40ar/39ar dating, fluid inclusions and s–pb isotope...

40Ar/39Ar dating, fluid inclusions and S–Pb isotope systematics of the Shabaosigold deposit, Heilongjiang Province, China

JUN LIU1, GUANG WU1*, HUANING QIU2 and YUAN LI31MLR Key Laboratory of Metallogeny and Mineral Assessment, Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of

Geological Sciences, Beijing, China2State Key Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences,

Guangzhou, China3Department of Earth Science, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA

The Shabaosi deposit is the only large lode gold deposit in the northern Great Xing’an Range. The gold ore bodies are hosted by sandstoneand siltstone of the Middle Jurassic Ershi’erzhan Formation, and are controlled by three N–S-trending altered fracture zones. The gold orebodies are composed of auriferous quartz veinlets and altered rocks. Fluid inclusion studies indicate that the ore-forming fluids belong to aH2O–NaCl–CO2–CH4 system, with salinities between 0.83 and 8.28wt% NaCl eq., and homogenization temperatures ranging from 180 to320 °C. The δ34S values of sulphides show a large variation from �16.9‰ to 8.5‰. The Pb isotope compositions of sulphides are character-ized by a narrow range of ratios: 18.289 to 18.517 for 206Pb/204Pb, 15.548 to 15.625 for 207Pb/204Pb, and 38.149 to 38.509 for 208Pb/204Pb.The μ values range from 9.36 to 9.51. These results suggest that the ore-forming fluids/materials were mainly of magmatic hydrothermalorigin, derived from magmas produced by partial melting of the lower crust. The 40Ar/39Ar age of auriferous quartz veinlets from the Shabaosigold deposit is about 130Ma. The Shabaosi gold deposit has counterparts in similar orogenic gold deposits, and was formed during thepost-collisional setting of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 19 February 2014; accepted 3 May 2014

KEY WORDS 40Ar/39Ar dating; S and Pb isotopes; fluid inclusions; Shabaosi gold deposit; Orogenic gold deposit; Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen; NE China

1. INTRODUCTION

Orogenic lode gold deposits occur in metamorphic beltsthroughout the world and have accounted for over a quarterof the total historic global production of gold (Groves et al.,1998; Goldfarb et al., 2005). A considerable proportion ofthe world’s placer deposits also originated from erosion ofprimary orogenic lode gold deposits (Groves et al., 1998).The northern Great Xing’an Range is a famous accumula-tion area of placer gold deposits in NE China (Lv et al.,1992), but lode gold deposits are rarely discovered, whichhas long confused geologists. The geology and mineraliza-tion of the northern Great Xing’an Range are poorly under-stood because of the dense forest coverage. The Shabaosigold deposit, the only large lode gold deposit in the northernGreat Xing’an Range, is located 45 km northwest of MoheCounty, Heilongjiang Province in NE China. The geological

characteristics of the Shabaosi gold deposit are differentfrom those of gold deposits hosted in the Mesozoic conti-nental volcanic rocks located in the northern Great Xing’anRange, such as Siwumuchang, Mo’erdaoga and Aolaqiepithermal gold deposits (Zhao and Wu, 2002; Wanget al., 2008), but are similar to those deposits located inthe Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen, such as the Darason, Khali,Kliuchevskoi and Kirov gold deposits (Duan et al., 1990;Shen, 1998; Zorin et al., 2001; Wu et al., 2008a).The Shabaosi lode gold deposit was initially classified as

a medium–low temperature hydrothermal-type gold deposit(Jia et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2005) or altered sandstone typeof gold deposit (Qi et al., 2000; Zhao et al., 2000). Preliminarystudies on the geology, alteration, stable isotopes and fluidinclusions have previously been performed for the Shabaosideposit (Quan et al., 1998; Qi et al., 2000; Zhao et al., 2000;Jia et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2005; Wu, 2006; Wu et al.,2008b), however systematic isotope studies are still rare. Inthis study, we report new results for the Shabaosi gold deposit,based on studies of fluid inclusions in quartz, fluid inclusion40Ar/39Ar dating, and S–Pb isotopes of sulphides. These new

*Correspondence to: G. Wu, Institute of Mineral Resources, ChineseAcademy of Geological Sciences, Baiwanzhuang Street 26, XichengDistrict, Beijing, 100037, China. E-mail: [email protected]

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

GEOLOGICAL JOURNALGeol. J. 50: 592–606 (2015)Published online 6 June 2014 in Wiley Online Library(wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/gj.2577

results allow us to characterize the ore genesis of the Shabaosigold deposit and the associated metallogenic setting, which inturn may provide important insights into further exploration inthe northern Great Xing’an Range.

2. REGIONAL GEOLOGY

The Shabaosi lode gold deposit is located in the UpperHeilongjiang Basin of the northern Great Xing’an Range,which itself is attached to the southeast of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen (Fig. 1). The Mongolia–Okhotsk Oceanexisted in eastern Asia during the Middle–Late Palaeozoic(Zorin et al., 1998; Zorin, 1999). The closure of theMongolia–Okhotsk Ocean led to the formation of thebordering Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen during the LatePalaeozoic to the Middle–Late Mesozoic (Zonenshainet al., 1990; Parfenov et al., 2001). The Mongolia–OkhotskOrogen extends approximately 3000 km from the present-day Sea of Okhotsk southwestwards to central Mongolia,i.e. between the Siberian and Mongolian continents(Fig. 1A). The Upper Heilongjiang Basin lies in a nearlyE–W direction along the China–Russia border (Fig. 1B).The southern and eastern margins of the basin are controlledby the Xijilin–Tahe Fault and the Derbugan Fault, respec-tively (Fig. 2). The basement of the Upper HeilongjiangBasin consists of Palaeo-Proterozoic Xinghuadukou Group,Early Cambrian Ergunahe Formation and Early Palaeozoicgranites (Wu et al., 2005, 2012). The Xinghuadukou Groupis composed of metamorphic rocks, whereas the ErgunaheFormation is dominantly composed of marble and slaterocks. The basement is partly covered by the Lower–MiddleJurassic sedimentary rocks. Voluminous Late Jurassic–EarlyCretaceous volcanic and clastic rocks are exposed in theUpper Heilongjiang Basin. The Mesozoic clastic rocks arepartly covered by the Devonian crystalline limestone andmarl as a klippen. In the Upper Heilongjiang Basin, intru-sions include the Early Palaeozoic monzogranite and quartzdiorite (zircon SHRIMP U–Pb age 504–517Ma by Wuet al., 2005) and the Mesozoic alkali feldspar granite andquartz diorite (zircon SHRIMP U–Pb age of 130Ma by Wuet al., 2009), but they have a small exposure area. The UpperHeilongjiang Basin is characterized by the ENE-trendingMohe thrust–nappe belt, which consists of a series ofbrittle–ductile shearing belts in the Mesozoic clastic rocks.

