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每一年，國際博物館學專業委員會(ICOFOM)都會在舉辦年會時，針對一個博物館學主題舉行研討
會。在公開徵稿後由審查委員會評選投稿的文章。審查通過的論文會集結出版於ICOFOM研究專
題系列叢書。本人很榮幸能擔任此次評審委員會的主席。
博物館學是很新的一門學科：有時必須借用其他學科的詞彙，有時則必須自創新詞。今年，為了
籌備2011年10月23日至26日於台灣舉行的研討會，我們選擇了一個似是而非但引人深省的主題：
「可對話的博物館與觀眾經驗」。這個主題包含了一個不甚明確的詞彙。俄羅斯記號學家巴赫汀
(Mikhail Bakhtin, 1895-1975)於《文學與審美大問哉》一書中發明了兩個詞彙：對話主義與對話型。
這兩個詞彙是巴赫汀書中命題的關鍵，也很快地為民俗博物館學家所用。陳國威(音譯名)便在其
1992年發表的論文「創立對話型博物館：中國城歷史博物館之經驗」中應用了這些詞彙。對陳國
威來說，對話的過程不僅可以引導展覽的設計，也能影響博物館的管理方式，讓博物館的運作能
像社區博物館一樣更鼓勵民眾參與。巴赫汀則認為對話主義可以帶來新的教育方式，促進建構式
培訓理論的發展。這個論點也影響了Jennifer Harris與Daniel Jacobi相繼提出的論述(這兩位學者的
論點皆刊載於本論文集。)。目的在於將一個記號學或社會學的詞彙轉變為博物館學的詞彙。
基於這樣的目的，我們將論文分為三大類：第一類進一步發展巴赫汀的概念，第二類以民俗博物
館學詮釋巴赫汀，第三類則試圖在兩大類間找到平衡。第三類的論文大多著眼於訪客經驗並且多
以訪客研究為主。或許未來也可以訪客研究為題舉辦研討會，但本次研討會的主題並非訪客研究，
訪客經驗只是研究的一個角度，也因此審查委員會最後必須捨棄一些已經發表且品質良好的論文。
評選過程相當困難，但我們期盼最後選出來的論文能針對對話主義、對話與訪客為讀者帶來有趣
的觀點。
最後我們要感謝台灣的主辦單位中華民國博物館學會，在行政院文化建設委員會指導下，籌備這
一次的會議。也要感謝共同協辦的國立故宮博物院、國立台灣博物館、國立科學工藝博物館、高
雄市立美術館、國立自然科學博物館、國立台灣美術館與財團法人鴻禧藝術文教基金會。我個人
也要特別感謝編輯委員會的所有成員、負責將論文翻成西班牙文的Monica Risnikoff de Gorgas女
士與負責編輯本論文集的Suzanna Nash女士。 "
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在十九世紀之前，當歐洲和北美洲尚未發展出重要的博物館，進入博物館與珍藏室僅限於擁有財
力與權力的人士。到了十九世紀，博物館與其參觀者的關係被重新定義，因此，博物館在這個時
期逐漸成為一個在學術、蒐藏與展示的功能之外，致力形塑國家公民的機構。參觀博物館被認為
是創造個人非常重要的一部分。在以教育為前提下，博物館融合了布爾喬亞品味與殖民戰利品的
展示，在當時將參觀者視同默認了博物館是展現權力的場所。
二十世紀期間，博物館的權威不斷隨著教會、政府和富人逐漸逝去的權勢而瓦解。去殖民化、女
性主義、推廣教育普及以及擴張公民權益等的一些政治與社會運動確實是博物館權威崩解的歷史
解釋。然而，對博物館權威最有影響力的論述抨擊之一，卻是不帶任何政治或社會運動色彩的對
話理論。
對話理論一詞是出自俄國哲學家米哈依爾‧巴赫汀的著作，他的著作指出理解自我可以透過與他
者的不斷對話而通往自我的認定。巴赫汀並不是把他者與自我描述成一種二元性產生，而是自我
的產生來自與他者互動以展現強烈意義連結的一個加乘過程。因此，要理解自我，也就必須考量
他者的加乘性。
在劇烈社會變遷的衝擊之下，對話理論顯然是博物館試圖要在這個對文化權威存疑的世界中重新
定位自己時應採取的最有利作法。在這波博物館現代化的激流中，對話理論經常會被理解成與提
倡一對一的對話有關，就像兩個人進行對話，而博物館正是與參觀者進行對話。這顯然是對對話
理論的一種非常狹隘的理解，顯示出在面對削減博物館權威的廣大聲浪下仍希望能保有其僅存的
文化特權。因此，今天博物館學的關鍵問題就是「博物館對話理論」的二元作為比較恰當？或者
反而是限制博物館可能帶給或賦予其參觀者的意涵。
至於對話理論的更深入理解，其實可以說是一個多重意涵的互動與產生的過程-果真巴赫汀主張對
話理論並不是某個人所選擇採取的立場，而是人類互動的現實，我們就應該要探討博物館機構本
身是如何看待對話理論的。在巴赫汀的分析中，博物館可以被看成是隨時處於對話過程中。反觀
博物館對於對話理論概念的反應，從博物館學的角度，卻有太多假設認為博物館可以自由選擇對
話與否。這是關於巴赫汀理論的一個基本謬誤。因此，博物館的當務之急，就是要如同巴赫汀所
形容的一樣以培養無限制的、不完全的多樣性來面對他人，或者建構他們自己以二元性來看待對
