4 th edition copyright 2004 prentice hall6-1 psychology stephen f. davis emporia state university...

Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 6-1

4th Edition

PsychologyStephen F. Davis

Emporia State University Joseph J. Palladino

University of Southern Indiana

PowerPoint Presentation by H. Lynn BradmanMetropolitan Community College-Omaha


4th Edition

Motivation and Emotion

Chapter 6


What Is Motivation?

• Motivation refers to physiological or psychological factors that account for the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior.

• The aspects of motivation are – (a) a motivational state that prompted the behavior, – (b) the goal toward which the behavior is directed,

and – (c) reasons for variability in the intensity of the

behavior.


Theories of Motivation

• Biological theories of motivation focus on the importance of biological processes in determining motivated behavior.

• Instincts are unlearned, species-specific behaviors that are more complex than reflexes and triggered by environmental events called releasing stimuli.



• Instincts are unlearned, species-specific behaviors that are more complex than reflexes and triggered by environmental events called releasing stimuli.



• Internal motivational states or drives are created by physiological needs, such as the need for food.

• Drives produce motivated behavior.

• Because drives are aversive, the goal of motivated behavior is drive reduction.



• Because drives are aversive, the goal of motivated behavior is drive reduction.



• Unlike drive-reduction theories, optimum-level theories propose that there is a level of arousal at which organisms function best.

• To reach this level, the organism may seek added stimulation or arousal.



• Cognitive theories of motivation focus on the active processing of information.

• Cognitive-consistency theories stress the need to achieve a psychological state in which one's thoughts are consistent.



• Cognitive dissonance occurs when incompatible thought creates an aversive state that the organism is motivated to reduce.

• Incentive theories of motivation stress the goals toward which the organism is pulled.



• According to Maslow's theory, motivational needs are arranged hierarchically from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.



• The existence of multiple motives often results in conflicts.

• The most common conflicts are; – approach-approach, – avoidance-avoidance, – approach-avoidance, – and multiple approach-avoidance.


Specific Motives

• One factor in hunger regulation is blood sugar (glucose) levels.

• Low blood sugar levels signal hunger and high blood sugar levels signal that the organism is full.

• In addition, levels of fat are also used by the body in regulating hunger.


Specific Motives

• Obesity is associated with several physical illnesses.

• Factors such as gender and poverty play a role in the prevalence of obesity among certain groups in the population.


Specific Motives

• The body mass index (BMI), a single number derived from a person's height and weight is a better predictor of disease risk than insurance company tables of desirable weights.


Specific Motives

• Genetic factors play a key role in determining a person's weight.

• The resting metabolic rate is the rate at which a person burns calories to keep the body functioning.


Specific Motives

• The body defends a set-point weight, making it difficult, though not impossible, to lose weight.


Specific Motives

• A person with anorexia nervosa will lose a significant amount of weight.

• A person with bulimia nervosa will engage in a gorging-purging cycle, which involves taking in large amounts of food and then vomiting.


Specific Motives

• Although sex is classified as a biological motive, it is different from other biological motives in important ways.

• Sexual orientation is a person's tendency to be sexually attracted to one sex or the other or both.


Specific Motives

• Sexual behavior is influenced by external factors, brain mechanisms, and hormones.

• Pheromones are chemicals that elicit a response in members of the same species.


Specific Motives

• The display of sexual behavior in lower organisms is closely tied to hormone levels in the blood.

• Human sexual behavior results from a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and psychological factors.


Specific Motives

• Masters and Johnson outlined the stages of sexual arousal: excitement plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

• They also pioneered the development of techniques to treat sexual dysfunctions.


Specific Motives

• Achievement consists of behaviors that manipulate the environment, rules for those behaviors, and standards for judging performance.

• The need to achieve can be measured by responses to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).


The What and The Why of Emotion

• Emotion is the awareness of a feeling elicited in response to an environmental stimulus, accompanied by physiological changes overt behaviors such as facial expressions.



• Darwin proposed that emotions may be innate behaviors, passed on genetically, that help organisms adapt to their environments.



• The commonsense view of emotions states the sequence of events in emotional responding as: – emotional stimulus– emotion– physiological changes.



• The James-Lange theory states that physiological changes precede and actually create emotions.

• The sequence of events in emotional responding is:– emotional stimulus – physiological changes– emotion.



• The Cannon-Bard theory stresses the role of the thalamus in simultaneously relaying emotional input to the cortex and sympathetic nervous system.


The Physiological Components

• There are some physiological differences among the emotions such as increased heart rate in anger.



• Blushing is elicited by a number of circumstances that usually involve concern about how others evaluate the person.



• Alexithymia is a marked inability to experience and express emotions.



• The opponent-process theory states that an initial emotional reaction is followed by the opposite reaction in an attempt to produce homeostasis.

• With repeated experiences, the initial reaction gradually diminishes while the second reaction gains strength.



• With repeated experiences, the initial reaction gradually diminishes while the second reaction gains strength.



• The polygraph records physiological measurements thought to indicate deception.

• Physiological changes can, however, result from anxiety, anger, or fear.



• Failure to recognize possible causes of arousal can incorrectly identify people as being deceptive (false positives).


The Expressive Components

• There is strong evidence for universal recognition of at least six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.



• Robert Plutchik has offered a model of how emotions can be combined to yield blends that differ in intensity.



• The facial feedback hypothesis contends that feedback from facial muscles affects our experience of emotion.



• Display rules are culturally specific prescriptions that tell us which emotions to display, to whom, and when.

• Such rules account for some cross-cultural differences in the expression of emotion.



• A real smile of enjoyment, the Duchenne smile, involves activation of muscles that are not activated during faked smiles.



• Nonverbal communication involves communication through body language, movements, and gestures.



• There are four major categories of body language: emblems, illustrators, regulators, and adaptors.

• The meaning of certain gestures varies with the culture.



• Paralanguage involves communication through tone of voice, rate of speech, pauses, sighs, and loudness.



• Compared with men, women report more emotional experiences and greater comfort with emotions.

• One possible explanation is that women's roles and occupations tend to require greater sensitivity to the emotional expressions in others.


The Cognitive Components

• Languages and cultures differ in the number of words that describe categories of emotion.

• Some words refer to emotions that are not described in all cultures or languages.



• Schachter and Singer proposed a theory that described emotion as beginning with undifferentiated arousal.

• The specific emotion label we use to describe the arousal depends on our interpretation of the context.



• Appraisal theories of emotion propose that how we make judgments about events leads to emotional reactions.

• Cultural values can influence people's emotions.



• A key cognitive ability is evaluating one's behavior in relation to internal or external standards.

• This ability is the basis of the self-conscious emotions such as shame, guilt, and pride.



• The concept of emotional intelligence includes such abilities as motivating oneself, persisting in the face of frustrations, and being aware of the emotions one is experiencing.

4 th edition copyright 2004 prentice hall6-1 psychology stephen f. davis emporia state university...

Documents

goal of motivated behavior

persistence of behavior

aspects of motivation

multiple approachavoidance

optimumlevel theories

aversive state

motivational needs

level of arousal