3. ORE GEOLOGY

The gold ore bodies are hosted by sandstone and siltstone of theMiddle Jurassic Ershi’erzhan Formation (Fig. 3A, B; Fig. 4A)and are dominantly controlled by three N–S-trending alteredfracture zones but without distinct boundaries with the wall

rocks. Three gold mineralized altered fracture zones, i.e. No.I, II and III, were delineated in the Shabaosi deposit. The al-tered fracture zone I consists of ore body I–1 and I–2. Theore body I–1 is 138m in length and has an average thicknessof 11m and an average Au grade of 4.1 × 10�6. The ore bodyI–2 is up to 75m in length and 5.7–16.8m wide with an aver-age Au grade of 4.0 × 10�6. The altered fracture zone II in-cludes one ore body, which is 263m in length and 3–28m inthickness and has an average Au grade of 4.1 × 10�6. The al-tered fracture zone III includes ore body III-1 and III-2, whichare 170–560m in length and 2 to 5m in thickness and have av-erage Au grades of 3.9–5.1 × 10�6.

The ore minerals consist mainly of pyrite, with minorarsenopyrite, stibnite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and galena(Fig. 4B, C, D and E). These ore minerals account for lessthan 2% of the ore volume. Gangue minerals include quartz,sericite, calcite, feldspar, chlorite, graphite and some clayminerals (Fig. 4E, F). The ore minerals are distributed assparse disseminations, veinlets, or stockwork veins. Incontrast, the gangue minerals show a massive, brecciated,or vuggy structure. Hydrothermal alteration surroundingthe ore bodies and fracture zones is well developed, howeverno clear alteration zoning can be identified. In addition tosulphidation that is directly associated with the gold ore,other common alteration types including silicification,sericitization, carbonatization and argillization also occur.According to the ore textures, structures and mineral associ-ation, the ore-forming process is divided into five stages:quartz–pyrite stage (I), quartz–polymetallic sulphide stage(II), quartz–pyrite–clay minerals stage (III), quartz–finegrained pyrite stage (IV), and quartz–carbonate stage (V).Stages II and III are the main ore-forming stages. Native goldgrains were found within or between the grains of quartz,pyrite and arsenopyrite (Qi et al., 2000; Wu et al., 2008b).

4. SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODS

4.1. Fluid inclusions

Samples used in this study were collected from the aurifer-ous quartz–pyrite veinlets (ore body II) of the main ore-forming stage. Doubly polished thin sections (<0.3mm inthickness) were prepared, and fluid inclusions in auriferousquartz veinlets were analysed to identify the compositionaltypes, vapour–liquid ratios and spatial clustering. Micro-thermometric measurements were performed using aLinkam MDS 600 heating and freezing stage at the KeyLaboratory of Mineralogy and Metallogeny, GuangzhouInstitute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS), China. The heating/freezing rate was generally0.2–5 °C/min, but it was reduced to less than 0.2 °C/minnear the temperatures of phase transitions. The heating–freezing stage was calibrated based on the standard of synthetic

AGE, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND S–PB ISOTOPE OF THE SHABAOSI GOLD DEPOSIT 593

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Geol. J. 50: 592–606 (2015)DOI: 10.1002/gj

Figure 1. Geological sketch map showing distribution of gold deposits in the Mongolia–Okhotsk metallogenic belt and its adjacent region ((A) modifiedfrom Li et al., 2004; (B) modified from Zorin et al., 2001). Major faults: I, main branch of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Fault zone; II, a branch of theMongolia–Okhotsk Fault zone; III, Derbugan Fault zone. Tectonic units: SB, Siberian Craton; VS, Vygur Jim–Stan Knoff Block; KHOB, Sakhalinisland–Hokkaido Orogen; AG, Argun Block; BJ, Bureya–Jiamusi composite block; MOSZ, Mongolia–Okhotsk Suture Zone; TV, Tuwa Block; CM,Central Mongolia Block; JG, Zhungeer–Turpan–Hami–Gobi Tianshan Block; SJSZ, Soren Hill–Jilin Suture Zone; NC, North China Craton; KK, XingkaiBlock; TSGSZ, Tianshan–south Mongolia–Great Xing’an Suture Zone; NSOB, Nadanhada–Xihuote Orogen. Major gold deposits (ore spots): 1, Yitaka; 2,Wukuonike; 3, Amazeerkang; 4, Boerxiemogeqin; 5, Bolieshigelin; 6, Kirov; 7, Aonieer; 8, Brinda; 9, Alexander Khabarovsk; 10, Kliuchevskoi; 11,Qieliemuken; 12, Darason; 13, Wushumeng; 14, Bilibinsike; 15, Khali; 16, Hulalin; 17, Shabaosi; 18, Laogou; 19, Aolaqi; 20, Madaer; 21, Yesuoku;22, Ergenhe; 23, Ershiyizhan; 24, Tailimaqieke; 25, Apulielikuowo; 26, Kaka; 27, Xinkulituma; 28, Wuluonayi; 29, Songduya; 30, Suolinuofuka; 31,Fajimofusike; 32, Zhongguoerguta; 33, Balieyi; 34, Kasakuofusikeye; 35, Kesaiqi; 36, Aliangu; 37, Xinxiluojing; 38, Xiniuerhe; 39, Jiageda; 40,