話理論的狹隘觀點。今天對話理論的二元形式經常會出現在較為進步的一些博物館中。這種對於
對話理論的局部呈現所產生的效果是微妙地容許博物館在呼應當代文本理論的偽裝下，保有其舊
時的權威與權力元素。
在實際的經營層面上，過去二十年來的博物館參觀者經驗已經演變成不再只是單純地去建構一些
條件來讓參觀者疏離地盯著文物而已。在提倡個人化、專有性的觀賞方面，博物館已經大量運用
數位典藏資料庫，將參觀者經驗延伸成為一種經常性的高度互動。博物館希望參觀者能對展覽留
下永久的迴響，使參觀從一種個人經驗延伸成公眾互動; 有些博物館也將參觀者的身體連結到展
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覽場域，有時是以一種迪士尼式的體驗，當然為了要提升深入的參觀者經驗，展覽預算就難免要
增加了。
錯綜複雜的問題從許多博物館想探尋理解對話理論所賦予的多重可能性的假設中產生。這種紛雜
是否會導致博物館的失序呢? 可對話博物館的經營者之於參觀者的角色為何呢? 博物館對於參觀
者多元性的回應應該或可以採取什麼樣的作為呢? 有哪些參觀者回應，例如極端的政治立場，是
博物館應該置之不理的嗎? 博物館在宣揚民族主義方面又有怎樣的角色呢? 許多博物館都有大量
的觀光參觀者-提倡對話環境又會對各類型的觀眾產生什麼樣的意義呢?
讓對話理論成為先進博物館的一個重要指標，很可惜的在與巴赫汀的核心思想相牴觸下而犧牲了。
針對參觀者經驗而將對話理論改弦易轍必然是了解博物館許多新改變的首要步驟。 * *
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博物館之對話理論 !
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博物館近來的發展，特別是新博物館學(museology)崛起後，我們發現博物館的重心改變了：我們
不再將所有的焦點放在館藏品、藏品的保存與對文化遺產知識的累積，而開始重視傳播知識，並
努力讓普羅大眾更能欣賞這些館藏品。以公眾為主的政策，加上各種溝通工具的發展，都使訪客
成為博物館實務的重心，也影響博物館之特展政策。但同時，我們也不能忽略，對大型博物館來
說，籌辦短期文化活動往往能讓他們在風格與功能上獲得更多能量。
重心改變也使博物館管理方式有所變動。從現在開始，除了文物保存相關服務外，博物館也提供
與訪客相關之服務。知識傳播與文物解讀的方式快速轉型，不再只是過往的固定導覽加上專家在
展示品前的專題演講。當然，我們不能忘記，很多美術館目前仍維持原來的作法。事實上，受到
科學中心利用各種「自己動手體驗」設備的影響，博物館現在也應用博物館展示幫助人們了解抽
象的知識。此外，社會博物館也試圖以詢問訪客的角度來處理較敏感的議題。博物館特意一步步
讓訪客積極參與。
過去訪客不用費太多心力，只需隨意看看放置於展品下精簡的說明文字，便可以品味享受博物館
為他們提供的智識饗宴。但從現在開始，博物館開始徵詢訪客、質詢訪客，有些較創新的專案會
要求訪客採取行動或與展品互動，把訪客融入展覽，甚至訪客也成為展示的一部分。
博物館與展覽應用通訊科技現在愈來愈廣泛。通訊科技已成為另一種傳播文化的方式，而且這種
方式在今日似乎已成為主流。透過通訊科技，(有些)展覽便可以變得「又好玩又可互動」。「好
玩」指的是休閒娛樂。這樣的概念在在顯示，我們無法再以嚴肅的方式來討論枯燥無趣的學識或
以緩慢的步調教導學識。人可以一邊享受樂趣，一邊學習，同時涵養自身的學識。學習不再是一
件困難的事。互動的概念則意味著展覽方式要現代化、可以快速上手、無需大費周章便可以達到
效果，此外，沒有教條而使用者也不需博學多聞，學習者不再受限於過去冗長無趣的教學方式。
吸引訪客的同時，也娛樂他們，並讓他們主動採取行動。這樣的保證自然可以吸引大家的注意。
我們可以輕易了解大家為什麼很快地就針對這樣一個口號式的概念達成共識。但要完全理解這個
概念，我們必須試圖理解「又好玩又可互動」這個想法的起源。在我們看來，這個想法與兩個正
統概念不謀而合：主動式教學的影響和建構理論的崛起。
主動式教學方式起源於教育心理學家迪可羅利(Decroly)、蒙特梭利(Montessori)或杜威(Dewey)的著
作。這種教學方式證明我們可以運用不同的教學方式讓孩子主動學習，而不是一昧要小孩死背或
不斷練習。建構理論則主張，與其由老師選擇學習內容，並努力激起學生的興趣，如果學習者是
自己建構這些知識，他們就更不容易忘記自己已習得的東西。
在此我們必須向各位抱歉，我們只能針對這個主題，用過於簡化但可以幫助大家理解的方式，簡
短地介紹主動式教學法背後的教育理論。但這個定義可以幫助大家了解對話主義一詞。現代博物
館與博物館的展覽會以「對話」為主，不只是要與公眾對話，也要確保公眾可以受邀參與，來與
展覽內容或特別針對這些目的而設計的設備互動。
5&36-0&*71!53%&(6!834-9&!
