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The Fortune of Wells: Ida B. Wells-Barnett’s Use of T.

Thomas Fortune’s Philosophy of Social Agitation as a

Prolegomenon to Militant Civil Rights Activism

TOMMY J. CURRY

Abstract Despite the reent rise of attention to rae and rais! in "!erian philosoph#$ there is no urrent

sholarship e%plorin& the philosoph# of T.Tho!as Fortune and his influene on Ida B. Wells-

Barnett. The onte!porar# !ode of thin'in& in "!erian philosoph# see's to esta(lish a (rid&e

(et)een the thou&ht of turn of the entur# thin'ers and *+, st#le inte&rationis!. Thisinte&rationist tradition is not onl# the ne)est$ (ut the s!allest tradition in "frian "!erian

thou&ht. Most Bla' thin'ers$ as eidened (# the )or' of Fortune and Wells-Barnett$

oneptuali/ed the )orld fro! a radial perspetie that )as pessi!isti a(out the apait# for)hites to (e !orall# persuaded a&ainst )hite supre!a# and thou&ht that iolene a&ainst )hite

raist l#nhers )as the onl# hope for Bla' surial in the 0outh. This paper first e%plores the

philosoph# of T.Tho!as Fortune )hih held that Bla's !ust a&itate and reate disorder in the0outh$ sine it )as the )hite rae1s order that &ae rise to l#nh !o(s$ !urder$ and rape. 0eond$

this paper onsiders the effet of a&itationist philosoph# on the anti-l#nhin& a!pai&n of Wells-

Barnett. Ulti!atel#$ this paper onludes that )ith the help of Fortune$ Wells-Barnett introdued

a politial philosoph# that shares intelletual 'inship )ith the ar!ed !ilitan# populari/ed (# inthe *+,1s.

ey!or"s# T.Thomas Fortune$ %"a &. 'ells(&arnett$ Agitation$ )ynching$ !hite Supremacy$

Racism$ Afro(American )eague.

Jesus Christ !a# (e re&arded as the hief spirit

of a&itation and innoation. 2e hi!self delared$3I o!e not to (rin& peae$ (ut a s)ord.4T.Tho!as Fortune

IntroductionOne annot dele seriousl# into the enturies of atiis! and sholarship a&ainst rais!$ Ji!

Cro)is!$ and the terroris! of l#nhin& )ithout enounterin& the le&aies of Ti!oth# Tho!asFortune and Ida B. Wells-Barnett. Bla' sholars fro! the *+ th entur# to the present hae (een

inspired (# the soiolo&ial and eono!i )or's of Fortune and Wells. 0holars of "!erian

philosoph#$ ho)eer$ ontinue to i&nore their )ritin&s$ their theoretial ontri(utions and theirethial aspirations$ preferrin& instead the insipid delarations of )hite turn of the entur# fi&ures$

li'e John De)e#$ Josiah Ro#e$ and Jane "dda!s$ fi&ures )ho are rarel# if eer !entioned (#their Bla' ounterparts$ as the (est resoures for oneptuali/in& "!eria1s rae pro(le!.*

Fortune 5*67,8*+96$ the lon&ti!e editor of the pree!inent Bla' ne)spaper The *e! +or, Age$ )as not onl# respeted as the do!inant eono!i theorist of his era$ (ut lent ounil to

Boo'er T. Washin&ton as an adiser$ a &host )riter$ and the editor of his first auto(io&raph#

entitled The Story of My )ife an" 'or, .9 2e also sered as a !entor to a #oun& W.;.B. DuBois$)hose first )ritin& position )as as an editor for the Age$ and ontinued as suh on (oth

Fortune1s *e! +or, -lobe and the *e! +or, Freeman. Fortune )as not onl# the leadin& and



!ost influential Bla' radial of the late *+th entur#$ (ut it )as he )ho (rou&ht Wells-Barnett to

<e) Yor' and allo)ed her to ontinue her anti-l#nhin& a!pai&n after the destrution of her

Me!phis paper The Free Speech in *6+9.= <e%t to the redisoer# of "nna Julia Cooper$ Ida B. Wells-Barnett 5*6,98*+=* has earned

the oeted status of a anonial fi&ure in the "!eria aade!#. The reent te%ts dediated to

her life (# >aula ?iddin&s@

and Mia Ba#7

not onl# esta(lish Wells-Barnett1s si&nifiane as aBla' historial fi&ure$ (ut ar&ue that our urrent stud# of Bla' intelletual histor# is in fat

ino!plete )ithout her presene. In *++7$ JaAueline J. Ro#ster noted this up)ard trend in

Wells-Barnett sholarship and reo&ni/ed that 3reent researh and sholarship in fe!iniststudies and "frian "!erian studies hae !ade it possi(le for !an# )o!en1s stories to (e

reoered.4, 2o)eer$ the traetor# of the sholarship )hih seres as the foundation of Wells-

Barnett1s anoni/ation has also had a narro)in& effet on partiular aspets of her thou&ht. This

sholarship e!phasi/es her reli&ious$ raiall# pro&ressie$ &endered atiis! oer and a&ainstthe !ore radial rae onsious aspets of her thin'in& that run ounter to the esta(lished

aade!i narratie. The need to le&iti!ate Wells-Barnett anoni/ation (# op#ri&htin& her

identit# as a 3Bla' fe!inist$4 3rae )o!an$4 3pra&!atist$4 and 3li(eral pro&ressie4 has

disoura&ed e%plorations that loo' at the influene$ support$ and ultiation of her thou&ht (#radial Bla' !ale thin'ers at the turn of the entur#. Claudia D. <elson notes this d#na!i in

her artile 3The Men that Influened Wells-Barnett: Ji! Wells$ T.Tho!as Fortune and Frederi'Dou&lass4:

Ida B. Wells )as a(le to transend the onstruts of rae and se%$ and su(ert theonstraints of the Cult of True Wo!anhood (eause there )ere !en in her life

)ho enoura&ed her to step outside the purie) of )hat soiet# (elieed a

)o!an should do and (e. 0he had a solid support s#ste! fro! the !o!ent sheentered the )orld to the pea' of her anti-l#nhin& a!pai&n and iil ri&hts$

hu!an ri&hts$ and )o!en ri&hts atiis!. Ji! Wells$ To! Moss$ T. Tho!as

Fortune$ Jero!e B. >eterson$ and Frederi' Dou&lass influened and i!pated thelife and )or' of the priness of the press$ Ida B. Wells.

Wells-Barnett e!er&es fro! an epoh of ethnolo&ial ontestation$ an epoh ?ail Beder!an points out that 3rae and &ender roles )ere 3nasent iili/ation-al lan&ua&e4 that stand in sharp

ontrast to ho) )e understand 3Bla'ness$4 and 3!asulinit# ersus fe!ininit#4 toda#$ 6 there is

a re-e!er&in& i!passe in ho) Bla' sholars lai! to 'no)$ to read$ and to understand the liesof our anestors.

Rather than fous on the afore!entioned and pro(le!ati ate&ories of interpretation in

Wells-Barnett sholarship$ this artile e%plores the effet of Fortune1s philosoph# of a&itation onWells-Barnett and her anti-l#nhin& rusade. There is a stri'in& si!ilarit# (et)een Wells-

Barnett1s anti-l#nhin& pa!phlets Southern orrors and the Re" Recor" and the anal#ses !ade

in the earl# )or's of T.Tho!as Fortune onernin& the apitalist i!pulse of )hite ulture$ thefutilit# of !oral suasion on )hites$ and the use of l#nhin& to enfore the underlass status of

Bla's.+ In an effort to read Wells-Barnett outside of our post-iil ri&hts ethos$ this )or' ai!s

to e%plore the !ore radial a&itationist philosoph# adopted (# Wells-Barnett that plaes her

ritiis! of )hite supre!a# outside the no) do!inant li(eral de!orati 5inte&rationisttraditions priile&ed (# !an# in "!erian philosoph#. In short$ I (eliee there is a!ple

historial eidene and te%tual support to su&&est that Wells-Barnett )as diretl# influened (#

and in support of Fortune1s a&itationist philosoph#. I also (eliee that Wells-Barnett held )ith



Fortune that )hites are drien (# eono!i interests rather than !oral o!passion )ith re&ard to

the rae pro(le! and that )hite soiet# utili/es the ri!e of rape and the punish!ent of l#nhin&

to e!ent the destrution of Bla's in the 0outh.This artile (e&ins (# desri(in& the relationship (et)een Wells-Barnett and T. Tho!as

Fortune$ a relationship that Wells-Barnett redits )ith her deelopin& a&itationist philosoph#$

and one )hih I (eliee !a'es the pra&!atist readin& of Wells-Barnett (# >atriia 0hehteruntena(le. In setion II$ I turn to Wells-Barnett1s eono!i anal#sis of l#nhin& in the 0outh. For

Wells-Barnett$ l#nhin& )as a ri!e of )hite (ar(aris! that )as deplo#ed to inti!idate and

oppress eono!i and politial pro&ress of Bla' people$ and speifiall# the !ilitant spirit ofBla' !en. 0etion III hi&hli&hts the atiis! of Wells-Barnett in Fortune1s "fro-"!erian

ea&ue$ an or&ani/ation that not onl# predated the <""C>$ (ut )as (uilt on the a&itationist

philosoph# of Fortune and reeted the idea that )hite inole!ent in Bla' stru&&les for soial

and politial ri&hts )as useful or desira(le. In the last setion$ I ar&ue that Wells-Barnett holds arealisti pessi!is! that ad!its )hite "!erians$ espeiall# in the 0outh$ are o!!itted to anti-

Bla' rais!$ a o!!it!ent that neessitates ar!ed resistane and the findin& of allies outside

the United 0tates.

I. Understanding Fortune and Wells: How this Intellectual Union Cultivated

Wells-Barnett as a Radical Anti-Lyncher not a !rag"atist.Despite Wells-Barnett1s initial disappoint!ent in the ph#sial appearane of Fortune$* )hen

the# finall# !et in *666 at the <e&ro De!orati national onferene in Indianapolis ** their!eetin& )as faora(l# preipitated (# the e%han&e of ideas throu&h orrespondene and the

readin& of eah other1s )or'. In*66,$ Wells-Barnett )rote a diar# entr# o!!entin& on her

an%iousness to read Fortune1s artile entitled 3Ciil Ri&hts and 0oial >riile&es4 )hih

appeared in the A.M./. Church Revie! earlier that #ear.*9 ?iddin&s notes that in *66, 3it )aslear that Fortune1s potentiall# reolutionar# notion to deouple lass standin& and (ehaior

fro! onstitutional ri&hts )as (e#ond Ida1s &rasp$4*= 2o)eer$ Wells-Barnett1s later )or' see!s

to indiate a deriatie ultiation of the spirit aptured (# Fortune1s )or' for a 3d#na!itiele!ent in the "fro-"!erian.4*@ i'e Wells-Barnett$ Fortune too one#ed a &reat respet for

her )or'. In the "u&ust **$ *666 edition of the *e! +or, Age$ Fortune had this to sa# of their

first !eetin&:

I !et EIola1 at the onferene. 0he has (eo!e fa!ous as one of the fe) )o!en

)hat handles a &oose Auill )ith dia!ond point as handil# as an# of us !en inne)spaper )or'0he is rather &irlish loo'in& in ph#siAue$ )ith sharp re&ular

features$ penetratin& e#es$ fir! set lips and a s)eet oie0he is s!art as a steel

trap and she has no s#!path# for hu!(u&.