Xiajibaogou; 41, Moerdaoga; 42, Xiaoyinuogaigou. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj

J. LIU ET AL.594


fluid inclusions produced by America FLUID, Inc. Tempera-ture uncertainty was estimated to be ±0.5 °C for temperaturesbetween �120 and 25 °C, ±1 °C for temperatures between 25and 400 °C, and ±2 °C for temperatures between 400 and550 °C. The composition of a single fluid inclusion was deter-mined using a Renishaw 2000 Ar+ Laser (514 nm) Ramanprobe at the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, CAS,China. The spectrum was collected from 800 to 4000 cm�1

with a collecting time of 30 s and a beam size of 2μm.Salinities of the two-phase and CO2-bearing three-phase

aqueous fluid inclusions were estimated using the final icemelting temperatures (Potter et al., 1978; Hall et al., 1988;Bodnar, 1993) and clathrate melting temperatures of CO2-clathrate (Bozzo et al., 1975; Roedder, 1984), respectively.Bulk densities of the two-phase aqueous fluid inclusionswere estimated using the formula developed by Haas(1976) and Bodnar (1983). Densities of the CO2-bearingthree-phase aqueous fluid inclusions were estimated usingthe Flincor program (Brown, 1989) and the formula ofBrown and Lamb (1989) for the H2O–NaCl–CO2 system.

4.2. Sulphur and lead isotopes

Samples for sulphur and lead isotopic analyses were col-lected from quartz–pyrite veinlets (ore body II) of the maingold mineralization and the altered sandstone in ore bodyII. The ore samples were crushed, and pyrite grains were

hand-picked from the fraction with 40 and 60 meshes underthe binocular stereo-microscope.

Most of the sulphur and lead isotopic analyses wereperformed at the Beijing Research Institute of UraniumGeology. The detailed procedure for sulphur isotopic analysishas been described by Glesemann et al. (1994), and the mea-surement was carried out on the MAT-251 mass spectrometerwith analytical precision better than ±0.2‰ for δ34S. Follow-ing the procedures outlined by Pomiès et al. (1998), the leadisotopic compositions were analysed on an IsoProbe-T TIMS(thermal ionization mass spectrometer) instrument underconditions of RH (relative humidity) 20% and room tempera-ture 20 °C, with an error of ±0.005% for the isotopic ratios.

The rest of the sulphur and lead isotopic analyses werecarried out at the Institute of Geology and Geophysics,CAS. Sulphur isotopic compositions were determined witha Finnigan MAT 262 mass spectrometer, using the SO2

method described in Robinson and Kusakabe (1975), withanalytical precision better than ±0.1‰ for δ34S. Pb isotopicratios were analysed with the same mass spectrometer, withanalytical precision better than ±0.1‰.

4.3. Quartz 40Ar/39Ar dating

The quartz samples were collected from quartz–pyriteveinlets (ore body II) of the main gold mineralization.

Figure 2. Geological sketch map showing distribution of gold deposits in Upper Heilongjiang Basin (after Wu, 2006). Major faults: I, Derbugan Fault; II, Xilinji–Tahe Fault; III, Mohe ductile shear zone. Major gold deposits (ore spots): 1, Shabaosilinchang; 2, Laogou; 3, Shabaosi; 4, Sanshierzhan; 5, Dongmazhaer; 6, Hulalin;

7, Fukeshan; 8, Ergenhe; 9, Yesuoku; 10, Madaer; 11, Aolaqi; 12, Ershiyizhan. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj



Quartz crystals were hand-picked under a binocular micro-scope and then cleaned in an ultrasonic bath with deionizedwater for 15min. The samples and a monitor standard,biotite ZBH-2506 from Peking Fangshan granodiorite, withan age of 132.5Ma, were irradiated in the 49-2 reactor inthe China Institute of Atomic Energy for 54 h. The correc-tion factors used for interfering argon isotopes derived fromCa and K were: (39Ar/37Ar)Ca = 8.984 × 10

�4, (36Ar/37Ar)Ca = 2.673 × 10

�4 and (40Ar/39Ar)K = 5.97 × 10�3. The exper-

imental 40Ar/39Ar dating methods for fluid inclusions inquartz by crushing and stepwise heating in vacuum hasbeen described by Qiu and Wijbrans (2006) and Qiu andJiang (2007). A sensitivity calibration using an HD-B1biotite standard (3.364 × 10�10mol/g radiogenic 40Arcontent) (Fuhrmann et al., 1987; Lippolt and Hess, 1994)yielded an average value of 1.64 × 10�15mol 40Ar permillivolt on a GV 5400 mass spectrometer at GuangzhouInstitute of Geochemistry, CAS. The 40Ar/39Ar datingresults were calculated and plotted using the ArArCALCsoftware (ver.2.2c) (Koppers, 2002).

5. FLUID INCLUSIONS

5.1. Petrography and types of fluid inclusions

On the basis of the number of phases and compositionalcomponents at room temperature, two types of primary fluidinclusions (FIs) have been identified in this study (Fig. 5)and are described below:

(1) Two-phase aqueous FIs (W-type), which are primarilyhosted in the auriferous quartz veinlets, consist ofvapour and liquid salt solutions that are unified intoliquid phase after heating. These FIs are oval, polygonaland irregular in shape, 3–10μm in size (most are in therange of 4–7 μm), and have bubbles accounting for5–40% of the total volume. This type of FIs accountfor approximately 90% of the total FIs and are dis-tributed in groups or isolated clusters (Fig. 5A–D).