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"#!
我們現在關注的問題不是爭辯對話、公眾參與、發展與互動的益處等等的概念為何。我們關注的
是，如果博物館的專業人士現在要選擇他們偏好或認為適合的形式，我們只能選擇符合主流意識
的形式。當我們說某個新博物館或某個新展覽提供「又好玩又可以互動」的展覽內容，沒有人會
覺得新奇。反而是沒有提供這類內容的展覽才會讓人覺得驚訝。
用對話主義來解釋這整個趨勢，並且明白指出這個概念是由偉大的俄羅斯語言學家巴赫汀(Mikhail
Bakhtin)所發明，在我們看來是不夠的。我們要了解一個信奉馬克斯主義(?)的語言學家到底是在
怎樣的一個環境中選擇採用對話主義的概念，並且衍生出對話一詞? 我們可以說巴赫汀選擇對話
主義與對話，是為了要與一般的對話有所區別。巴赫汀認為對話是一種自然的交流方式。他也主
張對話主義可以用獨白方式呈現，因為每個人在製造語篇的過程都隱含對話主義。在他的著作中，
巴赫汀試圖證明所有的語篇都是一種內在對話。當講者或作者提出論述，我們就可以找到對話。
一方面，巴赫汀明示或暗示的是所有其他針對這個主題已發表過的文章或演講，另一方面，他也
預期有些聽眾或讀者會在聽到或讀過這些論述會針對他的論點提出批判的反駁或同意他的論點。
在其對話主義中，巴赫汀預料現代語言學的其中一個主要研究課題—亦即跨文本—會崛起。
如果我們完全按照巴赫汀的論點，我們會發現大部分的博物館專業人員與策展人在同儕的觀察與
監督下與公眾談話時都會談到對話主義與對話。博物館張貼的公告與所有公開文本，以及博物館
的展覽和展覽目錄中的文章，不管是否由博物館自己籌辦，只要是以公眾為對象，其本質就是對
話(也因此，這些內容對非專業人士來說，往往艱深難懂)。對話，如果對話真的存在，不只是應
用溝通工具或教育文章而已，因為這些東西往往都是以學校團體(受限民眾)為主要對象。
此外，我們也要確保對話的內容與形式。再回到「又好玩又可以互動」這個主題，有多少對話能
為成人、青少年與孩童提供主動或建構式對話? !! !
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摘要 '
' 對話型博物館、骰子與神經元：個人對此主題的觀點
本文試圖從自然科學發展的角度，特別是以認知學的發展成果來分析大會主題。「對話型
博物館」一詞與巴赫汀(Mikhail Bakhtin)的關聯很清楚，但這個詞彙的定義並不明確。巴
赫汀自己對對話與對話主義的想法是從文化發展的角度出發，與「對話型博物館」並沒
有太大關聯。巴赫汀的概念最受歡迎的部分其實集結了過去數個世代的哲學家發所提出
的想法，特別是受到猶太基督教之他者與同類思想影響的德國哲學家，包括科恩(G.