While this relationship of !utual ad!iration and respet )as dissoled (# *6++$ (efore theturn of the entur# it flourished and )as the (asis of Wells-Barnett1s prolifi atta's a&ainst

l#nhin& after her e%odus fro! Me!phis. Follo)in& the l#nhin& of her dear friend Tho!as

Moss$ Wells-Barnett )as fored fro! Me!phis (# the threats of a l#nh !o( )ho after findin&

her the )riter of the Free Speech delared that 3her se% )ould not sae her.4 It )as here thatWells-Barnett aepted the standin& initation to !oe to <e) Yor' fro! Fortune$ )ho had

(een repu(lishin& her )or's in his <e) Yor' editorialGthe Age. "s she re!ar's$ 3)ith the

splendid help of T.Tho!as Fortune and Jero!e B. >eterson$ o)ners and editors of the *e! +or, Age$ I )as &ien an opportunit# to tell the )orld for the first ti!e the true stor# of <e&ro



l#nhin&s$ )hih )ere (eo!in& !ore nu!erous and horri(le. 2ad it not (een for the oura&e

and ision of these t)o !en$ I ould neer hae !ade suh head)a# in e!(la/onin& the stor# to

the )orld.4*7

Reent sholarship depits Wells-Barnett as a pra&!atist fe!inist )hose interests ali&ned

)ith the soial a)areness of )hite fi&ures li'e Jane "dda!s or John De)e#.*, 0uh lai!s are

not onl# reisionist (ut lar&el# inentions of )hite "!erian sholars see'in& to esta(lishontinuit# (et)een Bla' and )hite fi&ures in an era defined (# Ji! Cro) se&re&ation$ l#nhin&

and the !ass !urder of Bla' iti/ens. Beliein& that their 3theor#4 is se!piternal$ these

sholars hae no pro(le! retroatiel# attri(utin& andHor desri(in& the lies of said thin'ersunder the oneptual !ilieu of our present da#. "s the )or' of 0ha)n . "le%ander oninin&

artiulates$ the !ost do!inant Bla' politial thin'in& in the late *61s )as !odeled on

nationalis!Gthe need to protet and e!po)er the Bla' rae separate fro! )hites$ een !ore

speifiall# the ideas that defined Fortune1s "fro-"!erian ea&ue and Wells-Barnett1s politialor&ani/ation )as rooted in raial unit#$ a onsiousness Fortune sa) and i!itated fro! the Irish

<ational and ea&ue.* One of the !ost seere !isinterpretations of Wells-Barnett is penned (#

>atriia ". 0hehter$ )ho ar&ues that Wells-Barnett )as a isionar# pra&!atistGthe entral

the!e of her (oo' entitled %"a &. 'ells(&arnett an" American Reform 0112(0342. In this )or'$0hehter !aintains that Wells-Barnett1s soial o!!it!ents too' profound inspiration fro! her

reli&ious faith$ and in dealin& )ith the raial and &ender frustrations of the soial )orld &ae riseto a isionar# pra&!atis! that 3sustained a lifeti!e of a&itation for soial ustie.4*6 0hehter

ontinues$

li'e other strands of "!eria pra&!atis!$ isionar# pra&!atis! desri(es not

a ;uropean shool of philosoph#$ (ut rather a st#le of thou&ht and atiis!.

isionar# lin's Wells-Barnett to the propheti traditions in "frian "!erianreli&ion dou!ented (# Cornel West and others. >ra&!atis! loates her in (oth

the intelletual fer!ent of the turn of the entur# Chia&o as )ell as in Bla'

)o!en1s le&a# of !a'in& a )a# out of no )a# for the!seles$ their fa!ilies$and o!!unities for&ed out of slaer#.*+

in'in& the i!petus to )or'$ eduate and )rite )ith the Chia&o pro&ressiis! e!er&in& at theturn of the entur#$ 0hehter atte!pts to (rin& Wells-Barnett into onersation )ith a

philosophiall# esta(lished tradition of soial politial thou&ht. "n interpretatie tradition of

3Bla' pra&!ati thou&ht$4 that despite its radial ori&ins$ has sho)n itself to (e a for! ofultural ritiis! that reinfores )hite supre!a# (# aeptin& the ideal that Bla's hae al)a#s

desired and ontinue to desire inte&ration and a plae in "!erian de!ora#. It is this ideal that

allo)s 0hehter to lai! that in 3Wells-Barnett1s hands$ isionar# pra&!atis! entailed adistintie ie) of self and serie desi&ned for personal surial and soial ontestation$ for

?od and o!!unit#$ and for ri&hts and responsi(ilit# for all iti/ens.49

0hehter lai!s that the reli&ious onitions responsi(le for Wells-Barnett1s pro&ressiesoial ritiis! ste! fro! her !other i//ie1s deep reli&iosit#$ and her father1s inole!ent in

shool and politis. The influene of her parents o!(ined )ith the Methodist preepts of her

hildhood )hih foused on 3personal piet#$ a stress on hu!an a&en# in the )orld of salation$

and a strin&ent (ut helpful !oral ode desi&ned for the pratial i!proe!ent of dail# life$4resulted in a profound 3Bla' )o!en1s soial &ospel4 utili/ed (# Wells-Barnett a&ainst rais!

and se%is! si!ultaneousl#. 0hehter ar&ues that 3Wells relied funda!entall# on reli&ious faith

for her sense of self and ision of sere. "nti-l#nhin&1s dual Aualit# as reli&ious oation and



politial areer deried not fro! Well1s status as a Etransitional1 fi&ure in "!erian refor! (ut

fro! the inte&rit# of southern (la' )o!en1s protest traditions and a isionar# pra&!atis! that

(lended the i!peraties of faith and politis.49* 0hehter ai!s to esta(lish that Wells-Barnett1s3e%ile$4 her refusal to (e onfined to her plae$ and e!(rae a 3lad#li'e Auiet$499 !otiated her

to)ards anti-l#nhin& and politial atiis!. 0hehter1s ar&u!ent$ supposes a uniAueness of

Bla' )o!en1s reli&iosit# )ithout an# historial or te%tual support. 2ere )or' not onl# ne&letsthe relationships Bla' )o!en shared )ith the radial Bla' Christian traditions of ante(ellu!

Bla' politial thou&ht$ (ut insists on a narratie )here(# Bla' !ale intelletuals had no

tan&i(le influene on the politial onsiousness of their da#. The historial treat!ents of Bla'radial reli&iosit# hae$ for the !ost part$ insisted on the understandin& ho) Bla' !en and

)o!en (oth esaped itorian &ender nor!s$ and stren&thened do!inate ie)s of their ti!es.

For e%a!ple$ ?a#raud 0. Wil!ore1s Bla' Religion an" &lac, Ra"icalism# An %nterpretation of

the Religious istory of Afro(American People ontends that the fous on surial and hu!anit#has (een at the ore of the Bla' Christian tradition1s resistane to rais! and &lo(al )hite

supre!aist theolo&#. 9= 0hehter lai!s that there is a uniAue Bla' )o!an1s soial &ospel and

theolo&# in the )or's )ithout an# attention to the lon& dou!ented d#na!is of se%ualit#

(et)een !en and )o!en in the Bla' Christian tradition in the late *61s. Throu&hout the late*+th entur#$ Bla' !en and )o!en used the Bi(le to ustif# the uplift of the rae. "lon& )ith

Fortune$ Martin R. Delan#$ ;d)ard Bl#den$ "le%ander Cru!!ell$ )ho is redited (# "nna JuliaCooper for inspirin& her )ell-'no)n *66, essa# 3Wo!anhood: " ital ;le!ent in the

Re&eneration and >ro&ress of a Rae$4 John ;. Brue$ and "rturo 0ho!(ur& are (ut a fe) )ell

'no) fi&ures that supported the eduation$ uplift$ and protetion of Bla' )o!en1s irtue$ andthe )or' of )o!en for the rae.9@ <e&letin& these relationships allo)s 0hehter to de-

radiali/e and separate the thou&ht of Bla' )o!en fro! the politial thin'in& of their ti!e$ onl#

to replae it )ith a pra&!atistHfe!inist aount that ontinues to disre&ard the atual historial

nuane of Bla' e%istene in "!eria.0hehter artiulates a narratie of Bla' ulture in late *61s )here Bla' soial

onsiousness )as ill prepared for the atiis! and radialit# of Wells-Barnett$ (eause she )as

a Bla' )o!an. Ironiall#$ 0hehter ites Mrs. <. F. 5?ertrude Mossell1s *+@ The 'or, ofthe Afro(American 'oman as proof of a te%t that 3&rappled )ith a han&in& set of re&ional$

&enerational$ and politial relationships )ithin an inreasin&l# dierse and far flun& talented

tenth$4 and follo)s this su!!ation of Mossell1s )or' )ith a so!e)hat anahronisti Auestion:3)hat did it !ean for Ida B. Wells to (eo!e a leadin& fe!ale thin'er of the rae497 ;en the

!ost ursor# readin& of Mossell1s )or' stron&l# su&&ests that 0hehter doesn1t hae a real

understandin& of Bla' politial ulture at the turn of the entur#. Contrar# to 0hehter1s

readin&$ Mossell (e&ins her )or' than'in& her hus(and and Fortune for their su&&estions in the preparation of her )or'.9, 0he then proeeds to onte%tuali/e the la(ors of the "fro-"!erian

)o!an in a hapter entitled 3The Wor' of the "fro-"!erian Wo!an.4 In this hapter$ Mossell

notes that 3the !en of the rae$ in !ost instanes$ hae (een &enerous$ doin& all in their po)er toallo) the )o!en of the rae to rise )ith the!.49 Unli'e 0hehter1s harateri/ation$ Mossell

ar&ues that Bla' )o!en$ )ho hae &raduated fro! uniersities$ are teahers$ dotors$ and

ournalists in Bla' o!!unities )or'in& for the upliftin& of the rae. Mossell does not )ritethis as a prolepsis of thin&s to o!e (ut rather ar&ues Auite ada!antl# that Bla' )o!en had

alread# ta'en up the tas' of rae and se% and doin& Auite )ell in their pursuits. This is e%atl# the

tone )ith )hih she desri(es Wells-Barnett. "ordin& to Mossell$ 3the &reatest )or' in



philanthrop# #et ao!plished (# an# )o!an of the rae is that underta'en and so suessfull#

arried out at the present hour KisL (# Ida B. Wells.496

To !a'e the ase that Bla' !en are not supportie of Bla' )o!en1s politial atiis! anduninfor!ed of Bla' )o!en1s ontri(utions to the rae$ 0hehter points to an "u&ust *6+9

letter (et)een Frederi' Dou&lass and M.". Maors$ )here Dou&lass sa#s 3I hae thus far seen

no (oo' of i!portane )ritten (# a ne&ro )o!an and I 'no) of no one a!on& us )ho anappropriatel# (e alled fa!ous.49+ There are t)o pro(le!s )ith 0hehter1s anal#sis. First$

aordin& to the introdution of Mossell1s )or'$ there are three (oo's that )ere &ien to the

)orld in *6+9 that !erit attention: "nna Julia Cooper1s A 5oice from the South by a &lac,!oman of the South$ Mrs. F. ;. W. 2arper1s %ola$ or Sha"o!’s Uplifte" $ and Mrs. W. ". Doe1s

The )ife an" Sermons of '. A. 6ove.= >ointin& to Cooper1s te%t speifiall#$ 0hehter assu!es

that Dou&lass should hae 'no)n that these )or's )ould (e 3fa!ous4 (oo's produed (# Bla'

)o!en. 0eond$ Dou&lass is lear that he is fa!iliar )ith the )or's of Bla' )o!en$ (ut unsurethat lai!in& the e!inene of Bla' )o!en is the sa!e as lai!in& that there )ere Bla' people

)ho )ere indeed fa!ous. 2e sa#s 3)e hae !an# esti!a(le )o!en of our ariet# (ut not !an#

fa!ous onesWe stand too near a for!er ondition to hae an# fa!ous )or' in sienes$ art$ or

literature$ e%peted of us.4

=*

Dou&lass sees this Auestion as a !atter of definition$ not &ender. TheBla' rae si!pl# has not produed fa!ous )or's in his ie) fro! the end of slaer# to *6+9.

eepin& )ith the the!e of her hapter 3Tal'in& throu&h Tears$4 0hehter !aintains #eta&ain that it is throu&h the reli&ious radialis! of Wells-Barnett and other southern Bla'

)o!en of her &eneration that )e an (est understand her pioneerin& anti-l#nhin& )or'.