(2) CO2-bearing FIs (C-type) are present with three-phase(vapour phase CO2 + liquid phase CO2 + liquid phaseH2O) FIs or two-phase (liquid phase CO2 + liquid

Figure 3. Geological map of the Shabaosi gold deposit (A) (modified from Wu et al., 2008b) and geological cross-section of ore bodies II and III (B).

J. LIU ET AL.596


phaseH2O) in auriferous quartz veinlets at roomtemperature and account for ~10% of all the FIs. TheCO2 phase accounts for 40 to 70% of the fluid inclusionvolume. The carbonic phase homogenizes to liquidphase CO2 during heating. They have an ellipsoid orirregular shape and range in size from 5 to 8μm, distrib-uted in groups or as isolated clusters (Fig. 5C, D).

5.2. Microthermometry

TheW-type FIs are homogenized to liquid phase at temperaturesof 140 to 357 °C. They have ice melting temperatures of�5.3to �1.5 °C, salinities of 2.57 to 8.28wt% NaCl eq. and

densities of 0.57 to 0.95 g/cm3. The melting temperatures ofsolid CO2 in C-type FIs range from�59.1 to�57.3 °C, whichfall below the triple-phase point of CO2 (�56.6 °C),suggesting that there are minor amounts of additional dissolvedcomponents in the carbonic phase (Lu et al., 2004). The clathratemelting occurs between 8.7 and 9.6 °C, with corresponding sa-linities between 0.83 and 2.58wt% NaCl eq. The C-typeFIs are totally homogenized at temperatures ranging from245 to 284 °C, with the carbonic phases being homogenizedto liquid phase CO2 at temperatures from 18.6 to 30.9 °C.Bulk densities of the C-type FIs range from 0.74 to0.82 g/cm3 (Fig. 6, Table 1).

Figure 4. Representative photographs of the ores in the Shabaosi gold deposit. (A) Au-bearing altered sandstone; (B) disseminated pyrite within ores; (C–E)veinlet pyrite within ores; (F) microcrystal potash feldspar enclaved in quartz. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj



5.3. Laser Raman spectroscopy detection

Representative FIs were selected for laser Ramanmicrospectroscopy to constrain their vapour compositions.The results show that the vapour phases in all types of FIs con-tain a large amount of CO2 (1281, 1284, 1288, 1386 cm�1)and a small amount of CH4 (2914, 2916 cm

�1), indicating thatthe ore-forming fluids belong to a H2O–NaCl–CO2–CH4

system (Fig. 7).

6. ISOTOPE SYSTEMATICS

6.1. Sulphur and lead isotopes

The δ34S values of nine pyrite samples show a remarkablywide range from �16.9‰ to 8.5‰, and the δ34S value ofone stibnite is �1.6‰. The δ34S values of sulphides fromthe Shabaosi gold deposit are slightly lower than the pub-lished δ34S values for most orogenic gold deposits elsewhere(typically δ34S = 0–9‰, Groves et al., 1998; Kerrich et al.,2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001), but are generally similar tosome of the sediment-hosted orogenic gold deposits (Changet al., 2008), such as from �0.13‰ to 7.3‰ in Amantaytau

gold deposit in Uzbekistan (Pasava et al., 2013), �5.0‰ to2.3‰ in Macraes gold deposit in New Zealand (Craw et al.,1995), �6.3‰ to 2.6‰ in Natalka gold deposit in Russia(Eremin et al., 1994), �1.4‰ to 9.3‰ in the Bendigo golddeposit in Australia (Bierlein et al., 2004) and �3.6‰ to6.2‰ in the Awanda gold deposit in China (Ding et al., 2014).Eight pyrite samples have 206Pb/204Pb values between

18.289 and 18.517, 207Pb/204Pb values between 15.548 and15.625, 208Pb/204Pb values between 38.149 and 38.509, withμ values from 9.36 to 9.51. The one stibnite sample has a206Pb/204Pb value of 18.453, 207Pb/204Pb value of 15.588,208Pb/204Pb value of 38.322, and μ value of 9.44 (Table 2).

6.2. 40Ar/39Ar isotope dating

The age spectrum and isochron plots based on the 40Ar/39Ardating results of auriferous quartz veinlets are shown inTable 3 and Figure 8.

6.2.1. The 40Ar/39Ar dating results of quartz by crushingin vacuumThe gases of fluid inclusions from auriferous quartz samplewere released by progressive crushing 25 547 times during

Figure 5. (A–D) Photomicrographs of representative fluid inclusions in quartz veinlets from the Shabaosi gold deposit. VH2O, vapour phase H2O; LH2O, liquidphase H2O; VCO2, vapour phase carbon dioxide; LCO2, liquid phase carbon dioxide. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj

J. LIU ET AL.598


steps 1–33. The 40Ar/39Ar ratio of each sample was deter-mined from progressive crushing experiments. Apparent agesdecreased dramatically during the first ten steps, and thenan age plateau appeared during steps 11–33, correspondingto a plateau age of 130.0 ± 1.3Ma and MSWD= 1.75(using approximately 80.4% of the total 39Ar released bycrushing) (Fig. 8A). On the inverse isochron plots of36Ar/40Ar versus 39Ar/40Ar, a well-defined isochron wasobtained from the data points of stages 11 to 33, which cor-responds to an isochron age of 130.1 ± 1.3Ma (Fig. 8B)with an initial 40Ar/36Ar ratio of 294.2 ± 12.2 and MSWD=1.83. This initial 40Ar/36Ar ratio is close to the modern at-mospheric ratio of 295.5, which indicates that no excess40Ar was introduced during steps 11–33. The apparent agesobtained by the crushing of quartz samples reflect the ageinformation contained in the fluid inclusions trapped insidethe crystalline mass. The formation age of the primary fluidinclusions from auriferous quartz of the Shabaosi golddeposit is thus about 130Ma.