Cohen)、布柏(M. Buber)。費爾巴哈(L. Feuerbach)也有受到影響。這些哲學家可說是巴赫汀
的先輩。鏡像神經元的發現顯示十九世紀哲學(費希特 Fichte)的論點：「無客體便無主體，
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無主體便無客體」也可應用在生物學，同時人類心理的本質也受到對話的影響。因此，
博物館可同時扮演對話型博物館意識上的主體與客體。博物館可透過訪客研究取得這一
類的映射。自然科學也有類似的發展，量子力學正重新審視並修正「觀者」的角色。若
要進一步發展此主題，有兩種方式：一是從 20 世紀科學與文化發展的角度來詮釋博物館
與博物館學之發展，二是讓博物館專家參與認知科學之研究。 '
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摘要 &
& 體驗對話：拉開博物館表演的序幕
本文為博物館提出一表演理論。博物館界長久以來一直都用戲劇的觀念來說明博物館與
訪客間的關係。博物館與劇場都強調要讓訪客能夠有真實的體驗。但博物館不能只是呈
現真實；透過表演，博物館還能提供訪客更豐富的體驗。博物館省思是一種省思過程。
就像動詞一樣，這個詞彙意涵著我們對現實的主觀感受，同時也與現實中的事物有所交
集。事實上，從生態博物館的例子，我們就可以了解，我們已經無法再使用鏡子來譬喻。
但博物館表演的概念可以透過為博物館帶來新生命。博物館表演的是過去的事物和我們
這些演員與這些事物的關係。表演便是不斷以新的態度來面對這個世界上「古老」熟悉
的一切。因此，博物館不單只是為訪客表演，也表演訪客。這樣的方式也讓我們可以省
思博物館到底有哪些身份。&&
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關鍵字：博物館、博物館學、表演、觀眾、認同&&
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摘要 &
& 表演工作坊、對話之旅與多媒體說故事：對話型藝術博物館的新關係
本文以藝術博物館與考古學詞彙說明對話博物館的概念。我們並不是單純地把這些詞彙
變成對話形式，而是以對話的技巧，例如蘇格拉底的答辯方式，來與觀眾溝通。相片、
雕塑與其他藝術品本來就有溝通的意涵。溝通的新技術包括多媒體說故事、對話旅遊與
表演工作坊。多媒體說故事的方法提供各種對話互動。對話旅遊是飾演歷史上的英雄、
科學家或藝術家的演員常會採用的一種方式。這些演員跟觀眾談話時會把觀眾當作來自
未來的陌生人。在 Lebende Bilder (生活影像)中，表演者會模仿照片中的主要角色或某個
雕塑來述說故事。表演工作坊則是現代藝術展的一部分。表演者會詮釋一件藝術品，同
時藝術家也會透過錄音主動參與，在工作坊中敍述他的歷史或情緒。觀眾也可以發問或
與表演者交談。這樣的經驗會讓觀眾記住很多細節。相較下，觀眾在參觀「傳統」博物
館後往往都沒注意到這些細節。 &
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摘要 (
( 從對話到理解：以臺灣同志策展為例
本文以敍事(narrative)的方式回溯我在博物館館員與多元文化教育博士生的雙重身份，如
何穿梭於博物館體制內與社運團體之間，試圖發展同志／同性戀策展行動時所遭遇的種
種情境與歷程，並記錄我和參與策展的同志朋友、還有觀眾（異性戀與同性戀等）對於
「同志情誼」之污名、抗拒與轉化。2003 年，我以《同畫故事－11 位男!同志的藝術治
療創作展》（Visualizing Others: An Artistic Puzzle of Lesbian & Gay Stories，12月 25 日至
隔年 1 月 3 日於台北晶晶藝廊開展）作為媒介展開一連串的策展行動。當時，我是主要
策展者，也是與同志社群（臺灣同志諮詢熱線協會）、藝術治療師等共同完成展覽的催化
者。七年後，當我重新回溯並書寫此策展行動歷程時，有以下諸個敍事主軸反覆出現，
包括：1.「誰來決定、命名展覽名稱？」、2.「誰合適做同志團體的藝術治療師？」、3.
「同志需要藝術治療？」、4.「異性戀情侶觀眾透過同志創作，看見自己」、5.「隱身於異
性戀世界裡的同志觀眾身影」。在第 1-3 段敘事主軸已說明：將「同（志以）畫（說）故
事」等同於「（異性戀的）童話故事」，乃直指同志對幸福的期待以及對未來「成家」的
想像，就情感本質而言，實與異性戀一樣並"有不同，乃再現了不同性取向的多元社會
秩序。在第 4-5 段敘事主軸則點出：當不同性取向觀眾的經驗投入時，無論是對「同志情
誼」有先入為主的排斥與污名化眼光，或是能夠感受到策展所提供另類觀點並產生抗拒
與轉化等不同的觀展經驗，不僅已撐出一個小小的文藝公共領域，並可提煉出未來我在
推進體制內博物館與社運團體間合作的策展行動。 (
關鍵字：同志情誼、策展、敘事探究、污名 (
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77事實上，我心裡明白，縱使我曾經與同志工作、共識，縱使我總是宣稱自己可以關照對方，可以接納同志的身分與角色。實際上，我清楚知道：倘若自己的孩子是同志，我依舊無法接納與認同。因此，我對同志的關心與接納是值得被質疑的！但由於，我誠實相告與清楚的會心，反而讓同志接受了我。77.//01+(23345(,46((
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童話故事，人人愛讀， 造就了你我對於未來世界的幸福想像。 同畫故事，誠懇真實， 是一幅幅同志生命故事的藝術拼貼，更是在創作中的自我治療。.//01+(23345(%
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或許你好奇：為什麼「同志」需要「藝術治療」？ 我們的答案是：這個展覽不是「需要」的展現，而是同志朋友借助藝術創作，接近自己的開始、自我成長的展現。.//01+(23345(
