beyond it and requiring nothing for its comprehension but the knowledge of the
code itself. Indeed, the functional approach follows this opposition, seeing as its postulates
sum up to treating texts not as mere products of language but messages interactively bound
with the aforementioned collections (ibid.: 43). The concept of unity between language and
culture in this sense is particularly reflected in the studies of Hnig and Kussmaul, theGerman functionalist precursors, who develop their perception of translation from the
concept of texts as a verbalised part of a socioculture (Snell-Hornby 1995: 44, 2006: 51).
This description clearly leans towards perceiving texts as expressions grounded in the
knowledge of individual groups of people. They saw in this particular relation an important
consequence for translation, namely what Snell-Hornby summarises as a dependence of the
produced translation on itsfunction as a text implantedin the target culture (Snell-Hornby
1995: 44). For all that it comprises, culture may be seen as playing the role of a context that
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continuously determines what a text must contain in order to fulfil a specific function.3 In
terms of functional translation, observing such contexts proves crucial to achieving the
desired effect, for the purpose of translation consists in presenting a clear, readable text not
only to a reader who speaks a different language, but also to one who belongs to a different
culture. Different cultures may be characterised by striking differences in terms of what
determines the function of a text. As Snell-Hornby writes: if language is an integral part of
culture, the translator needs not only proficiency in two languages, he must also be proficient
in two cultures (ibid.: 44).
In light of the fact that culture is highly significant to determining how various text
functions are fulfilled by language, the target-text orientation of functionalism has a dual
dependence. It has been discussed that in professional settings the translator of functional
texts is presented with a translation brief which, among others, explicates the reception that
the produced translation is meant to attain. Open disagreement or neglecting to take into
account any specified terms of the commission fails the translation assignment. In order to
perform his/her task well, the translator is obliged to not so much obey the brief without
question but rather mediate between his/her own intentions, the intentions of the source texts
author, and the intentions of the commissioner and consequently create a compromise
between the interests of all involved parties in the produced translation (Nord 2006: 32-34). It
is a technical issue that nonetheless has a great impact on the practice and shifts the focus
towards target-text production. The target cultural context that the translation is to become
embedded in similarly advocates such a shift. The functional approach observed inadequacies
in the classical rule of translating as faithfully as it is possible in all situations not only
because the expectations of commissioners tend to be different than or the exact opposite of
literal translation, but also because translation involves creating texts for a new audience
which is likewise guided by its own, specific knowledge in determining the sense of a given
text and expectations pertaining to a given translations function. The conclusion reached hereremains unchangedculture has a substantial impact on translation; regardless of the type of
text that the translator works with or the instructions of the commissioner, the purpose of
translation is also conditioned by the fact that the process entails transferring the text into a
new communicative situation. The relation between the translations purpose, the terms of the
commission, and the target culture audience is best reflected in an explanation of the status of
theskoposin the functional framework presented by Snell-Hornby:
3This takes into account functions as outlined in 1.3 of this work.
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The most important factor [to the functional approach] is the skopos (Greek for aim, purpose,goal), hence the purpose or function of the translation in the target culture, as specified by theclient (in a translation brief) or the envisaged user-expectations; translation is hence prospectiverather than, as had hitherto been the case, retrospective (Snell-Hornby 2006: 54).
For a certain reason that remains unexplained, however, Snell-Hornby writes about the
prospectiveness of functional translation as alternately based on the demands of the brief and
the target audience. That is not usually the case, for the interests of both these participants
may be sufficiently incongruent to exert contrary demands for one assignment and require the
translator to establish a compromise between them (Nord 2006: 33).
Despite the fact that the presented approach aims to explain the notion of culture in
terms more manageable to Skopos theory, it is still left to operate within a range of various
ideas and issues. It is a fact particularly pertinent to Skopostheory that translation deals with a
broad variety of text types for whom their respective cultural contexts will focus on different
linguistic and extra-linguistic elements in determining their functionality. What is more, in
the current view culture remains a very complex system where precise delimitation is hardly
possible. It is not the case that to each language there is ascribed only one culture which
gathers every phenomenon that conditions its norms and behaviour (Nord 1997: 24). To
elaborate on this, Nord gives the example of cultural similarities found among separate, but
nonetheless spatially close communities such as of those Dutch and Germans who live in
regions close to their common border. Although their languages differ, their value systems
will be similar. Alternatively, the Scots and the English, who constitute distinct communities
of dissimilar origin, will share similar linguistic patterns in some situations while following
their own in others (ibid.: 24). To resolve the question of how to envision the borders of
culture, Nord refers to an altogether different view formulated by the North American
anthropologist Michael Agar. Agar claims that culture is not something people have; it is
something that fills the spaces betweenthem. And culture is not an exhaustive description of
anything; it focuses on differences, differences that can vary from task to task and group to
group (ibid.). Agars concept diverges significantly from the view accepted in this study in
that he conceives culture purely in terms of differences, as something indescribable as far as
its scope is concerned. However, the point that he makes in his consideration is nonetheless
valid to the issue of delimiting cultures. Culture-specificity may apply to various social levels
and it may also persist across language boundaries. The cultural proficiency of the translator
must in many cases consist not only in the knowledge of what is largely specific to the users
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of one language but also in the ability to tell apart the norms and value systems of different
communities, groups, and organisations.