6.2.2. The 40Ar/39Ar dating results of quartz by stepwiseheatingThe results yield a consistent age spectrum with a plateauage of 129.7 ± 1.5Ma (from 280 to 520 °C, 91.2% of 39Arreleased) (Fig. 8A). The data forming the age plateauclearly define an isochron with an age of 133.1 ± 3.5Ma(MSWD= 0.84) and an initial 40Ar/36Ar ratio of284.6 ± 10.0 (Fig. 8B).The isochron line from the stepwise heating method

extends from the primary fluid inclusions line obtained bythe crushing method and shows close agreement with theisochron ages and initial 40Ar/36Ar ratios. The gases released

during the low temperature steps (<280 °C) may bemixtures from the residual very small fluid inclusions andthe mineral crystal lattices. The electron probe micro-analyser (EPMA) analyses indicate minor amounts of micro-crystalline potash feldspars exist within the quartz crystals ofthe auriferous quartz veinlets (Fig. 4F). The potash feldsparhas an average composition of 63.35% SiO2, 17.88% K2O,18.07% Al2O3, 0.14% Na2O, 0.20% FeO, 0.02% CaO and0.02% Cr2O3 as determined by electron microprobe. Duringthe high-temperature steps (280–600 °C), the gases arereleased from the microcrystalline potash feldspars andshould be the major contributors to the age spectrum. Thedating results of quartz by stepwise heating indicate theformation age of microcrystalline potash feldspar fromthe auriferous quartz veinlets.

The results reveal good agreement between the ages of theprimary fluid inclusions by crushing and the ages of themicrocrystalline potash feldspar by heating, with eachmethod yielding an approximate mineralization age of130Ma for the Shabaosi gold deposit.

7. DISCUSSIONS

7.1. Tectonic setting

The Mongolia–Okhotsk Ocean closed with a scissor-likemovement beginning in the Late Carboniferous–Permian incentral Mongolia, continuing in the Triassic–Early Jurassicin NE Mongolia and progressing through the Middle–LateJurassic in the Mohe area of NE China, as indicated bymagmatic, palaeobiogeographical and palaeomagnetic studies

Figure 6. (A and B) Histograms of homogenization temperatures and salinities of fluid inclusions from the Shabaosi gold deposit.



(Li et al., 1999; Zorin, 1999; Parfenov et al., 2001; Sorokinet al., 2004; Tomurtogoo et al., 2005). She et al. (2012)collected different types of rocks from middle-northern GreatXing’an Range, and proposed that the Mongolia–OkhotskOcean has been closed since the Late Triassic in theArgun–Transbaikal area. In the Late Jurassic, widespreadcrustal extension occurred due to the gravitational collapse ofthe orogenically thickened crust, triggered by breakoff of thesubducted oceanic slab and upwelling of the asthenosphere(Jahn et al., 2009; Ying et al., 2010). Li et al. (2004)obtained 40Ar/39Ar ages of 127–130Ma from biotitefound in the Mohe ductile shear belt, and noted thatthe peak activity of the ductile strike-slip tectonic beltof the northern Great Xing’an Range was in the EarlyCretaceous. Because the Palaeo-Asian Ocean has beenclosed during the Permian (Pruner, 1987; Shao et al.,1997), the Mohe thrust–nappe belt, where the Shabaosigold deposit was located, could not be related to the sub-duction and collision process of the Palaeo-Asian Oceanin the period, but was rather a product of the late-stagetectonic evolution of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen (Liet al., 2004). Wu et al. (2009) showed that the EastLuoguhe granitoid intrusion (130Ma, Zircon SHRIMPU–Pb age) near the Shabaosi deposit was formed in thepost-collisional regime of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogenand, particularly, in a transitional tectonic setting fromcompression to extension in the Early Cretaceous.The Darason, Khali, Kliuchevskoi and Kirov gold

deposits, located in the Transbaikal area of Russia near NEChina, are distributed along the Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen(Duan et al., 1990; Shen, 1998; Zorin et al., 2001). Thesegold deposits, hosted in different wall rocks, were formedin the Middle–Late Jurassic interval and are related to thetectonic evolution of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen. TheShabaosi gold deposit was formed in the Early Cretaceous,corresponding to the tectonic activity period of the Moheductile shear belt. Hence, we conclude that the formationof the Shabaosi gold deposit was related to the large-scalestrike-slip shearing activity of the post-collision setting ofthe Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen. Interestingly, the forma-tion age of the Shabaosi gold deposit coincides with thepeak timing of the magmatism–metallogenesis in themargins of the North China Craton and even those in eastChina (Mao et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2007, 2009; Guoet al., 2013; Li et al., 2013; Zhai and Santosh, 2013; Liand Santosh, 2014).

7.2. Metallogenic processes

Most δ34S values of the sulphides from the Shabaosi golddeposit are restricted within a range between �3.7‰ and8.5‰, except one δ34S value of �16.9‰ of one pyritesample. This might suggest that in addition to sedimentarymaterial input abundant magmatic hydrothermal fluid wasT

able

1.Microthermom

etricdata

oftheFIs

from

theShabaosigold

deposit

FIs

type

No.

Size(μm)

V(vol.%

)ϕ(CO2)(%

)ϕ(CO2) vapour(%

)Tm

CO

2ð

Þ(°C)

Tm(ice)(°C)

Tm(cla)(°C)

ThCO

2ð

Þ(°C)

Th(°C)

Salinity

(wt%

NaC

leq.)