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從海底往上看，可以看到微弱的光， 但離自己浮上水面，還有一段距離， 因此或許你們是幸福的勇者，加油嘍！
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''
摘要 '
' 對話型博物館與訪客經驗 '
本文闡述實現對話型博物館的方式。從文化觀點，透過展覽與教育的方式，實踐博物館
展示（museography），亦即博物館內的溝通方式。博物館對話主義仰賴這些溝通資源，也
仰賴各種機制幫助他們了解如何讓民眾參與策展過程。博物館設計的接待研究提倡建立
一個平台來促進展覽設計、教育過程與對話關係。訪客參與博物館活動的經驗又像儀式
又像表演，因為實現訪客參與的模型把策展過程、博物館訊息在人們日常生活中的流通，
以及博物館和社會的對話關係都納入考量。 '
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摘要 一次大戰博物館之訪客經驗:對話理論之新路徑
第一次世界大戰期間有許多軍人與海外軍方服務人員喪生，因此許多英國與大英國協的
人民都會到法國北部參訪大戰遺跡。法國有兩間展示第一次世界大戰的大型博物館，分
別有不同的展示方式。訪客在這兩間博物館內有什麼樣的經驗呢? 他們有什麼期望? 想了
解大戰的歷史? 想在紀念館中回想或體驗當時人民的感覺或完全沈浸在當時的氛圍? 我們
從戰場收集而來的展示品、大戰時期的物品或遺跡又扮演什麼樣的角色? 英國、法國及德
國來的訪客對一次大戰有不同的文化背景，博物館要如何接待這些訪客? 藉由分析小型博
物館的案例，我們發現我們可以用不同的媒介與觀眾互動。這些媒介也改變了博物館間
可能的對話關係，也讓博物館與民眾之間有不同的關係。 &
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摘要 對話理論：博物館訪客的理想與現實
由巴赫汀(Mikhail Bakhtin)提出的對話主義在文學批評中討論人們如何透過對話建構自我
的相關理論，但博物館悄悄地採用對話主義，使其成為一種社會運動。本文分析參訪紐
約下東城廢棄建築博物館的經驗。這個博物館為其訪客提供非常豐富的對話經驗。博物
館每次帶著訪客參觀古老的貧民區住房時，都會讓一小群訪客參與圓桌討論。博物館邀
請訪客思考十九世紀來到美國的移民和現在人們對移民的不同觀點之間，有哪些歷史與
社會的關聯。本文主張，對話主義在進入博物館機構後已經轉變成為一種溝通的理想，
但這樣的理想很難實現。儘管博物館希望提供意涵豐富的訪客經驗，卻往往只能提供單
一的訪客經驗。案例中的博物館最終似乎只能讓訪客了解社會革命與左翼政治的影響，
儘管它原先試圖創造的氛圍是想讓訪客聽到各種不同的心聲。 '
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摘要 對話博物館與社會溝通
有人強調對話學習是應用社會與溝通資源的一種方式，並且與人類互動與溝通方式緊密
相關。依據全球化下對話社會的原則，這種方式試圖超越傳統方法，提供跨學科的回應，
並且強調發展溝通、教學、心理、社會與認識論。這股新教學風潮也影響到博物館，而
博物館也了解教學、溝通、社會學知識的重要性，教導博物館與藝術遺產的教育者也必
須傳達這些遺產隱涵的人性價值。因此，博物館與社會間必須有一個靈活的溝通過程。
我們可以透過不同的詮譯把可能的衝突變成學習的工具。畢竟如果我們要把文化遺產的
知識傳播到社會，我們就必須了解可能會有哪些衝突。
在現代社會，博物館大量採取對話方式的趨勢顯示以往的文化政策已經過時，因為過去
的作法無法以批判的方式呈現不同當權者當時掌控的現實情況。另一方面，對話式的敍
述情境在籌備時便把博物館的建築也納入考量。建築本體也變成溝通空間。希望獲得新
體驗，且喜歡以創新方式與藝術品以及建築本體互動的民眾便會因此受到吸引。 (關鍵字：對話學習、博物館教育、開放空間、博物館建築、可對話的博物館、參訪者、社會溝通((
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摘要 對話博物館與訪客經驗
博物館現在面對世界快速的轉變，自己的地位也在轉變，因此，博物館正努力找到自己
未來的角色，以及要如何融入新社會。發掘自我是一種對話過程，而博物館採取對話形
式幫助自己了解自己的新角色。由於博物館認為自己無法自然地融入新社會形態，他們
正努力藉著面對周遭各種不同的議題重新界定自己的目的。博物館在尋找自身定位的同
時也帶著訪客一起參與這相同的探索之旅。本文審視不同的對話以及博物館採用的策略，
探討這些對話與策略如何影響博物館的方向，又如何因此影響訪客對博物館的觀點和訪
客經驗。 $
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摘要 以語言哲學為基礎之博物館對話
2009 年開幕的現代藝術博物館--德國慕尼黑 Brandhorst 博物館曾取得一件讓人振奮的多媒
體裝置藝術品—「浪」。本文之靈感便是來自於此藝術品。「浪」的是藝術家 Isaac
Julien(1960 出生於倫敦)2010 年的創作。這樣的藝術形式正巧符合我們此次主題的兩大
方向：對話型博物館與訪客經驗。哲學家、詩人與藝術史學家都曾提出藝術的創作哲學，
例如黑格爾(Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel)、 歌德(Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)、席勒
(Friedrich von Schiller)、洪堡(Wilhelm von Humboldt)，美國哲學家杜威(John Dewey)、迦
納(Howard Gardener)，以及藝術史學家李奇法克(Alfred Lichtwark)。德國慕尼黑美術學院
前校長 Rudolf Seitz 對藝術欣賞的不同角度也發展出另一個理論：從感性、創意與理論的
角度來欣賞藝術。博物館語言的各種角度為對話與訪客經驗提供了一個整合的模型。 !