0hehter points to an entr# in Wells-Barnett1s diar# on 0epte!(er @th$ *66,$ )here Ioladesri(es a 3d#na!iti artile4 she )rote to the ?rand Cit# >ress$ 3al!ost adisin& !urder$4 in

retaliation for the l#nhin& of a Bla' )o!an aused of poisonin& a )hite )o!an she oo'ed

for in Tennessee. 0hehter insists that Wells-Barnett1s 3d#na!iti$4 or an&r# tone deseres a

further philosophial inesti&ation. Citin& "udre orde$ 0hehter ontends that 3Ean&er isloaded )ith infor!ation and ener&#$1 ruial for surial$ een as raists and other opponents use

its e%pression to disredit$ dis!iss$ or punish Bla' )o!en.4=9 0u!!ari/in& the thrust of Wells-

Barnett1s isionar# pra&!atis!$ an outloo' shaped (# 3a ri&hteous ra&e that )as also part of the)or' of loe$4== and s#non#!ous )ith the theoretial utilit# of orde1s desription of an&er$

0hehter understands an&er to (e 3a &rief of distortions (et)een peersand its o(et is

han&e.4=@ "s suh$ a&itation is !oed (# faith in han&e and an an&er )ith that )hih resistshan&e. While 0hehter &oes to &reat len&th to onine the reader of the philosophial and

oneptual plausi(ilit# of her interpretation$ a !ore thorou&h anal#sis of her ar&u!ent reeals it

to (e !ore fitie than philosophial. In preious )or's$ I hae ar&ued in an effort to

institutionali/e Bla' thin'ers as disiplinar# fi&ures$ )e$ re&ardless of our sholarl# andintelletual ritialit#$ are fored to episte!olo&iall# oner&e$ or interpret Bla' histori

thin'ers as ontri(utin& to hu!anist 'no)led&e to the e%tent that )e an (oth !old the! into the

esta(lished traditions that o!prise the ;uroentri aade!i enterprise$ and reise their )or' sothat it an (e sho)n to partiipate in alread# le&iti!ated 5approed theoretial apparati. =7 While

this pratie has proed effetie in the introdution and institutionali/ation of Bla' thin'ersG

thin' a(out the oer)hel!in& nu!(er of )or's on DuBois or CooperGit nonetheless re!oesthese historial Bla' thin'ers fro! the &enealo&ial relationships that sered as atal#sts for

their (rilliane. Contrar# to 0hehter1s interpretation$ Wells-Barnett1s )or' )as )ell 'no)n (#

Frederi' Dou&lass$ and she )as an a'no)led&ed 3)o!an of rae4 as de!onstrated (# her

reeption (# Bla' )o!en1s lu(s$ as )ell as a )elo!ed all# of (oth Dou&lass$ and Fortune. =,



B# si!pl# assertin& ontinuit# (et)een Wells-Barnett and orde$ as a response to the

!ar&inali/ation of Wells-Barnett (# her Bla' !ale peers and the rais! of )hite soiet#$

0hehter re!oes Wells-Barnett fro! the atual raial !ilieu and politial or&ani/ations thatultiates her thin'in& a(out anti-l#nhin& and a&itation. "s )e )ill see in setion II$ Wells-

Barnett1s d#na!iti attitude to)ards l#nhin& and Bla' iil ri&hts )as ultiated (# her

adoa# of Fortune1s eono!i anal#sis of )hite supre!a#.

II. Wells-Barnett#s Reali$ation o% the &cono"ic 'otivation %or Lynching "s !entioned earlier$ Wells-Barnett )as fa!iliar )ith T. Tho!as Fortune1s essa# entitled 3Ciil

Ri&hts and 0oial >riile&es.4 In that )or'$ Fortune said$ 3If an# person should as' !e in )hat

essential ele!ent "fro-"!erian harater )as !ost defiient$ I )ould unhesitatin&l# respond

the d#na!iti ele!entN that is$ the ele!ent of harater )hih represent an inur# pro!ptl#$ andin a )a# !ost harateristi of the le% loi.4 = "ordin& to Fortune$ the "frian one possessed

oura&e$ (ut the "fro-"!erian is found defiient (eause 9 #ears of slaer# prior to *6,7

!ade the 3o(et of all la)$ re&ulation and usto! (ein& to redue the "fro-"!erian harateras !uh as possi(le to the ondition of a pliant tool in the hands of a ruel (ut e%pert !aster.4 =6

Whereas the <e&ro of the past allo)ed )hites to ditate his proper plae )ith ada!ant disdainfor his !anhood and enfore throu&h the (rutalit# of l#nhin& and !urder his o(ediene$ the"fro-"!erian of his da# de!and a sa# in the settle!ent of the rae Auestion. Fortune (elieed

that the ti!e for the "fro-"!erian to assert their plae in the )orld )as upon the!:

Unli'e in ti!es past$ )e hae a oie$ and )e propose to !a'e that oie heard$

in all future phases of the disussion of this rae Auestion. The rae is hereN it )ill

sta# hereN it is !ost itall# onernedN and it insists$ and )ill do so !ore and!ore$ upon its proper share in the settle!ent of all Auestions affetin& its

onstitutional and natural ri&hts and its !aterial and other onerns.=+

Refletin& on his ad!iration for the persistent and oura&eous stru&&le of the Irish$ Fortune

re&rets that the sa!e i&ilane is 3not possessed in lar&e !easure (# our o)n people in thisountr#.4@ Beause the "fro-"!erian still reels in silene$ seen (ut not heard$ !e!(ers of therae re!ain una(le to assert the!seles and their ri&hts 3to (e.4 3<o !an respets a o)ardN he

is despised (# een the !e!(ers of his o)n household. "ll histor# teahes that oura&e and

intelli&ene are the o!ple!ent of eah other$ in the o(tainin& as in the !aintenane of freedo!Nand this is as true of indiiduals as of nations or raes$4@* said Fortune. While Fortune see!s to

hae !oed a)a# fro! his *66= essa#s pu(lished in the *e! +or, -lobe adoatin& iolene

a&ainst )hites$ his *66, )or' still !a'es lear that 3there are ti!es )hen oppressed people haeno other !ediu! throu&h )hih to !a'e their protest hear than that of iolene.4@9 Unli'e

Fortune$ Wells-Barnett )as still o!!itted to the use of iolene a&ainst )hite supre!a#

throu&hout the *6+1s. Wells-Barnett )as ada!ant that Bla's should use iolene and retaliate

not onl# a&ainst )hite l#nhers$ (ut )hite o!!unities that allo) l#nhin& to happen. In an*6+* editorial$ Wells-Barnett stated:

The Ja'son 5Miss Tri(une and 0un$ and the Me!phis 5Tenn Dail# Co!!erial

"ppeal are sAuir!in& in &reat shape oer the outspo'en senti!ent of the

3Me!phis Free 0peeh4 o!!eKnLdin& the retaliator# !easures adopted (# the"fro-"!erians of ?eor&eto)n$ #.$ in reen&e for the l#nhin& of one of its

!e!(ers. The 0un insists that the people of Me!phis should proeed to !u//le



the 3Free 0peeh$4 and the Co!!erial "ppeal drops into philosoph# and

delares that t)o )ron&s do not !a'e a ri&htN and that )hile )hite people should

sti' to the la)$ if the# do not do so$ the (la's an hope for nothin& (ute%ter!ination if the# atte!pt to defend the!seles.

This is a o)ardl# ar&u!ent. Funda!entall# !en hae an inherent ri&ht todefend the!seles )hen la)ful authorit# refuses to do it for the!N and )hen a

)hole o!!unit# !a'es itself responsi(le for a ri!e it should (e heldresponsi(leThe )a# to preent retaliation is to preent l#nhin&. 2u!an nature

is hu!an nature.@=

Muh li'e the position of )hites presented in his (oo'$ &lac, an" 'hite 5*66@$ Fortune1s

*66, essa# restated his position that )hites are (e#ond !oral suasionN a rae that 3#ields onl# to

the fore of iru!stanes.4@@ Fortune )as solidl# o!!itted to an anthropolo&ial truth thate!er&ed fro! his stud# of )hites$ na!el# that 3the o!!erial instint of the "n&lo-0a%on had

(lunted his eer# sense of honest#$ fair pla#$ and hu!anit#.4@7 Drien (# profit and raial

adanta&e$ Fortune too' the )hite rae to (e (e#ond understandin& the (asi reiproal ideas of arae1s hu!anit#. Beause the )hite rae understood ethis throu&h the relationships the# shared

)ith their o)n$ those e%luded fro! their o!!union of )hiteness )ould (e su(et to

eono!i e%ploitation. Under the rule of )hites$ 3the esta(lished order$4 of "!eria )as !eant

to (e a !ind-nu!(in& soiali/ation for Bla'sGa enture dediated to the inulation of passiit# and the eono!i desi&nation of Bla's as e%ploita(le la(or.

Wells-Barnett )as partiularl# astute in appl#in& Fortune1s anal#sis to the eono!i

onditions of Bla' people in the 0outh. 0he )as lear that 3the Bla' people of the 0outh )ereneer allo)ed to &et out of de(t. Their for!er !asters traded on their redulit# and i&norane.

The southern )hite does not )ant the (la' !an to leae$ for the (la' !an is the &reatest )ealth

produin& fator of the south and no one 'no)s it (etter than the )hite !an.4@, Beause of thisrepressie raial eono!i order$ eono!i o!petition )ith )hites$ espeiall# in the 0outh$

(rou&ht out the (ar(arit# of the )hite rae. It )as this reali/ation of the dan&er Bla' !anhood1seono!i self-suffiien# posed to the eono!i re&i!e of )hite 0outherners that (rou&ht Wells

to the truth and freed her fro! the propa&andist lies that held l#nhin& to (e a ust punish!entfor the ri!e of rape. "s she onfesses in Crusa"e for 7ustice$

i'e !an# another person )ho had read of l#nhin& in the 0outh$ I had aepted

the idea !eant to (e one#edGthat althou&h l#nhin& )as irre&ular and ontrar#

to la) and order$ unreasonin& an&er oer the terri(le ri!e of rape led to thel#nhin&N that perhaps the (rute desered death an#ho) and the !o( )as ustified

in ta'in& his life.