Bulkdensity

(g/cm

3)

W-type

705–

1310

–70

�5.3

to�1

.5140–357

2.57

–8.28

0.57

–0.95

C-type

117–

2015–6

010

–40

�59.1to

�57.3

8.7–

9.6

18.6–3

1.1

245–284

0.83

–2.58

0.74

–0.82

No.,F

Isnumber;V,volum

efractio

nsof

vapour

phaseinfluidinclusions;φ

(CO2),volumefractio

nsof

CO2phaseinCtype

inclusions;φ

(CO2) vapour,volumefractio

nsof

CO2vapour

phaseinCO2phase;

Tm

CO2

ðÞ,initial

meltin

gtemperature

ofsolid

CO2;Tm(ice),finalmeltin

gtemperature

ofice;ThCO2

ðÞ,partialhomogenizationtemperature

ofCO2;Th,totalhomogenizationtemperature.

J. LIU ET AL.600


also involved in the ore-forming processes. Oxygen andhydrogen isotopic compositions of the fluid trapped withinthe auriferous quartz veinlets from the Shabaosi gold deposit(Wu, 2006) indicated a mixed fluid signature with bothmagmatic and meteoric waters. On the Pb evolution diagram(Zartman and Doe, 1981), all the nine sample Pb isotopicdata cluster between the upper crust and mantle lines in the

206Pb/204Pb vs. 207Pb/204Pb diagram (Fig. 9A), and all ofdata fall in the orogen line in the 206Pb/204Pb vs. 208Pb/204Pbdiagram (Fig. 9B). The μ values of the nine sulphidesamples range between 9.36 and 9.51 (Table 2), which aregreater than that of Pb in mantle, but less than that in theupper crust (the μ value of Pb in the mantle is between8 and 9, and the average μ value of Pb in the upper crust

Table 2. Sulphur and lead isotopic compositions of the Shabaosi gold deposit

No. Sample no. Mineral Location δ34S (‰) Age (Ma) 208Pb/204Pb 207Pb/204Pb 206Pb/204Pb μ Reference

1 sbs-16-1 Pyrite Quartz–pyrite veinlet 6.9 130 38.348 15.565 18.446 9.39 This studya

2 sbs-16 Pyrite Quartz–pyrite veinlet 6.4 130 38.372 15.573 18.289 9.42 This studya

3 sbs-15 Pyrite Quartz–pyrite veinlet 8.5 130 38.316 15.558 18.392 9.38 This studya

4 sbs3-1 Pyrite Quartz–pyrite veinlet 5.1 130 38.509 15.605 18.517 9.46 This studya

5 sbs3-2 Pyrite Quartz–pyrite veinlet 6.3 130 38.388 15.576 18.370 9.42 This studya

6 sbs-26 Pyrite Altered sandstone �16.9 130 38.149 15.598 18.502 9.45 This studyb

7 ZK0007-2 Pyrite Altered sandstone �3.7 130 38.341 15.548 18.460 9.36 This studyb

8 HJ1S1-1 Pyrite Quartz–pyrite veinlet 2.2 130 38.395 15.625 18.423 9.51 Wu, 20069 HJ1S1-3 Pyrite Quartz–pyrite veinlet 4.3 130 Wu, 200610 16-1 Stibnite Stibnite ores �1.6 130 38.322 15.588 18.453 9.44 Wu, 2006

aAnalyses were performed at the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology.bAnalyses were performed at the Institute of Geology and Geophysics, CAS.

Figure 7. Laser Raman spectra of fluid inclusions from the Shabaosi gold deposit. (A and B) vapour phase composition of W-type FIs; (C and D) vapour phasecomposition of C-type FIs.



is 9.58, Doe and Zartman, 1979). These features suggest thatPb in ores was derived from the lower crust.

During the Early Cretaceous, the tectonic change duringthe compression to extension conversion process at thepost-collisional stage of the Mongolia–Okhotsk collisionalOrogen caused the decrease of temperatures and pressures,

which led to the immiscibility of magmatic hydrothermalfluids originating from the lower crust and persistence ofwater/rock reactions. The exsolution of CO2 and CH4

resulted in silicon and pyrite depositions in the hydrothermalfluids, and in particular, metal elements such as Au weredeposited and formed gold ore bodies.

Table 3. 40Ar/39Ar dating results of the Shabaosi gold deposit

Step No. 36Arair37ArCa

38ArCl39ArK

40Ar* Age (Ma, ±2σ) 40Ar* (%) 39ArK (%) K/Ca (±2σ)