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文物的所有權屬於誰? !
"#$%&'!()!*+,-$.$!
%&'()'!*+,)!-').+/)01!&2!34567!80/!2&'()'!-').+/)01!&2!345%56!
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2010 年 11 月 10 日國際博物館學委員會(ICOFOM)於上海舉行大會，與會者在閉幕時將文化遺產
的出售與歸還這個兩難的問題摘要成這個相當發人深省的論點：文物的所有權屬於誰。
乍看之下，這個問題簡單到近乎愚蠢，要回答也沒什麼難度。但這個問題會是我們討論的重要關
鍵。就以我現在坐的椅子來看，我雖然坐在這個椅子上，但椅子的所有者不是我，所有權屬於大
會主辦單位或甚至政府。我只是管理或持有人，就像博物館只是為他人保管文物。持有與所有之
間的差別很重要。在法文，持有是“!"#$%#&'%”，所有是“()'()&"#"”，在西班牙文持有是
“('*$*&+%”，所有是 “()'(&$!,!”，在德文，持有是 “-$*&#.”，所有是“/&0$%#12”。
二者最大的差別是「所有」是法律詞彙，而「持有」則不是。當然，並不是所有的語言都會如此
清楚區分，會如此區分的文化更少。但這樣的區分可做為我們討論的開端。
讓我繼續談我這張椅子! 在這張椅子來到這裡之前，它是放在大型量販店裡，再之前是在工廠裡，
再之前是在測試實驗室裡，再之前是在試做工坊裡。它是由不同原料組合而成。再之前，它是在
設計師的辦公室裡，這位設計師除了這個模型，也設計了其他不同模型的椅子。我可以把這個故
事一直延續下去，但今天大概會講不完。明天就會有其他人坐在「我的」椅子上，其他的持有者，
但所有者沒變。而且大概再過十五年，可能就會有椅子收藏家把這張椅子拿出這個禮堂，並且把
它當作是 21 世紀初期典型的禮堂用椅。最後，或許再 20 年後收藏家會把他的藏品捐給知名的傢
俱博物館。誠如各位所了解，博物館就像賭場，只會贏不會輸。總有一天，所有的收藏品幾乎都
會送到博物館。我說幾乎，因為博物館學家會影響收藏的過程。到博物館後，一件很簡單的物品
就成為真正的文化遺產。
讓我先從理論的角度來解釋「博物館化」的意思! 透過博物館化，我們以符號保留物品的附屬價
值。這個過程把物品變成博物館藏品，也就是博物館文物(musealia)。物品增加了博物館文物的新
特質。我們要強調，博物館化是一個可逆的過程。某個文物若被去博物館化，它便失去博物館文
物的特質，而再度變回簡單的物品。以 Marcel Duchamp 的 「現成品」為例，這些藏品也可以變
成一般物品。
因此，從純材料以及博物館學的角度來看，把藏品拿出來重新評估是沒有任何問題的，因為物品
的附屬價值並不是與物品實際連結。但這樣的論點對我們並沒有實質幫助。
接下來，我們要來仔細地審視博物館學的另一個特色：人與物的關係。我們與物質環境之間存在
三種不同的現實。第一種(也是主要的)現實包含了我們周遭的一切事物。從第一種主要的現實，
另外兩種現實(次要)可以平行出現：一為想像的現實，另一則是個人的現實。想像現實包含脫離
原本的環境，轉移到新(博物館)環境的事物。個人現實則是包含從前面兩種現實脫離，轉移到個
人環境的事物。從這個現實來看，我們可以說個人的觀點是創造物品的關鍵。
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這三種關係是由使用功能與附屬價值決定，任何時候這二者都會存在，只是有時使用功能與價值
會近乎零。我們可能會保存一些物品想再重新使用，但博物館學並不是以此為主題。我們可能也
會因為物品的附屬價值而保存一些物品。除了物質的價值外，(雖然物質的價值也不是博物館學關
心的主題)，我認為物品還有四種理想價值：審美價值、回憶價值、資訊(解釋)價值與象徵價值。