But Tho!as Moss$ Calin MDo)ell$ and ee 0te)art had (een l#nhed inMe!phis$ one of the leadin& ities of the 0outh$ in )hih no l#nhin& had ta'en

plae (efore$ )ith ust as !uh (rutalit# as other iti!s of the !o(N and the# hado!!itted no ri!e a&ainst )hite )o!en. This is )hat opened !# e#es to )hat

l#nhin& reall# )as. "n e%use to &et rid of <e&roes )ho )ere aAuirin& )ealth

and propert# and thus 'eep the rae terrori/ed and E'eep the ni&&er do)n.1 I then (e&an an inesti&ation of eer# l#nhin& I read a(out.@



It is i!portant to reo&ni/e the ulnera(ilit# of Wells-Barnett to the raist thin'in& of her ti!es.

It )as not until the l#nhin& of her friend Tho!as Moss that Wells-Barnett1s e#es )ere opened

to 3)hat l#nhin& reall# )asGan e%use to &et rid of <e&ros )ho )ere aAuirin& )ealth and propert#.4 This reali/ation ruptured Wells-Barnett1s preious (elief that 3the (rute K)ho )as

aused of the terri(le ri!e of rapeL desered death.4@6 It )as the !urder of Bla' !en in

&eneral$ and her friend Tho!as Moss in partiular$ that led Wells-Barnett to thin' differentl# ande!(rae Fortune1s philosoph# of a&itation as a response to )hite raial oppression. Instead of

(ein& a spontaneous eruption in Wells-Barnett1s soul$ the philosoph# of a&itation had alread#

(een solidified$ artiulated and de(ated )ith others (# Fortune. "s )e )ill see$ the insi&ht ofWells-Barnett )as deeloped not in faith (ut throu&h Fortune1s politial or&ani/ationGThe

"fro-"!erian ea&ue.

III. (he A%ro-A"erican League: A !hiloso)hical *chool o% (hought On Oto(er *6th$ *66+$ Wells-Barnett ans)ered a all for a 3onsensus of opinion on the lea&ue

(# pro!inent "fro-"!erians.4 This all$ plaed in the 6etroit Plain"ealer )as a sure# of"fro-"!erian support for the for!ation of a national lea&ue that )ould eentuall# (eo!e

Fortune1s "fro-"!erian ea&ue 5"". The "fro-"!erian ea&ue is rarel# !entioned toda#$despite its use of la)suits$ protests$ and la(or or&ani/ation to fi&ht for Bla' iil ri&hts. Beause!odern da# iil ri&hts histor# ta'es as its &enesis those eents that led to the >#rrhi itories of

inte&rationis!$ the all Bla' "fro-"!erian ea&ue is usuall# i&nored in faor of the )hite

philanthropi or&ani/ation )e hae o!e to 'no) as the <ational "ssoiation for the"dane!ent of Colored >eople 5<""C>.@+ 3The <""C> )as not$ as o!!onl# (elieed$ the

first effort of historial Bla' leadership to esta(lish a iil ri&hts or&ani/ation.4 7 Beause of its

anti-dese&re&ationist stane and its radial 5a&itationist philosoph#$ histor# has all (ut for&otten

that the lea&ue not onl# ated as a politial (od# (ut an or&ani/ed 3Bla' shool of thou&ht.4 7*

Meetin&s and pu(liations of the "" 3(ea!e the (attle&round for onflitin& Bla' leadership

philosophies K)hihL proided a de(atin& platfor! for the se!inal leadership ideals of not onl#

Fortune hi!self$ (ut of W. ;. B. DuBois$ Willia! Monroe Trotter$ Boo'er T. Washin&ton$Bishop "le%ander Walters$ Wells-Barnett and seeral others not so )ell re!e!(ered toda#.479

Understandin& the "fro-"!erian ea&ue as an atie$ or&ani/ed$ and erifia(le intelletual

shool of thou&ht &ies present da# sholars a !uh learer piture of the a&itation philosoph#endorsed (# Wells-Barnett$ )hile si!ultaneousl# hi&hli&htin& the dier&ent post(ellu! politial

theories a&ainst inte&ration and )hite partiipation in raial stru&&le.7= In li&ht of the

to'eni/ation of the <""C> and its status in the histor# of the iil ri&hts !oe!ent$ it is

i!portant to re!e!(er that 3in the end$ Trotter$ the !ost radial <e&ro leader and Mrs. IdaWells-Barnett )ho )as leadin& an anti-l#nhin& rusade$ refused to oin the ne) or&ani/ation

5the <""C> (ein& distrustful of )hite leadership.47@

Wells-Barnett1s repl# to the all for the "" titled 3The ea&ue is a eer$4 is perhaps the (est testa!ent )e hae of her adoa# for the "fro "!erian ea&ue$ and her adoption of

Fortune1s philosoph# of a&itation as a ia(le soial theor# and politial pratie. Wells-Barnett

(e&an her letter to the editor of the Plain"ealer statin&$ 3)ith all !# heart and soul I (eliee inthe ea&ue proet and a! onl# too afraid that the dissensions a!on& our leaders )ill preent its

or&ani/ation.477 Rather than spea' of the ea&ue as another potentiall# (enefiial or&ani/ation in

the fi&ht for iil ri&hts$ Wells-Barnett see!s to endorse the Fortunian priniple that onstitutesthe ea&ue itself. 0he is Auite ada!ant that 3so!eone !ust ta'e it up on hi!self$ in this as in all

other &reat !oe!ents to spea' and at for the raeN and een sho) us )hat is (est to (e done in



the !atter of or&ani/ation.47, "t the !ost (asi leel$ Wells-Barnett too' the or&ani/ation to (e a

neessar# politial fore (ehind the philosoph# of a&itation$ and its iseral all to rae ation:

The ea&ue is ours to )ield as the leer for the protetion and deelop!ent of

#our people. Do not let it die. "&itate and at until so!ethin& is done. While )e

are restin& on oars see!in&l# ontent )ith e%pressin& our indi&nation (#resolutions at the out ra&es )hih dail# our$ others are presu!in& upon this

ination and enroahin& !ore and !ore upon our ri&htsGna# upon life itself.7

"t the inau&ural onention of the ""$ Januar# 9@$ *6+ in Chia&o$ Fortune announed to

the ro)d that 3the spirit of a&itation )hih has (rou&ht us to&ether here o!prehends in its asts)eep the entire ran&e of hu!an histor#.476 Muh li'e his earlier thin'in& on a&itation in his

*66= piee$ 3The irtue of "&itation$4 Fortune indiates that a&itation is the ounterailin&

fore to the 3propensit# to t#ranni/eN the predo!inant ele!ent in hu!an nature.4 7+ This onflitste!!in& fro! hu!anit#1s 3all a(sor(in& senti!ent of self-interest and self-preseration$4 , is

not a!(i&uous or perpetualGit reAuires resolution )ithin our e!pirial histor#$ and therefore

resists an# dialetial aount of raial ontestation. Fortune is ada!ant on this point:

There is no half )a# &round (et)een ri&ht and )ron&. The one or the other !ust

o(tain$ and preail. Mental inertia is death. Indifferent aAuiesene in )ron& isdeath. Ta!e su(!ission to outra&e is death. "&itation$ onstant protestin&$ al)a#s

standin& up to (e ounted$ to (e heard$ or to (e 'no'ed do)nGthis spirit (reeds

respet and dulls the ed&e of t#rann#. We should learn that the a&&ressie !an$the !an )ho is al)a#s read# to ontend for )hat is his$ is the !an )ho &ets )hat

is his. In politis$ in (usiness$ in soial interourse$ )e )ant to sho) !ore

!anhood$ a deeper appreiation of the philosoph# of life.,*

Fortune insists that the raial realit# of Bla's annot (e ne&otiated &raduall#$ as a !atter of

de&ree and eentual pro&ress. Chan&e o!es fro! onsious and deli(erate ation a&ainstt#rannial fores of )hite supre!a#$ not throu&h rhetori5s$ (ut the !anipulation of the

historial fores of soial han&e. "s histor# has sho)n$ 3the nor!al ondition of !an'ind is one

of perpetual han&e$ unrest and aspirationGa ontention of the irtues and ies of !an'ind.4 ,9

The a&itator then$ li'e the politial fore )ielded (# Jesus Christ$ is the interloutor that (rin&s

the !essa&e and su(stane of dissatisfation to a olatile populae to (rin& a(out reolutionar#

unrest. This is )h# 3the a&itator !ust neer (e in adane of his ti!es.4 ,= The frition (et)eenthe spirit of freedo! and the spirit of oppression and t#rann# reAuire the a&itator to attend to the

tide of reolutionar# potential in an historial epoh that an ener&i/e the people to ation. The

a&itator$ then$ is a reolutionar# soiolo&ist.

"s a soiolo&ial truth$ Fortune !aintains that 3a&itations are ineita(le$ KandL as neessar#

to KtheL soial or&anis! as (lood to KtheL ani!al or&anis!.4,@

The dan&er of aeptin& the orderesta(lished in the spirit of oppression and t#rann#$ is that aeptane nu!(s the !ind and

de(ilitates the (od#1s apait# for intelli&ent ation and serious rae )or'. The aeptane ofoppression naturali/es the stasisGthe institutional praties of rais!G)hih for(id the

aspirations of the rae (e#ond the soial onfines of their )rethed onditions. B# onseAuene$

the ordered realit# plaed (efore Bla's (eo!es the onl# !aterial aaila(le to reate the illusionof pro&ress and sustain the delusion that the inisi(ilit# of Bla's is the onl# )a# to ensure their

surial and 3is atuall# freedo!.4 "&itationis! insists that the failure of Bla's to reali/e raial



freedo! is diretl# related to )hat the# (eliee is their natural plae and 3possi(ilit#$4 in the

realit# &ien to the! (# )hites. The passie inertia of the Bla' rae$ or )hat Wells-Barnett

desri(es as the rae sittin& still$ is opposed to a&itation.,7 >rotest$ reolt$ and so!eti!esiolene are alled upon to han&e soial order and the raial order of "!erian soiet#:

The reolutionar# intuitions of !an'ind are funda!ental and sleeplessIt is thedisontent$ restlessness$ the sleepless aspiration of hu!anit#$ oied (# so!e

(raer$ so!e !ore far-seein& !e!(er of soiet#$ so!e !an read# to (e a !art#rto his faith or )ear the ro)n of itor#$ )hih 'eep the )orld in a fer!ent of

e%itation and e%petan#$ and )hih fore the adoption of those refor!s )hih

'eep soiet# fro! retro&radin& to the onditions of saa&e life$ fro! )hih it has

slo)l# and painfull# !oed for)ard. There an (e no !iddle &round in soiallife. 0oial &ro)th is the slo)est of all &ro)ths.,,

I+. A ,inder 'ore entler Agitation: Wells-Barnett#s Civili$ational Argu"ent

against white Hu"anity.Follo)in& the reelation spurred (# the !urder of her three Bla' !ale friends in Me!phis$

Wells-Barnett (e&an her assault on 3the rae Auestion4 )ith an atta' on the ustifiations that)hites use for the pratie of l#nhin&$ na!el# the ani!al-it# of the Bla' rae. 3The "fro-

"!erian is not a (estial rae$4 sa#s Wells-Barnett., The "fro-"!erian is a iti! of the !#th

of )rethedness that ustifies in the )hite !ind and )hite soul that )hih is l#nhin&. B#announin& to the )orld that it the )hite )o!an )ho onsents to the se%ual relations )ith the

Bla' !an$ Wells-Barnett (eliees her pa!phlet Southern orrors to (e a defense for the 3"fro-

"!erians 0a!psons )ho suffer the!seles to (e (etra#ed (# )hite Delilahs4 ,6 that e%poses thehar&e of rape as the onotion of )hite )o!en ai!in& to nourish the a!(rosia of )hite

superiorit#. The order presered (# anti-!ise&enation la)s$ or the artifies that ustif# !o( rule

to presere )hite raial purit#$ are atta's a&ainst the soial ia(ilit# of the rae1s !anhood.Wells-Barnett is er# lear that$

the !ise&enation la)s of the 0outh onl# operate a&ainst the le&iti!ate union ofthe raesN the# leae the )hite !an free to sedue all the olored &irls he an$ (ut

it is death to the olored !an )ho #ields to the fore and adanes of a si!ilar

attration in )hite )o!en. White !en l#nh the offendin& "fro-"!erian$ not (eause he is a despoiler of irtue$ (ut (eause he suu!(s to the s!iles of )hite

)o!en.,+

Instead of (ein& an i!passioned assault on the (ar(arit# of the pratie itself$ Wells-Barnett

e%posed the (ar(aris! of )hite !oralit#. 0he is interested not onl# in the destrution of theinstitutions that enfore l#nhin&$ (ut the ruelt#$ the alle&ed iili/ation$ of )hite "!eriansoiet#. "nti-l#nhin& is therefore a philosophial assault on the ia(ilit# of )hite iili/ation$

and the deli(erate refutation of )hites1 lai! to hu!anit# throu&h the e%posin& of )hite

(ar(aris!. In an annotated editorial of a speeh she &ae in *6+@$ Wells-Barnett see!s toapproe the restatin& of her anti-l#nhin& philosoph# in the Bir!in&ha! Dail# ?a/ette.