The sheer difficulty of defining culture or even placing it within the framework of a
single translation theory predicts that entire volumes of discussions would likely not exhaust
the subject. Culture is a concept of great complexity, one difficult to determine in almost
every respect. The most important issue to Skopos theory and the practice of functional
translation in this regard is a perception of culture as a context for language with which it
remains in continuous interaction. Gathering norms as well as all manner of knowledge,
proficiency, and perception (Snell-Hornby 1995: 42) that condition linguistic behaviour,
culture determines what allows texts to fulfil various functions. As such, it is a direct cause
for target-text orientation in the functional approach. Neglecting the fact that the production
of a target text consists in transferring it to a new audience and a new communicative
situation will jeopardise the assignment no differently than when a translator ignores the
translation brief. Given its great significance to translation, the concept of culture has given
rise to a number of theoretical notions in the field, many of which predate the assumptions of
functionalism and further elaborate on the problems that the translator must deal with.
2.2 The relation between the notion of culture and translation theory
The above discussion has presented the functional approach largely as a turning point in
translation, from perceiving the activity as a subservient practice of linguistic transcoding to
discussing it as an independent discipline which deals with intercultural communication. The
term of culture itself has been analysed in the setting of this shift, which took place at the end
of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s and whose concepts remain significant to
functional translation even today. However, in discussions on culture in translation, it is not
uncommon to find it described as a factor so inherent to the practice that it had to be
considered in one manner or another ever since the activity of translation came into existence.
Accordingly, the influences of the concept of culture can be traced in many ideas pertaining to
translation which presaged this cultural turn4 but nonetheless related to its assumptions.
Some of these date as far back as the early 19 thcentury.
4This term is commonly used in translation studies to denote the shift described in this discussion; brieflydefined by Mary Snell-Hornby as the abandoning of the scientisticlinguistic approach as based on the conceptof the tertium comparationisor equivalenceand moving from textto culture(Snell-Hornby 2006:50).
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original, but which would yet in its effects come as close to that whole as the difference in
material allows (Snell-Hornby 2006: 8).
Schleiermacher categorised the translation of all texts that do not belong to literature
as a mechanical activity (ibid.). This thought may have been motivated by a variety of
factors, such as the amount of fixed-phrase equivalents involved in the translation of legal and
technical texts, etc., which rather suggested literary works as a field for linguistic creativity
both in their production and translation (cf. Schleiermacher in Lefevere 1992: 142-143). A
different reason for this originated from a personal preference that Schleiermacher assumed
with respect to a different theoretical dispute, explained below. Although limited to literature,
Schleiermachers understanding of the translation process relates to the notion of creating the
text anew, accepting other approaches than literal translation, and stressing the effect that the
text is meant to have on the target readership. Overall, it is a step taken in the direction of
target-text-oriented approaches. Another binary concept formulated by Schleiermacher is
taken up for discussion within the field even more frequently:
In my opinion, there are only two [approaches to translation]. Either the translator leaves theauthor in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader inpeace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. The two roads are so completelyseparate from each other that one or the other must be followed as closely as possible, and that ahighly unreliable result would proceed from any mixture, so that it is to be feared that author andreader would not meet at all (qtd. by Snell-Hornby 2006: 8).