物品會因為這些附屬價值而成為收藏品。在轉變成博物館藏品的過程，物品本身的特質並沒有任
何改變。這也是為什麼以博物館學的角度來看，文物的出售會變得如此複雜的原因。
再回到我這張椅子的故事。在這個故事中有不同階段，各階段間有哪些人與物的關係? 通常都是
使用功能。但誠如我之前所說，附屬價值也一直存在。這是一體兩面。再舉幾個例子來說明：我
坐在這裡，我很高興我不用站著。但也許我會記住這張椅子，因為它不是很舒服，或者因為我喜
歡或不喜歡它的顏色或設計，或者因為我很緊張，因為主辦單位接受了我的投稿，讓我來演講。
量販商販售椅子，但他可能喜歡或不喜歡其他設計的椅子。測試者會因為新模型而感到雀躍或不
滿。設計者則是花了很多精力、時間與感情來設計這個新模型。
這樣的個人關係與持有/所有的關係重疊。在法律上，所有者乍看之下很明確，但事實上卻相當複
雜：在我們的故事中，過去只有三個法定所有者：工廠、商店、主辦單位。那設計者呢?在此我們
就必須區分物質所有權與智慧財產權。一般而言，如果設計者是受雇於工廠，智慧財產權屬於工
廠。如果設計者為自營商，智慧財產權屬於他。但這個問題還是很難回答，而且全球各地可能會
有不同的答案。另外，展覽的創造者也會面臨類似的問題，到是誰才是某個展覽真正的所有者?
但這個故事之所以迷人，是因為未來! 我說有收藏家悄悄地把椅子納入收藏(我們可以想想悄悄有
幾種不同方式：他可能把椅子偷走，或椅子替換後，他給了負責人或禮堂管理人一點錢，讓他可
以把椅子搬走，或者椅子被丟到垃圾場，他去撿了一張)。所以我們很難確認到底收藏家是這張椅
子的法定所有者或只是個持有者。
最後是博物館的角色。這位捐贈者如此慷慨，讓博物館雀躍不已，所以也沒有多問物品的來源。
博物館現在是物品真正的法定所有者或只是持有者? 我們先把這個問題放在一邊，考慮另一個問
題：有人要求把椅子(現在已是博物館藏品)給他。
誰會要求要得到這張椅子?我沒辦法列出各種可能性，只能給幾個例子。
設計者：因為這個模型成為二次大戰後最好的禮堂用椅。而且這張椅子是碩果僅存的一張。他說
是他設計創造了這張椅子，因此有權要求把椅子給他。(另一方面，傢俱博物館可能也很想取得這
類椅子所有的設計草圖與模型。換言之，博物館不只要物品本身，也想要與物品相關的無形知
識。)
測試者：因為他在測試這張椅子弄斷手臂。他要把它當成紀念品。
工廠可能會要求得到這張椅子，因為他們想把這張椅子收到自己公司的博物館內。
商店則是希望能成立一個常設展示區，展示他們曾經販售過所有知名的椅子。
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其他未直接涉及椅子製造的人也可能會要求把椅子給他們。例如：
國家歷史博物館，因為某位知名的總理坐在這張椅子上發表了他第一個重要的政治演講。
最後，讓各位笑一下，某位來這個禮堂參與會議的人可能也會要這張椅子。他發現有位迷人的女
士坐在這張椅子上發表了一篇非常精采的演講。他們認識、相愛、結婚，因此想把這張椅子放在
客廳裡做為紀念。
再回到正事! 我會以全新的角度來看接下來這個法律問題，但我只能簡短且大略地分析，因為這
並不是我最主要的問題：哪一種法制才適用? 實際的所有權法律或物品所有權(或持有)改變才有效
的法律?我們要向誰要求椅子? 只能向所有者要求?或者也可以向持有者要求? 假如某個物品是由
一個富裕且不在乎這個物品的家庭擁有，但這個物品數個世紀以來都是由某個博物館(合法)持有，
那要向誰要求?
如果法制本來就違法呢?例如殖民者或戰爭期間的法規? 在此我們還必須考慮到道德的問題。另一
個我們要考量的角度是何謂「法定」：如果沒有法律認可的法人團體，例如一群「熱愛椅子」但
沒有成立協會的人，原住民等較弱勢的團體，沒有受到官方認可的原住民族團體等等，誰該是真
正的合法所有者?。另一個也很重要的問題是：若要歸還物品，應該還給誰? 還給國家? 或人民?