Quartz samples (W116) by crushing, J= 0.0031221 ± 0.00001561 10 0.000754 0.000000 0.000005 0.000430 0.037795 437.7 ± 37.8 14.50 0.06 —2 20 0.000816 0.000012 0.000007 0.000955 0.069294 368.5 ± 19.5 22.33 0.14 34.03 ± 102.803 40 0.000727 0.000008 0.000009 0.002017 0.108314 279.6 ± 9.0 33.52 0.30 114.66 ± 606.824 80 0.000746 0.000047 0.000009 0.004438 0.167208 200.6 ± 4.3 43.13 0.67 40.65 ± 40.505 120 0.000524 0.000030 0.000012 0.007261 0.218437 162.0 ± 2.0 58.50 1.09 102.62 ± 98.006 180 0.000415 0.000020 0.000016 0.011805 0.317221 145.3 ± 1.1 72.11 1.77 254.67 ± 418.657 240 0.000290 0.000041 0.000018 0.015114 0.378952 136.0 ± 0.8 81.56 2.27 158.71 ± 110.078 300 0.000256 0.000037 0.000018 0.018301 0.449004 133.2 ± 0.7 85.59 2.75 212.87 ± 168.679 400 0.000352 0.000103 0.000031 0.031798 0.774370 132.2 ± 0.6 88.16 4.77 133.19 ± 43.7710 500 0.000319 0.000132 0.000035 0.038216 0.922968 131.2 ± 0.6 90.72 5.74 124.53 ± 28.0111 600 0.000253 0.000125 0.000037 0.039673 0.949414 130.0 ± 0.5 92.71 5.96 137.02 ± 18.4212 700 0.000214 0.000112 0.000042 0.042111 1.006289 129.8 ± 0.5 94.09 6.32 161.68 ± 33.6013 750 0.000175 0.000162 0.000042 0.041137 0.980628 129.5 ± 0.5 94.98 6.18 109.16 ± 24.6714 885 0.000180 0.000110 0.000047 0.046333 1.106762 129.8 ± 0.5 95.41 6.96 181.42 ± 48.9215 1022 0.000181 0.000108 0.000048 0.047503 1.138461 130.2 ± 0.6 95.51 7.13 189.86 ± 59.1916 1000 0.000171 0.000147 0.000041 0.041825 1.003050 130.3 ± 0.5 95.19 6.28 122.41 ± 22.1117 1000 0.000178 0.000160 0.000034 0.036002 0.861220 130.0 ± 0.5 94.25 5.40 96.66 ± 25.0618 1100 0.000156 0.000178 0.000035 0.034158 0.820931 130.5 ± 0.6 94.68 5.13 82.52 ± 19.1419 1200 0.000157 0.000071 0.000028 0.027351 0.657469 130.6 ± 0.6 93.41 4.11 166.07 ± 63.2420 1100 0.000146 0.000160 0.000024 0.024178 0.579447 130.2 ± 0.6 93.07 3.63 65.07 ± 11.0021 1100 0.000229 0.000153 0.000023 0.022019 0.531062 131.0 ± 1.1 88.69 3.31 61.75 ± 10.2822 1100 0.000147 0.000037 0.000021 0.019415 0.466816 130.6 ± 0.8 91.49 2.91 225.38 ± 222.3023 1100 0.000138 0.000022 0.000017 0.017906 0.428328 129.9 ± 0.6 91.31 2.69 351.86 ± 581.3824 1100 0.000138 0.000090 0.000013 0.016071 0.384974 130.1 ± 0.6 90.41 2.41 76.93 ± 43.6625 1100 0.000092 0.000058 0.000012 0.011521 0.274994 129.7 ± 0.6 90.98 1.73 85.39 ± 62.4926 1100 0.000108 0.000064 0.000010 0.011765 0.280279 129.4 ± 0.6 89.76 1.77 79.63 ± 49.1627 1100 0.000110 0.000071 0.000009 0.010792 0.256854 129.3 ± 0.6 88.79 1.62 65.20 ± 38.6928 1100 0.000098 0.000077 0.000012 0.009859 0.236857 130.5 ± 1.1 89.07 1.48 55.12 ± 30.1329 1100 0.000104 0.000114 0.000009 0.008147 0.196620 131.1 ± 1.3 86.51 1.22 30.77 ± 8.8330 1100 0.000116 0.000137 0.000009 0.009291 0.224484 131.2 ± 1.3 86.73 1.39 29.15 ± 6.3531 1100 0.000089 0.000108 0.000008 0.006967 0.167588 130.6 ± 1.4 86.48 1.05 27.84 ± 6.5232 1100 0.000086 0.000098 0.000006 0.005286 0.125880 129.4 ± 0.8 83.14 0.79 23.26 ± 8.4833 1100 0.000104 0.000108 0.000009 0.006453 0.154685 130.2 ± 2.0 83.37 0.97 25.80 ± 12.67

Step T (°C) 36Arair37ArCa

38ArCl39ArK

40Ar* Age (Ma, ±2σ) 40Ar* (%) 39ArK (%) K/Ca (±2σ)

Crushed powders of quartz (W116), stepwise heating by furnace, J= 0.0031221 ± 0.00001561 250 0.000007 0.000000 0.000000 0.000099 0.002308 126.6 ± 7.2 52.91 0.08 —2 280 0.000521 0.000000 0.000007 0.005381 0.127574 128.8 ± 2.7 45.30 4.53 —3 310 0.000690 0.000069 0.000013 0.010138 0.241827 129.6 ± 1.9 54.27 8.53 62.76 ± 53.064 340 0.000632 0.000030 0.000014 0.012282 0.294692 130.3 ± 1.5 61.20 10.33 173.87 ± 333.715 370 0.000894 0.000972 0.000029 0.018945 0.455568 130.6 ± 4.4 63.29 15.94 8.38 ± 1.396 400 0.000662 0.000543 0.000021 0.014628 0.353156 131.1 ± 2.8 64.35 12.31 11.59 ± 3.707 430 0.001019 0.000191 0.000022 0.019256 0.461562 130.2 ± 1.5 60.51 16.20 43.39 ± 14.658 460 0.001036 0.000946 0.000016 0.016869 0.410913 132.2 ± 7.1 57.30 14.19 7.67 ± 1.509 490 0.000422 0.000371 0.000009 0.006271 0.148926 129.0 ± 2.2 54.44 5.28 7.28 ± 1.3610 520 0.000333 0.000347 0.000007 0.004580 0.106869 126.9 ± 2.2 52.09 3.85 5.68 ± 1.2611 550 0.000391 0.000266 0.000008 0.004819 0.108355 122.4 ± 2.2 48.41 4.05 7.79 ± 1.9112 600 0.000477 0.000827 0.000013 0.005600 0.127166 123.6 ± 4.9 47.44 4.71 2.91 ± 0.39

The argon isotopes are listed in millivolt. No. is number; the multiplier sensitivity of this 5400 Ar mass spectrometer is 1.64 × 10�15mol/mV.*radiogenic