Today better known as concepts of domestication and foreignisation, further developed by
Lawrence Venuti, Schleiermachers strategies reveal the fact that the readers of the source
text and the target text are culturally heterogeneous groups and, consequently, translation
entails decisions regarding the presentation of thoughts originating from one culture to an
audience existing in a different one. The form of the translations language is determined by
the movement of authors and readers initiated by the translator, which may take place not
only across linguistic boundaries (if it had, Schleiermacher would have surely determinedparaphrasing as the most efficient mode of translation for any text), but also across space,
time, and organisations of knowledge. Domesticating in his understanding consists in
producing a text whose features adhere to the conventions of the target language and do not
betray its foreignness, whereas foreignising strives to mark the text with this foreign likeness,
keeping its readers aware of the fact that they are dealing with a translation and setting a clear
demarcation between what is native and what is foreign (ibid.: 9). Anthony Pym notes that the
binarism characterising Schleiermachers approaches is quite commonplace in the
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John Dryden, who formulated concepts highly reminiscent of those belonging to
Schleiermacher. Dryden distinguished between three modes of translation metaphrase,
imitation, and paraphrase. The first two corresponded to the foreignisation and domestication
strategies respectively, while the last differed from how Schleiermacher perceived
paraphrasing and was described by Dryden as a sense-for-sense mode of translation, an
equivalent of the middle way that he supported as the best approach while discarding the
other ones as extremes that ought to be avoided (ibid.).
Rooted in a perception of language generally ascribed to the German movements of
the time, which viewed it as an expression of thought and culture, and texts as representatives
thereof, the significance of Schleiermachers concepts naturally came to be recognised in
multiple discussions, most specifically by Lawrence Venuti in the 90s (ibid.: 145). Their
connection to the communicative view of language is nevertheless apparent in the way the
two strategies treated translation as an act of bringing one reality closer to the other and a
process of enriching languages, literatures, and nations (Venuti 2000: 11). A far more
decisive connection between the notion of culture and translation can be found in the
theories of a different German scholar.
2.2.2 Humboldt and Jakobsonthe relation between language and reality
Mary Snell-Hornby recognises the theoretical input formulated by Wilhelm von Humboldt as
early as in the beginning of the 19 thcentury to be among the first valid connections between
language and culture (Snell-Hornby 1995: 40, 2006: 13). She attributes his ideas to the
intellectual climate of his time and country, which includes the recognition of language as a
constitutive element of thought and reality (cf. 2.2.1). Indeed, this is reflected in those of
Humboldts claims which are of main interest at this point in the study: For Humboldt
language was something dynamic, an activity (energeia) rather than a static inventory of items
as the product of activity (ergon). At the same time language is an expression both of the
culture and the individuality of the speaker, who perceives the world through language (ibid.:
40). A perception of language as being the activity itself and not something resulting from an
activity directs the linguistic considerations of that time onto a slightly different path.
Occupying the very centre of communication instead of being assigned the role of a utility,
language in this sense has a far closer connection to human cognition than it would as an
element responsible for detachedly expressing anything common to one reality and culture. It
still performs that function, albeit on a far more intimate level.
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Humboldts claims can indeed be seen as opening a path towards a new understanding
of language at that time. Snell-Hornby goes as far as establishing a relation between them and
two important linguistic concepts of the 20 th century, concepts which can nevertheless be
viewed as highly relevant to translation, that is owing to the fact that their assumptions
ultimately advocate two opposing views of total translatability and total untranslatability.
Although contradictory and ultimately demanding exclusive acceptance from the individual
translators, these views shed light on the possible understandings of the interaction between
language and culture to be considered for both translation theory and practice.
Snell-Hornby first refers Humboldts theory to the principle of linguistic relativity,
more commonly known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which takes the German scholars
idea as far as to claim that thought does not precede language, but on the contrary it is
conditioned by it (Snell-Hornby 2006:41). From the level of greater intimacy, language
advances here to the role of the origin of reality. Sapir and Whorfs concept was based on
observations resulting from studies of exotic languages such as Hopi, where, according to the
scholars, the verb system directly affected the speakers conception of time ( ibid.).
Languages as such significant entities, which take precedence over even cognition and
perception of reality, create unbreakable ties with the cultures and communities that speak
them. Consequently, any effective form of translation becomes in this sense ultimately
impossible.
Snell-Hornby also links Humboldts views to the generative grammarians theory of
surface and deep structures of language. Humboldt himself writes that a word is not a mere
sign for a concept since a concept cannot come into being, let alone be recorded, without the
help of a word (Humboldt in Lefevere 1992: 136). To him, language is characterised by a
duality of levels which constitute its entirety through their constant interaction, not in the
classical sense of words and their defined meanings, however, but underlying concepts,
ideals existing in human thought and their inseparable embodiment through language.Given the possibility that all linguistic products can be reduced to their pre-transformational
deep structure to be rebuilt in the surface structures of a different language, it would b