"ordin& to that editorial:



The "!erian iti/en in the 0outh is at heart !ore a (ar(arian that the ne&ro

)ho! he re&ards as a saa&e. Miss Wells &ae so!e terri(le instanes #esterda#

of )holesale !assares$ a)ful ruelties$ persistent perseutions and udiial!urders in )hih (la's )ere iti!s. #nh la) is fiendishl# resorted to as a

sort of sport on eer# possi(le opportunit#$ and the ne&roes are (uthered to !a'e

a Yan'ee holida#. "t one ti!e han&in& and shootin& )ere the faorite !ethods ofdepriin& ne&ro offenders 5real or supposed of their lies$ (ut the "!erians

hae &ro)n )ear# of this ta!e past ti!e$ and are no) sho)in& a preferene for

refined and lon& ontinued torture suh as !ai!in& and roastin&. Miss Wells sa#sthat the ne&roes annot loo' for ustie.

" si!ilar ie) is e%pressed (# Wells-Barnett in the Re" Recor" . Wells-Barnett is lear that ta'esthe anti-l#nhin& rusade announes to the )orld the (ar(aris! of the )hite rae$ and seres to

re!ind us that$

it is the )hite !an1s iili/ation and the )hite !an1s &oern!ent )hih are on

trial. This rusade )ill deter!ine )hether that iili/ation an !aintain itself (#itself$ or )hether anarh# shall preailN )hether this <ation shall )rite itself do)n

a suess at self &oern!ent$ or in deepest hu!iliation ad!it its failure o!pleteN

)hether the preepts and theories of Christianit# are professed and pratied (#

"!erian )hite people as ?olden Rules of thou&ht and ation$ or adopted as as#ste! of !orals to (e preahed to heathen until the# attain to the intelli&ene

)hih needs the s#ste! of #nh a).*

Wells-Barnett understands that )hite iili/ation uses rae as the strata&e! of order$ and lai!s

l#nhin& to (e that neessar# pratie that de!arates and fores the 3<e&ro4 to sta# in 5his plae in soiet#.

B# e%posin& the !aliious harater of )hite )o!en and their supposed !oral &uardians$ the

threat of iolene used to oere these )hite )o!en to har&e rape a&ainst Bla' !en$ and thefat that the onl# rapist drien (# raial antipath# are the 3!aorit# of the superior )hite !en)ho are the fathers of !ulatto hildren$49 Wells-Barnett ai!ed to sho) that the )hite )o!an

3)as a )illin& partner in the iti!1s &uilt$ and (ein& of the superior rae !ust naturall# (e !ore

&uilt#.4= Wells-Barnett (eliees that these e!pirial fats$ )hile the# do little to transfor!)hites$ are of ital i!portane to the so-alled rae Auestion$ 3)hih should properl# (e

desi&nated an earnest inAuir# as the (est !ethods (# )hih reli&ion$ siene$ la) and politial

po)er !a# (e e!plo#ed to e%use inustie$ (ar(arit# and ri!e done to a people (eause ofrae and olor.4@ Beause the rae Auestion is fra!ed (# the !anipulation of the instru!ents of

3ustie$4 Bla's an onl# )or' outside the entities found in a )hite supre!aist soiet#.

i'e Fortune$ Wells-Barnett (eliees that )hites are t#rannial (# the nature of the

iili/ation the# lai! entitles the! to their alle&ed raial superiorit#. In his *66@ )or'$ &lac,an" 'hite# )an"$ )abor$ an" Politics in the South$ Fortune ar&ues that re&ardless of the

sarifies Bla's hae !ade ne%t to )hites in eer# reolution for freedo! in hope that their

hu!anit# and natural ri&hts )ould (e respeted$

The spirit of inustie$ in(orn in Cauasian nature$ asserted itself in eah instane.0elfishness and &reed rode rou&hshod oer the pro!ptin&s of a &enerous$

hu!ane$ Christian nature$ as the# hae al)a#s done in this ountr#$ not onl# in



the ase of the "frian (ut of the Indian as )ell$ eah of )ho! has in turn felt the

perniious influene of that heartless &reed )hih oerleaps honest# and fair pla#$

in the un!anl# &rasp of perisha(le &ain.7

"ordin& to Fortune$ 3Cauasian hu!an natureGthat hu!an nature )hih seldo! rises a(oe

self interest in (usiness or politis$4

,

plaes the! outside the reah of hu!an o!passion.Wells-Barnett too a'no)led&es that 3the )hite !an1s dollar is his &od$4 (ut (eliees this

reali/ation e!po)ers the Bla' la(orer to or&ani/e for their (enefit a&ainst the 0outh and itsinusties. 3The 0outh o)es its reha(ilitation to <orthern apital and "fro-"!erian la(or$ if

la(or is )ithdra)n$ apital )ill not re!ain.46 Muh li'e the a(olition thesis introdued in the

*+@1s (# C. . R. Ja!es and ;ri Willia!s or Derri' Bell1s interest oner&ene theor# of the

*+61s$+ Wells-Barnett one#s a historial truth a(out )hites )hih has the ut!ost i!portane$na!el# that 3the appeal to the )hite !an1s po'et has eer (een !ore effetual than all appeals

eer !ade to his onsiene. <othin&$ a(solutel#$ nothin&$ is to (e &ained (# further sarifie of

!anhood and self respet.46

In understandin& Wells-Barnett1s ar&u!ents a(out the philosophial anthropolo&# of the

)hite rae$ it (eo!es eas# to see )h# she e!(raes (oth the use of iolene and the 3sha!e4 of

the United 0tates (# Britain to deal )ith the pro(le! of l#nhin&. "t the !ost funda!ental leelof politial atiit#$ Wells-Barnett understood that the i!!oralit# of )hites !eant the# )ould

not (e !oed (# the sufferin& the# o!!itted a&ainst Bla's. The &un as an instru!ent of self-

defense has a speial plae in her politial philosoph#:

a Winhester rifle should hae a plae of honor in eer# (la' ho!e$ and it

should (e used for that protetion )hih the la) refuses to &ie. When the )hite!an )ho is al)a#s the a&&ressor 'no)s he runs as &reat a ris' of (itin& the dust

eer# ti!e his "fro-"!erian iti! does$ he )ill hae &reater respet for "fro-

"!erian life. The !ore the "fro-"!erian #ields and rin&es and (e&s$ the!ore he has to do so$ the !ore he is insulted$ outra&ed and l#nhed.6*

"s in the a&itationist lo&i of Fortune$ there an onl# (e the triu!ph of one side of histor#$ theoppressor or the oppressed. Wells-Barnett understood the irreonila(le defiien# in the

hu!anit# of )hites$ reo&ni/ed the intelletual naiet# of reitin& the e!pt# hu!anist rhetori of

"fro-"!erian personhood. The !ore the "fro-"!erian appealed to the non-e%istent hu!anit#of )hites$ the !ore )hites$ in displa#in& their po)er and the nor!alit# their 5t#rannial po)er

had in the esta(lished order of thin&s$ terrori/ed the "fro-"!erian. It )as onl# )hen )hites had

their lies to lose )ould their 3self-interest4 arrest their propensit# for iolene and l#nhin&. ForWells-Barnett$ self-defense a&ainst )hites )as a for! of politial en&a&e!ent ste!!in& fro!

the philosophial or oneptual anal#sis of the realit# reated (# )hite supre!a#. Insofar as

)hite ustie is terroris! a&ainst those Bla's$ espeiall# Bla' !en$ )ho threaten the !#th of

)hite superiorit#$ eono!iall# or se%uall#$ )hite ustie annot (e 3ust4 )hen enfored in aneffort to oere "fro-"!erian o(ediene to the )hite supre!aist order of thin&s.

Beause rais! in )hite soiet# deter!ines as a !atter of neessit# the superior alue of

)hite life oer all other lies$ Wells-Barnett understood it )as this false ideali/ation of )hitee%istene that !ade the terror of the raist 0outhern order the neessitated ounterpart of Bla'

inferiorit#. It )ould not (e until *+,9 that Ro(ert F. Willia!s )ould artiulate this onnetion$

!ade o(ious (# Wells-Barnett$ )ithin a Bla' iil ri&hts or&ani/ation. "ordin& to Willia!s$



When an oppressed people sho) a )illin&ness to defend the!seles$ the ene!#$

)ho is a !oral )ea'lin& and o)ard is !ore )illin& to &rant onessions and

)or' for a respeta(le o!pro!ise. >s#holo&iall#$ !oreoer$ raists onsiderthe!seles superior (ein&s and the# are not )illin& to e%han&e their superior

lies for our inferior ones. The# are !ost iious and iolent )hen the# an

pratie iolene )ith i!punit#.69

When a soial order enfores a raist hierarh#$ disorder (eo!es a ritial philosophial rupturein the naturali/ed superiorit# of )hite e%istene. "r!ed Bla's$ (eause it is ps#holo&iall#

inoneia(le (# the alle&ed raist superior$ shatters the illusion of )hite o!nipotene$ and it is

this ne) realit# (irthed (# the sheer i!possi(ilit# of the 3ar!ed Bla'$4 in a )hite supre!aist

soiet# that !a'es a&itation not onl# pratial$ (ut philosophiall# and politiall# useful in thestain& off of !urder. B# reorientin& the alulus of )hite !o( iolene$ Wells-Barnett1s

prioriti/ation of the 3alle&ed inferior life4 oer and a(oe the 3presu!ed )hite superior life$4

refutes the reified alulus of )hite iolene. In her all to resist the !o( lo&i of l#nhin&$ shealls for "fro-"!erians to den# the o!nipotene of )hite life. In other )ords$ in allin& for the

e%tin&uishin& of )hite life$ she de!onstrates that the alle&ed raial inferior is in fat apa(le of

'illin& the illusor# superior )hite. But Wells-Barnett1s all for "fro-"!erian self-defense )asonl# one part$ the !ost i!!ediate part of her atiist strate&#. While self-defense )ould arrest

assault (# l#nhers$ (# itself it )ould not itiate the ultural and iili/ational !otif of )hite

supre!a# that ustified l#nhin&. To do this$ Wells-Barnett )ould ai! to 3sha!e4 and displa#

as inferior the (rutish iili/ation of )hite "!eria to the )orld.In those (rief !o!ents of her anti-l#nhin& rusade1s suess$ Wells-Barnett )as not s)a#ed

(# the illusion of han&e in )hites1 hearts and !inds. It is preisel# (eause of the resistane that

)hites had in hearin& and listenin& to the 3r# of !en$ )o!en and hildren )hose d#in& &roansasended to heaen pra#in& for relief$ not onl# for the! (ut for others )ho !i&ht soon (e treated

as the#$46= that Wells-Barnett held that ultural andHor iili/in& han&e !ust o!e fro! those

other than the oieless iti!s of )hite supre!a#. 0he refletiel# states that:

0ine the rusade a&ainst l#nhin& )as started$ &oernors of states$ ne)spapers$

senators and representaties and (ishops of hurhes hae all (een o!pelled tota'e o&ni/ane of the prealene of this ri!e and to spea' in one )a# or

another in the defense of the har&e a&ainst this (ar(aris! in the United 0tates.