J. LIU ET AL.602


7.3. Ore genetic type

Combining ongoing studies on gold deposits withmetallogenic theory, geologists have gradually realized thatthe quartz vein type, moderate–temperature or moderate–depth epithermal deposits, ductile shear zone type, tectonicalteration type, and several network-shaped gold depositsall share similar geological–geochemical features. All ofthese deposits are structurally controlled vein epigeneticgold deposits in the metamorphic terrane, and are relatedin time and space to the accretionary orogenesis (Kerrichand Cassidy, 1994; Goldfarb et al., 1998; Groves et al.,1998). Groves et al. (1998), Kerrich et al. (2000), andGoldfarb et al. (2001) summarized the primary mineraliza-tion features of these deposits: (1) the orogenic lode golddeposit is consistent with the metamorphic terrane of

individual eras, and there is no selectivity of wall rocks;(2) mineralization is mostly related to accretionary orogeny,and the mineralization is always synchronized with or lagsafter the peak metamorphic activity of the ore-bearingterrane, or is late in the orogenic tectonic activity; (3) thedeposit is controlled by tectonics, and the ore-bearingtectonics are primarily characterized as a high-angle, obliquestrike-slip zone and overthrust zone; (4) the deposit iscontrolled by the transition zone or transition period ofbrittle–ductile deformation, and the gold precipitationcoincides with the tectonic deformation; (5) the majority ofore bodies are produced in greenschist facies metamorphic ter-ranes, and the alteration mineral assemblages consist of quartz,carbonate, mica, chlorite, and pyrite; (6) the ore-forming fluidsare carbon-rich water solutions with low salinity (the salinity istypically less than 6%), and there is a small amount of an

Figure 8. Diagrams of 40Ar/39Ar age spectrum (A) and inverse isochron (B) of quartz veinlets by crushing in vacuum and stepwise heating.



H2O–CO2 immiscible solution with three types of commonlyobserved inclusions (CO2 aqueous inclusions, CO2-rich inclu-sions, and two-phase aqueous inclusions); and (7) the sulphidecontent is low in the ore rocks and is generally less than 5%.

Many of the geological and geochemical features exhibitedby the Shabaosi gold deposit are consistent with those of oro-genic lode gold deposits. These features include: (1) theShabaosi gold deposit was formed during the post-collisionalstage of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen; (2) the gold ore bodiesare hosted by sandstone and siltstone rocks, and are controlledby brittle–ductile shearing zones; (3) themajor sulphidemineralsare represented by pyrite, with minor arsenopyrite, stibnite,sphalerite, chalcopyrite and galena, with their contents in theores <2%; (4) the alteration features include silicification,sericitization, carbonatization and argillization; (5) the ore-forming fluids belong to a H2O–NaCl–CO2–CH4 system; (6)the fluids are characterized by moderate temperatures(180–320 °C), low salinity (0.83–8.28wt% NaCl eq.), andlow density (0.57–0.95g/cm3); (7) the δ34S values of sulphidesmostly range between -3.7‰ and 8.5‰, although slightly lowerthan those of typical orogenic gold deposit, but fall withinthe range of sediment-hosted orogenic gold deposits(�23.8 to 30‰, Ding et al., 2014); (8) the lead isotopiccompositions of sulphides obviously span the orogenic line,indicating some affinities to orogenic lead reservoir, whichis consistent with the tectonic evolutionary history of theMongolia–Okhotsk Orogen; and (9) the δ18O values(18.3–23.9‰, Wu et al., 2006) of the auriferous quartzveins are similar to those of quartz veins from orogenic lodegold deposits elsewhere (δ18O = 12–22‰, Jia et al., 2003).

Based on the results described above and a comparisonwith typical orogenic lode gold deposits, we propose thatthe Shabaosi gold deposit belongs to the orogenic goldcategory as defined by Groves et al. (1998).

8. CONCLUSIONS

(1) The gold mineralization in Shabaosi gold deposit ishosted by Middle Jurassic sandstone and siltstone,and is controlled by brittle–ductile shear zones. Theore bodies are composed of auriferous quartz veinletsand altered wall rocks, with sulphide mineral contentsin the ores <2%. The hydrothermal alterations includesilicification, sericitization, carbonatization andargillization.

(2) Fluid inclusions studies indicate that the ore-formingfluids belong to a H2O–NaCl–CO2–CH4 system, withsalinities between 0.83 and 8.28wt% NaCl eq., and ho-mogenization temperatures ranging from 180 to 320 °C.The δ34S values of sulphide minerals range from�16.9‰ to 8.5‰, with most of the values between�3.7‰ and 8.5‰. Lead isotopic compositions of sul-phides range from 18.289 to 18.517 for 206Pb/204Pbvalues, 15.548 to 15.625 for 207Pb/204Pb values, and38.149 to 38.509 for 208Pb/204Pb values. The resultssuggest that ore-forming fluids/materials were mainlyof magmatic hydrothermal origin, derived from magmasproduced by partial melting of the lower crust.

(3) The crushing experiment shows that the isochron ageof primary fluid inclusions of quartz veinlets is130.1 ± 1.3Ma. The results of the crushed powdersby stepwise heating yield an isochron age of133.1 ± 3.5Ma. The concordant ages of the microcrys-tal potash feldspars by heating and primary fluid inclu-sions by crushing clearly indicate that the formationage of auriferous quartz veinlets is about 130Ma. TheShabaosi deposit can be classified as an orogenic golddeposit, and formed in the post-collisional regime ofthe Mongolia–Okhotsk Orogen.

Figure 9. (A and B) Diagram of lead isotopic compositions of the Shabaosi gold deposit (base map from Zartman and Doe, 1981).

J. LIU ET AL.604


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was jointly supported by the National ScienceFoundation of China (no. 41172081, 41202058) andGeological Survey Program of China (no. 12120113093600).We thank Xianzhong Wang, Chaoyang Li and Zhitong Lifor assistance in the field work. We also thank Zhiping Pu,Min Wang and Yan Yang for 40Ar/39Ar dating work atGuangzhou Institute of Geochemistry.

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