或者，這個物品屬於全人類? 「全球文化遺產」認為全人類都有共同的責任要保存物品，但這樣
的想法真的就是最好的辦法嗎? 這也就表示：恆久與穩定變成一種價值。最後一個問題：複製品、
替代品或長期借展是否為可行的解決方案?
我之前針對這張知名的椅子提出的所有要求都不算是合法的要求。(我並沒有提到主辦單位也可能
會提出要求，因為那個情況會使大家更困惑，而且對我們來說並不重要) 這些要求都與我之前提
到的附屬價值有關。但是我們也要考量到文物的象徵價值：所有權與持有都代表權力。一旦國家
介入，文物的象徵意義就會變得很重要。
我們在討論歸還(而非出售)遺產時，需要考量附屬價值嗎? 若博物館藏品對某些人有特定的附屬價
值，博物館是否有道德責任而需把藏品歸還給這些與這件文物有特定關係的人? 文物可以在「法
律上」或「情感上」屬於不同的人嗎? 若持有者持有這件文物許多年、數十年或數個世紀，會對
所有權造成影響嗎? 如果法律上的界定不明，而且又有許多不同的「價值要求」我們必須把文物
還給誰呢?
另一個問題：我們能否歸還無形的遺產嗎? 我對無形遺產這個詞不太滿意，因為每件文物都有有
形與無形的一面(實體與資訊)。唯有具備這一體兩面的文物才能將其視為博物館藏品，且是遺產
的一部分。最後，一件文物!對不會只有無形而沒有有形的一面：不管是知識或技能都需要有形
的一面才能溝通。但這又帶來另一個問題：歌曲、舞蹈、手工藝技能等東西要怎麼歸還? 我們到
底擁有藏品裡的什麼? 樂譜、說明、影片等都是有形的東西。也許有本地舞團喜歡另一大洲的民
族舞蹈。民族學家可以找到最原始的民族，教導他們這些人民已遺忘的舞蹈。這種情況可能也會
有問題，因為教導者教的可能是自己認為正確的舞蹈，而不是原本的舞蹈。我們可以歸還這麼無
形的元素嗎? 目前這個問題是無解。這是個很有趣的案例，因為我們不需歸還原來的文物；影片、
書籍、筆記等都可以複製，因為有形的一面比較不重要 (不過，有些重要的文物如手稿等當然是
例外)。
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我了解我的椅子並不是埃爾金大理石雕也不是部落的聖物。但它讓我們可以來討論一些很重要的
博物館學原則。
當然，我必須要謹記我提過的法律問題(包括所有的條件)，但更要從人與物關係中的文化背景來
談這些問題。這個概念需要非常靈活的態度。我們不能執著於法律或半法律。我要求的是以開放
的態度來看待每個情況，了解文物的歸還涉及非常複雜的價值網路。一言以蔽之：我們的藏品中
有些文物或許是其他人的遺產，而這些人希望要回他們的傳統。
我可以想像這樣的考量對博物館人員來說比較容易理解，但政府機構以及監管博物館的機構等往
往只注意到(更重要或更不重要的)法律問題。我們不能低估特權與權勢的影響力!也不能忘記權力
人士很難承認他們早期曾在一個法律(與環境)都不同的情況下取得某個文物。當然若以實際的偷
竊或非法出口來看, 這樣的反思沒有什麼價值，因為這些活動本來就非法。
博物館策展人扮演非常重要的角度，因為他們必須要告知他們的行政長官。我們要必須不斷強調：
我們要考量相關的文化背景! 我們要有點彈性! 當然我們不能用博物館學來說教，但從博物館學的
論點可以支持我們的論點。我認為國際博物館協會(ICOM)作為一個影響力深遠的國際組織(以及其
道德委員會)應該要在這種情況下支持我們。不用正式表達支持，但可以提供我們支持的論點。
我們也不能忘記：要求嚴格的機構也要有彈性。歐洲與美國都需要民俗博物館，讓他們對外國文
明有更多了解。因此我們必須為每種情況找出解決辦法，例如用複製品、永久借展等。
我們的研討會在名稱上用了「全球」這個詞：「全球道德」。到底全球人權、全球道德等是否存
在仍然值得商討。全球化原本是經濟詞彙，當然後來它影響到文化與人類行為。這樣的評估使我
們的責任更為複雜，因為我們必須要先了解其他的哲學背景，再來爭論。
「博物館促進社會和諧」是國際博物館協會(ICOM)大會的主題! 非常好! 讓我們在探索歸還遺產的
問題時也能實現和諧。
我知道我提出很多問題。但我如果不想提出這些問題，又何必來報告?
或許當我最後終於回到地球，我仍然坐在同一張讓我開始反思的椅子上? 我不知道! 我只希望各位
會一直記得這張椅子，還有我提出的問題。
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