This has not (een (eause there )as an# latent spirit of ustie$ oluntaril#assertin& itself$ espeiall# in those )ho do the l#nhin&$ (ut (eause the entire

"!erian people no) feel$ (oth <orth and 0outh$ that the# are o(ets in the &a/e

of the iili/ed )orld and that for eer# l#nhin& hu!anit# as's that "!eriarender its aount to iili/ation and itself.6@

This pessi!isti ie) of )hites1 apait# for !oral han&e is a 'e# aspet to Wells-Barnett1sthin'in& a(out rae and rais!. "&ain ehoin& Fortune1s afore!entioned stane$ Wells-Barnett1s

position on raial transfor!ation is a(out the threats the "fro-"!erian poses to )hite eono!i

interests. Despite the erait# of these )ords )ritten (# Wells-Barnett herself$ so!eonte!porar# sholars find this position untena(le &ien her traels to Britain in *6+@. One

!i&ht as' 3)h# did she &o to ;n&land if she (elieed that )hites ould not han&e4 The ans)er

is Auite si!ple$ and a&ain de!onstrates the onsisten# and depth of Wells-Barnett1s thin'in&a(out the apait# of )hites to (e !orall# persuaded on this !atter.



In the "pril 9@th$ *6+@ edition of the 6aily %nter 8cean ne)spaper$ Wells-Barnett (e&an

)hat )ould (eo!e one of !an# editorials a(out the s#!path# ;n&land shared )ith the ause of

the "frian rae. What is partiularl# interestin& a(out this editorial is that Wells-Barnett affordslittle ti!e to the desriptions of the people hostin& her and supportin& her anti-l#nhin&

a!pai&n$ (ut ta'es &reat effort to desri(e the o!!erial and eono!i interests held (# the

(usinesses of ierpool and Manhester. <otin& that ierpool has 3fe) !anufaturin&interests$ K)hoseL i!portane is deried fro! her situation as a seaport$4 67 )hile Manhester is

an 3enor!ous !anufaturin& enter$46, dependent on otton$ Wells-Barnett o(sered that the

feelin& onde!nin& "!erian l#nhin& 3)hih deeloped in ierpool durin& the "!erianiil )ar )as shared in lar&e !easure and for the sa!e reasons 5the inur# to the otton trade (#

the people of Manhester.46 What Wells-Barnett sa) in Britain )as a disposition alread#

for!ed a&ainst l#nhin& ste!!in& fro! Britain1s a(olition of slaer# in the earl# *+th entur#.

i'e a &ood a&itationist soiolo&ist$ she (elieed her tour in Britain ould !otiate the ;n&lish tosantion and onde!n the ations of "!eria and e%pose the horrors of l#nhin& the United

0tates ontinued to den# internationall#.66 Wells-Barnett sa) the reeptiit# of Britain to (e

lin'ed )ith their eono!i sta'e in !aintainin& trade and i!perial presti&e$ not so!e unreAuited

!oral o!passion for the <e&ro1s hu!anit#. Follo)in& the a&itationist lo&i of Fortune$ Wells-Barnett$ did not pursue the failed strate&# of !oral suasion$ (ut hoose to utili/e strata&e!s

)hih appealed to the eono!i and i!perial &ains of Britain. B# appealin& to Britain1s interestin (ein& the )orld superpo)er$ Wells-Barnett )as a(le to effetiel# ondut her assault a&ainst

the United 0tates1 i!a&e and ne&ate its lai! to a superior &oern!ent and de!ora#. 6+ Despite

her reali/ation of the eono!i sta'e Britain historiall# held in endin& slaer#$ Britain1sreeptiit# to her pli&ht ould (e used a&ainst )hite "!erians as proof of Britain1s !oral and

iili/ational superiorit# and )hite "!eria1s la)lessness.+ This 3a&itationist4 thin'in& that

aepts the 3de!onstra(le nature4 of i!perial &oern!ents as the (asis of anti-raist soial

atiis! !a'es the politial a philosophiall# en&a&ed outo!e of ritial o(seration. B#loo'in& to the e!pirial$ Wells-Barnett1s atiis! aptures the philosophiall# intri&uin&

purie) of raist nations that are e!ented (# their histor# and refleted (# their iili/ation.

+. Agitation and !olitical (heory/A Concluding *enti"ent Readin& Wells-Barnett1s deplo#!ent of Fortune1s a&itationist philosoph# e%pands the theoretialand historial i!a&ination of the "!erian philosophial proet. Beause these oies and

)or's re!ain se&re&ated and institutionall# e%luded fro! the literature that onstitute the

philosophial and theoretial disourse of our ti!e$ Fortune1s and Wells-Barnett1s thin'in& a(out

the rise of the "!erian e!pire is predeter!ined to (e historial and ournalisti (# the do!inate)hite philosophial enterprise. Readin& Wells-Barnett1s soial atiis! as the produt of (oth

her or&ani/ational !e!(ership in the "fro-"!erian ea&ue and her stud# of Fortune1s )or'

offers politial theorists aess to a turn of the entur# soial theor# that sou&ht to en&a&e"!eria in its d#na!is! and ener&i/e oppressed populations (e#ond an idealist hope in the

hu!anit# of )hites and the eentuation of inte&rationis!.

The realit# that ontinues to onfront "frian desended people in "!eria alls for aonstrutie politial theor# that !eets the present da# hallen&es and the eolution of rais!$

neo-olonialis!$ and the ethos of )hite supre!a# nor!ali/ed as li(eralis! and raial

i!partialit#. Unli'e preious )or's that alue Wells-Barnett purel# for her status as a pra&!atistor fe!inist$ her )or' de!onstrates a politial sensi(ilit# that theori/es a&itation in the onte%t of

unadulterated raial (rutalit# that supersedes our do!inant politial ate&ori/ations. 0he is and



reeals herself to (e for the rae$ not the ate&or# of rae or identit#$ (ut for the sa!e people that

hae re!ained oppressed$ disheartened and onfused to this er# da#. In Wells-Barnett1s

philosoph#$ )e hae !ore than an ion onstrained (# our !undane aade!i interests$ (ut afi&ure )ho anal#/es the strutural and iili/ation-al ontolo&# of )hite ustie. This radialit#$

)hih Auestions our earnest and our presu!ed honest# in (eliein& and supportin& the do&!as

of inte&rationis! in our sholarship$ should (e the ornerstone of our deelopin& politialthou&ht.

To!!# J. Curr#$ "ssoiate >rof. of >hilosoph#$ Te%as "M Uniersit#T-urr#Pphilosoph#.ta!u.edu

<OT;0



* For a disussion of this pheno!enon in "!erian philosoph#$ see To!!# J. Curr#$ 3Conernin& the

Under-speiali/ation of Rae Theor# in "!erian >hilosoph#: "n ;ssa# Outlinin& I&nored

Bi(lio&raphi 0oures "ddressin& the "fore!entioned >ro(le!$4 The Pluralist 7$ no. * 59*: @@-,@.

This tenden# of e%ludin& Bla' thin'ers in "!erian philosoph# an (e readil# seen in the reentattention to Josiah Ro#e1s all for 0outherners to stop l#nhin& Bla's$ sine the# )ould (e (etter

ontrolled (# British st#le olonial ad!inistration$ see To!!# J. Curr#$ 3Ro#e$ Rais! and the

Colonial Ideal: White 0upre!a# and the Illusion of Ciili/ation in Josiah Ro#e1s "ount of theWhite Man1s Burden$4 The Pluralist @$ <o.= 59+:*-=6.

While I hae found no onte!porar# referenes to the anti-l#nhin& a!pai&n of Wells-Barnett$ or

John ;. Brue1s The &loo" Re" Recor" 5"l(an#: The "r&us Co!pan#$ *+* in "!erian philosoph# ournals$ there has (een notiea(le attention to Ro#e1s rhetorial onde!nation of l#nhin& in the

)or's of )hite sholars li'e JaAuel#n e&le# and ;li/a(eth DuAuette.9 0ee Charlotte D. Fit/&erald$ 3The 0tor# of M# ife and Wor': Boo'er T. Washin&ton1s Other"uto(io&raph#$4 The &lac, Scholar .9*.@ 59*: =7-@.=0ee 0eth Mo&len$ 3Introdution$4 in &lac, an" 'hite# )an"$ )abor$ an" Politics in the South 5<e)

Yor': Washin&ton 0Auare >ress$ 9$ -%%i%.@ >aula ?iddin&s$ %"a# A S!or" Among )ions$ %"a &. 'ells an" the Campaign against )ynching 5<e)Yor': 2arper Collins >u(lishers$ 96.7 Mia Ba#$ To Tell the Truth Freely# The )ife of %"a &. 'ells 5<e) Yor': 2ill and Wan&$ 9+., JaAueline J. Ro#ster$ 3To Call a Thin& (# Its True <a!e: The Rhetori of Ida B. Wells$4 in Reclaiming Rhethorica# 'omen in the Rhetorical Tra"ition$ ed. "ndrea ". unsford 5>itts(ur&h:

Uniersit# of >itts(ur&h$ *++7$ *,-*6@$ *,6. Claudia D. <elson$ 3The Men the Influened Ida B. Wells-Barnett: Ji! Wells$ T.Tho!as Fortune$ andFrederi' Dou&lass$4 Ma,ing Connections# A 7ournal for Teachers of Cultural 6iversity .* no.*-9

59,: 97-@@.6 ?ail Beder!an$ 3ECiili/ation$1 the Deline of Middle-Class Manliness$ and Ida B. Wells1s "nti-

#nhin& 5*6+9-*6+@$ Ra"ical istory Revie! 79.7 5*++9: 7-=. This hapter )as also reised as theseond hapter in Beder!an1s *++7 (oo'$ Manliness an" Civili9ation# A Cultural istory of -en"er

an" Race in the Unite" States 0112(030: 5Chia&o: Uniersit# of Chia&o >ress$ *++7. In that )or'

the hapter )as titled$ 3The White Man1s Ciili/ation on Trial: Ida B. Wells$ Representations of#nhin& and <orthern Middle Class Manhood.4 In (oth )or's$ Beder!an hi&hli&hts the o!ple%it#

of the raeH&ender ne%us and ar&ues that ust as )e assu!e fe!ininit# isH)as onstruted throu&hout

histor#$ so too )as )hite !asulinit#. These se%ual ideals )ere the (asis of &ender roles and )ereinti!atel# onneted )ith "n&lo-0a%on lai! to iili/ation$ and (# effet the denial of iili/ation to

"frians and Indi&enous peoples the )orld oer. Fro! this perspetie$ onte!porar# &ender disourse

assu!es ate&orial opposition )hereas past &ender roles depended on its o!pli!entar# funtion)ithin raial and iili/in& siene.+ Ti!oth# Tho!as Fortune has lon& appeared in the annals of Bla' "!erian philosophial thou&ht.

While the authoritatie te%t on his life and )or' (# ;!!a ou Thorn(rou&h$ T. Thomas Fortune#

Militant 7ournalist $ )as )ritten in *+9$ reentl# 0ha)n . "le%ander has repu(lished his )ritin&s inThe Afro(American Agitator# A Collection of 'ritings$ 0112(03;2$ and !ar'ed hi! and his soial

politial or&ani/ation$ the "fro-"!erian ea&ue$ as the predeessor of the <""C>. For !ore on the

i!portane of the "fro-"!erian ea&ue$ see ;!!a ou Thorn(rou&h$ 3The "fro-"!erian ea&ue*66-*+6$4 7ournal of Southern istory 9.@ 5*+,*: @+@-7*9$ and 0ha)n . "le%ander$ 3The "fro-

"!erian Counil and its Challen&e to ouisiana1s ?randfather Clause$4 in Ra"icalism in the South

Since Reconstruction$ ed5s. Chris ?reen$ Rahel Ru(in$ Ja!es 0!ethurst 5<e) Yor': >al&raeMaMillan$ 9,$ *=-=,.

"dditionall#$ Fortune has reentl# (een en&a&ed for its radial ritiAues of "!erian li(eralis! (#

le&al theorists. 0ee 0usan D. Carle$ 3De(un'in& the M#th of Ciil Ri&hts i(eralis!: isions of Raial



Justie in the Thou&ht of T.Tho!as Fortune$ *66-*6+$4 For"ham )a! Revie! 59+: *@+-*7==.* 0ee Ida B. Wells$ 3Thursda#$ Marh **$4 in The Memphis 6iary of %"a &. 'ells# An %ntimate

Portrait of the Activist as a +oung 'oman$ ed. Mira! Deosta-Willis 5Boston: Beaon >ress$ *++7$

7*-7=$ 79. Wells first sa) T.Tho!as Fortune fro! a piture in his ne)spaper the <e) Yor' Free!an."ordin& to Wells$ 32is piture adorned the paper last )ee'. M# uriosit# is satisfied (ut I a!

disappointed in hi!. With his lon& hair$ urlin& a(out his forehead and his spetales he loo's !ore

li'e the dude of the period than the stron&$ sensi(le$ (rain# !an I hae pitured hi!. But then$ as I toldCharlie Morris$ one should not ud&e a person (# the ut or rather unut of his hair an# !ore than (#

his lothes4 579.** 0ee ;!!a ou Thorn(rou&h$ T.Thomas Fortune# Militant 7ournalist 5Chia&o: Uniersit# ofChia&o >ress$ *+9$ +@.*9 0ee Ida B. Wells$ 3Thursda#$ Januar# 9*$4 in The Memphis 6iary of %"a &. 'ells.*= ?iddin&s$ %"a# A S!or" Among )ions$ *9@.*@ T.Tho!as Fortune$ 3Ciil Ri&hts and 0oial >riile&es$4 in T.Thomas Fortune# The Afro(American Agitator$ A Collection of 'ritings from 0112(03;1$ ed. 0ha)n ei&h "le%ander 5?ainesille:

Uniersit# >ress of Florida$ 96$ **+-*=*$ **+.*7 Ida B. Wells$ Crusa"e for 7ustice# The Autobiography of %"a &. 'ells $ ed. "lfreda M. Duster5Chia&o: Uniersit# of Chia&o >ress$ *+$ ,=.*, Maurie 2a!in&ton$ 3>u(li >ra&!atis!: Jane "dda!s and Ida B. Wells on #nhin&$4 7ournal of

Speculative Philosophy *+.9 597: *,-*@.* 0ee Chs. *-9 in 0ha)n . "le%ander$ An Army of )ions# The Civil Rights Struggle &efore the

*AACP 5>hiladelphia: Uniersit# of >enns#lania >ress$ 9*9.*6 >atriia ". 0hehter$ %"a &. 'ells(&arnett an" American Reform 0112(0342 5Chapel 2ill: TheUniersit# of <orth Carolina >ress$ 9*.*+ I(id.$ =.9 I(id.$ =.9* 0hehter$ %"a &. 'ells &arnett an" American Reform$ [email protected] I(id.$ =7.9= ?a#raud 0. Wil!ore$ &lac, Religion an" &lac, Ra"icalism# An %nterpretation of the Religious

istory of Afro(American People 5<e) Yor': Or(is Boo's$ *++. I find it interestin& that >atriia ".0hehter1s (oo' does not ite this )or' despite her historial lai!s a(out Bla' reli&ion and its

resistane to )hite supre!a#. While her (i(lio&raph# does su&&est she is fa!iliar )ith ?a#raud 0.

Wil!ore$ sine she ites his *+6+ antholo&#$ Afro(American Religious Stu"ies# An %nter"isciplinary Anthology 5Durha!: Du'e Uniersit# >ress$ she re!ains unfa!iliar )ith the entral pre!ise of

Wil!ore1s )or'. i'e 0hehter1s ar&u!ent onernin& Wells$ Wil!ore ar&ues: 3What )e !a# all

3)hite Christianit#4 in ;urope and <orth "!eria has !ade a deep and lastin& i!pression upon (la'eer#)here$ inludin& "fria. But (la's hae used Christianit# not so !uh as it )as deliered to

the! (# raist )hite hurhes$ (ut as its truth )as authentiated to the! in the e%periene of sufferin&

and stru&&le$ to reinfore an enulturated reli&ious orientation and to produe an indi&enous faith that

e!phasi/ed di&nit#$ freedo! and hu!an )elfare4 [email protected]@ The pri!ar# and seondar# literature on these fi&ures is enor!ous. For so!e e%a!ples of these

Bla' !en1s ie)s on the eduation and uplift of Bla' )o!en$ see Ta(iti "su'ile$ 3"rthuro "lfonso

0ho!(ur&: ;!(rain& the Bla' Motherhood ;%periene in oe of Bla' >eople$4 Afro(Americansin *e! +or, )ife an" istory 59,: ,+-+$ and Tola&(e O&unle#e$ 3Dr. Martin R. Delan#$ *+th

Centur# "friana Wo!anists: Refletions on 2is "ant ?arde >olitis Conernin& ?ender$ Coloris!

and <ation Buildin&$4 7ournal of &lac, Stu"ies .96.7 5*++6:,96-,@+.97 0hehter$ %"a &. 'ells &arnett an" American Reform$ =6.9, Mrs. <. F. Mossell$ The 'or, of the Afro(American 'oman 5>hiladelphia: ?eo. 0. Fer&uson$ *+6$

7.



9 I(id.$ *.96 I(id.$ =9.9+ Doroth# 0terlin&$ 5ed.$ 3etter to M.". Maor fro! Frederi' Dou&lass$4 in 'e Are +our Sisters#

&lac, 'omen in the *ineteenth Century 5<e) Yor': W.W. <orton and Co!pan#$ *++$ @=,.= Mossell$ The 'or, of the Afro(American 'oman$ =.=* 0terlin&$ 'e Are +our Sisters$ @=,. The full te%t of the letter fro! Dou&lass to Maor reads:

We hae !an# esti!a(le )o!en of our ariet# (ut not !an# fa!ous ones. It is not )ell

to lai! too !uh for ourseles (efore the pu(li. 0uh e%traa&ane inites onte!ptrather than approal. I hae thus far seen no (oo' of i!portane )ritten (# a <e&ro

)o!an and I 'no) of no one a!on& us )ho an appropriatel# (e alled fa!ous.

This is in no )a# a dispara&e!ent of the )o!en of our rae. We stand too near a

for!er ondition to hae an# fa!ous )or' in siene$ art$ or literature$ e%peted of us. It

is not )ell to ship the paddle )heels (efore )e hae the stea! to !oe the!. You )illtherefore pardon !e if I don1t fit it onsistent to enlar&e the list of fa!ous ne&ro )o!en.

Man# of the na!es #ou hae are those of ad!ira(le persons$ ultiated$ refined$ and

lad#li'e. But it does not follo) that the# are fa!ous. et us (e true and use lan&ua&e

truthfull#.

=9 0hehter$ %"a &. 'ells &arnett an" American Reform$ *=-*@.== I(id.=@ I(id.$ *@.=7 For a disussion of episte!i oner&ene$ see To!!# J. Curr#$ 3The Derelitial Crisis of "frian"!erian >hilosoph#: 2o) "frian "!erian >hilosoph# Fails to Contri(ute to the 0tud# of "frian

Desended >eople.4 7ournal of &lac, Stu"ies @9.= 59**: =*@-===.=, For eidene of Dou&lass1s support and introdution of Wells-Barnett to her British audiene see theorrespondene (et)een Wells-Barnett and Frederi' Dou&lass fro! Marh *6$ *6+@ to Ma# 99$ *6+@

in %"a From Abroa" 5Chia&o: Bena!in Willia!s >u(lishin&$ 9*: +-*9@. 0ee The istorical

Recor"s of Conventions of 013<(013= of the Colore" 'omen of America 5Boston: *+9$ )here the*6+7 onention states as 3resoled$ that )e$ the representatie )o!en of our rae in the United 0tates$hae )itnessed )ith &reat ad!iration the no(le and truthful adoa# of Mrs. Ida B. Wells Barnett$

defendin& us a&ainst the l#in& har&e of rape$ and )e ta'e this opportunit# of on&ratulatin& her upon

her !arria&e$ and are &lad to hail her$ in the fae of her assailants$ as our no(le EJoanna of "r145**-*9. It is releant to note that throu&hout this report oer *6+7-*6+, there are resolutions

a'no)led&in& the )or' of Frederi' Dou&lass$ Boo'er T. Washin&ton$ ell# Miller and T.Tho!as

Fortune$ sine seeral of the reports not onl# report the loal "fro-"!erian ea&ue atiities$ (utadopt Fortune1s ter! 3"fro-"!erian$4 as a raial desi&nation.= T.Tho!as Fortune$ 3Ciil Ri&hts and 0oial >riile&es$4 **+.=6 I(id.$ *9.=+

I(id.$ *9.@ I(id.$ *97.@* I(id.$ *97-*9,.@9 I(id.$ *97.@= Ida B. Wells$ 3The #nher Wines$4 *e! +or, Age$ 0epte!(er *+$ *6+*.@@ I(id.$ *9@.@7 I(id.$ **+.@, ;ditorial$ 3<eer "llo)ed to (e Dear$4 The Chicago Times$ 0epte!(er =$ *6+=.@ Ida B. Wells$ Crusa"e for 7ustice$ ,@.



@6 I(id.@+ W.;.B. DuBois$ 3The <""C>$4 in The Autobiography of './.&. 6u&ois# A Solilo>uy on 5ie!ing

My )ife from the )ast 6eca"e of %ts First Century 5<e) Yor': International >u(lishers$ *++.7 2arold Cruse$ Plural but />ual# A Critical Stu"y of &lac,s an" Minorities an" American PluralSociety ?*e! +or,# 'illiam Morro!$ *+6$ 6.7* I(id.$ *79

I(id.7= It is of the ut!ost i!port to see Bla' or&ani/ations as shools of thou&ht that dediated their

researh$ inAuir#$ and sholarship to)ards speifi !ethods for inesti&atin& and resolin& the rae

Auestion. Or&ani/ations li'e the "fro-"!erian ea&ue$ the "!erian <e&ro "ade!#$ theInternational Con&ress for Wo!en of the Dar'er Raes$ and the <ational "ssoiation of Colored

Wo!en are (ut a fe) of the or&ani/ations that I (eliee desere further attention in understandin& their

politial$ soial$ and philosophial o!!it!ents in their approah to the stud# of the rae pro(le!. For!an# Bla' philosophers$ intelletual histor# has failed to (e of entral onern$ sine the releane of

Bla' politial refletions hae (een seen as alua(le (# the e%tent to )hih the# oner&e and

reaffir! the pre-e%istin& theoretial traditions alued as 3real philosoph#.4 The e%ploration of Bla'

intelletual histor#$ )hat I hae anal#/ed as the onstrutie proet of conceptual geneaology$ isneessar# to test the aura# of not onl# ho) )e interpret historial Bla' fi&ures$ (ut also ho) )e

&au&e the distane Bla' thou&ht has to ;uroentri and foundationall# raist theories li'e idealis!$

pra&!atis!$ and fe!inis! that arose at the turn of the entur#. Understandin& the politialor&ani/ations and politial atiis! founded on the theories of these histori Bla' thin'ers as 3shools

of thou&ht$4 is entral to the philosophial e%erise of !inin& throu&h the thou&ht$ the histor#$ and the

atiit# of Bla' thin'in&. What these thin'ers actually adoated$ actually thou&ht$ and actually (elieed$ should (e the riteria that plaes the! )ithin ertain traditions. Their assoiation )ith )hite

philosophers is not that !easure.7@ DuBois$ The Autobiography of './.&. 6u &ois$ 97@. There has (een so!e ontroers# surroundin&

this eent in the literature and aade!i disourse surroundin& the e%lusion of Wells-Barnett1s na!efro! the <ational <e&ro Co!!ittee1s 3ist of Fort#.4 The <ational <e&ro Co!!ittee 5)hat )ould

eentuall# (e 'no)n as the <ational "ssoiation for the "dane!ent of Colored >eople )as a (i-

raial effort ontrolled pri!aril# (# )hite philanthropist Os)ald ?arrison illard. The de(ate aroundWells-Barnett1s e%lusion has pri!aril# (een )a&ed (# Bla' fe!inists ar&uin& that this is an e%a!ple

of Du Bois1s !asulinist politis. The eidene of this interpretation is the entr# in Ida B. Wells-

Barnett1s auto(io&raph# entitled Crusa"e for 7ustice )here she ar&ues that it )as 3the deli(erateintention of Dr. Du Bois to i&nore !e and !# )or'4 5=9,. What is interestin& a(out this har&e

ho)eer is that Du Bois sa) hi!self )or'in& a&ainst illard1s a&enda of de-radiali/in& the

or&ani/ations Bla' onstituen#$ so!eone )ho Wells-Barnett see!s to trust and appeals to forre!ed#. "dditionall#$ Mia Ba# has !ade lear that it )as not Du Bois$ (ut illard )ho left off Wells-

Barnett1s na!e as she )as a detrator of Boo'er T. Washin&ton. For !ore on this issue$ see Mia Ba#$

To Tell the Truth Freely# The )ife of %"a &. 'ells 59+$ 9*.77 Iola$ 3The ea&ue is a eer$4 6etroit Plain6ealer .9 5Ot *6$ *66+. >aula ?iddin&s also has ane%ellent historial aount of this all in %"a# A S!or" Among )ions$ *7+-*,. It is also i!portant to

distin&uish the !ission and sope of the "fro-"!erian ea&ue. Fro! its ineption$ it )as thou&ht to

(e a lea&ue of the "fro-"!erian people that represented all the ideolo&ial$ lass$ and differin&onerns raised (# !anhood and )o!anhood )ithin the rae. Boo'er T. Washin&ton in a repl# to the

all for opinions on Fortune1s <ational ea&ue in the 6etroit Plain6ealer entitled 3<ot the Mountain

>ea's$4 ur&ed this fous. 2e ar&ued$

"n or&ani/ation of the 'ind I a! sure an (e !ade to sere a &ood end of if it an in

so!e )a# (e !ade to reah and interest the !asses of olored people. Most of our



onferenes$ onentions$ et. heretofore hae reahed onl# the 3!ountain tops$4

leain& 3the &reat "lpine ran&e of hu!anit# and atiit# (elo)4 5 6etroit Plain6ealer.9= KOt 97$ *66+L.

" deade later in *6++$ DuBois o!pared in 3T)o <e&ro Conentions$4 t)o Bla' politial

or&ani/ation !eetin& in Chia&o$ Illinois at the sa!e ti!eN the <ational "ssoiation for Colored

Wo!en 5<"CW and the inau&ural !eetin& that resulted fro! a all to re-esta(lish the "fro-"!erianea&ue as the "fro-"!erian Counil. The <"CW !eetin& that foused on the neessit# of )or'

a!on& hildren &arnered !uh attention. DuBois said of that !eetin&$ 3undou(tedl#$ the )o!en

asse!(led at Chia&o )ere rather a(oe the aera&e of the rae$ and represented the aristora# a!on&

the <e&roes. ConseAuentl#$ there eident intelli&ene and air of &ood-(reedin& sered also to i!pressthe onloo'ers4 5in 'ritings by 6u&ois in Perio"icals e"ite" by 8thers$ 0130(0323 $ ed. 2er(ert

"pthe'er K<e) Yor': raus-Tho!son Or&ani/ation i!ited$ *+69L$ ,-,=$ ,*. When o!parin& the

!eetin& of the "fro-"!erian Counil$ DuBois o!!ented that 3its sope and ai!s are far )ider$ andin its attendane it )as !ore faithfull# representatie of the ran' and file of the "!erian <e&roes4

5I(id.$ ,9. What is astl# interestin& a(out the "fro-"!erian ea&ueHCounil )as its o!!it!ent to

the intelletual$ philosophial and lass diersit# of its a&enda a deade after its dissolution and

reonstitution.7, I(id.7 I(id.76 T.Tho!as Fortune$ 3"fro-"!erian ea&ue Conention 0peeh$4 in T.Thomas Fortune# The Afro( American Agitator $ *=7.7+ T.Tho!as Fortune$ 3The irtue of "&itation$4 in T.Thomas Fortune# The Afro(American Agitator $

**7., I(id.,* I(id.$ **,.,9 T.Tho!as Fortune$4"fro-"!erian ea&ue Conention 0peeh$4 *=,.,= I(id.$ *=.,@ I(id.$ *=6.,7 Ida B. Wells$ 3The Rei&n of Mo( a)$4 *e! +or, Age$ Fe(ruar# *6$ *6+=.,, I(id.$ *=+., Ida B. Wells$ Southern orrors an" 8ther 'ritings# The Anti()ynching Campaign of %"a &. 'ells$

013;(0322$ ed. JaAueline Jones Ro#ster 5Boston: Bedford$ *++$ 7.,6 I(id.$ 7=.,+ I(id.$ 7=-7@. Wells-Barnett states 3the Bir!in&ha! Kille&i(leL &ae olu!ns and reports of our !eetin&s$ and

splendid editorials.4 ;ditorial$ &irmingham 6aily -a9ette$ Ma# *6$ *6+@.* I(id.$ *77.9 I(id.$ 7.= I(id.@ I(id.7T.Tho!as Fortune$ &lac, an" !hite# )an"$ )abor$ an" Politics in the South 5<e) Yor': Washin&ton

0Auare >ress$ 9$ 9., I(id.$ 6. Ida B. Wells-Barnett$ Southern orrors an" 8ther 'ritings$ ,6.6 I(id.+ There are !an# te%ts that ar&ue that )hite !oralit# and the ideals of hu!anis! )ere not the!otiatin& fators (ehind raial han&e in the United 0tates or the )orld oer. For a disussion of the



eono!i interests that !otiated )hites to end slaer#$ see C..R. Ja!es$ The &lac, 7acobins#

Toussaint )’8verture an" the San 6omingo Revolution 5<e) Yor': Dial >ress$ *+=6 and ;ri

Willia!s$ Capitalism an" Slavery 5Chapel 2ill: The Uniersit# of <orth Carolina >ress$ *++@. For a

disussion of these eono!i interests durin& the Ciil Ri&hts Moe!ent$ see Derri' Bell$ An" 'e Are *ot Save"# The /lusive @uest for Racial 7ustice 5<e) Yor': Basi Boo's$ *+6 and Derri' Bell$

3Raial Re!ediation: "n 2istorial >erspetie on Current Conditions$4 *otre 6ame )a!yer 79

5*+,H: 7-9+.6 I(id.$ ,+.6* I(id.$ .69 Ro(ert F. Willia!s$ *egroes !ith -uns 5<e) Yor': Mar/ani and Munsell >u(lishers$ *+,9$ @.6= I(id.$ *=*.6@ I(id.$ *==.67 Ida. B. Wells$ %"a From Abroa"# The Timeless 'ritings of %"a &. 'ells from /nglan" in 013 $ ed.Mihelle Duster$ 5Chia&o: Bena!in Willia!s >u(lishin&$ 9*$ =*.6, I(id.6 I(id.$ [email protected] 0ee Wells-Barnett1s Jul# th$ *6+@ repl# to the ontroers# oer the Me!phis 6aily Commercial $)here the ne)spaper alled her a 3ne&ro adenturess$4 in %"a Abroa" $ 6@-+,. Beause 3"!erians

hae al)a#s (oasted of their free ountr#$ )here there is no lass distintion$4 Wells-Barnett (elieed

her e%posure of "!eria1s l#nhin& )ould refute this lai!. 0he sa#s$ 3this rusade is reolutioni/in&entirel# the standards (# )hih "!erian leaders$ !oral and philanthropi are (ein& ud&ed and !an#

of the! )ill (e alled on to proe their professions (# their )or' a&ainst )ron& and outra&e upon the

ne&ro4 5+,.6+ There is also a seondar# support for !# interpretation of Wells-Barnett1s )or' in ?reat BritainN see

Tro# Duster$ 3T)o Weapons in One 2and$4 in %"a From Abroa"# The Timeless 'ritings of %"a &.

'ells from /nglan" in 013$ ed. Mihelle Duster 5Chia&o: Bena!in Willia!s >u(lishin&$ 9*$ *-.+ 3The pulpit and press in our o)n ountr# re!ain silentthe oie of !# rae$ thus tortured andoutra&ed$ )hereer lifted in "!eria in a de!and for ustie is stifled or i&nored. It is to the reli&ious

and !oral senti!ent of ?reat Britain )e turn. The# an arouse the pu(li senti!ent of "!eria so

neessar# for the enfore!ent of la)The# anpra#$ and )rite and preah and tal' and at a&ainstiil and indiidual slaer#N a&ainst the han&in&$ shootin&$ and (urnin& alie of a po)erless rae.

"!eria annot and )ill not i&nore the oie of a nation that is her superior in iili/ation )hih

!a'es this de!and in the na!e of ustie and hu!anit#4 5Ida B. Wells$ 3#nh a) in the U.0$4Bir!in&ha! Dail# >ost$ Ma# *@$ *6+@.

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