(b) Potassium-40 is a radioactive isotope present in food, such as bananas.

The following equation shows how potassium-40 will decay into calcium-40

Give one similarity and one difference between nuclei of potassium-40 and calcium-40

Similarity ........................................................................................................

Difference .......................................................................................................

(c) The activity of a sample of potassium-40 is measured 3 times.

The measurements are given below.

Which of the following statements explains why the readings are different?

Tick one box.

4906 Bq 4956 Bq 4889 Bq

Radioactive decay is constant.

Radioactive decay is hazardous.

Radioactive decay is random.

M1.(a) The nucleus will emit a neutron. 1

(b) Similarity

same mass number

allow same number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) 1

difference

different atomic number

allow different number of protons 1

(c) Radioactive decay is random. 1

(d) The figure below shows how the activity of a sample of potassium-40 changes over time.

Use the figure above to determine the half-life of potassium-40.

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

Half-life = ....................................... billion years (2)

(e) When food is eaten, some of the radiation the food emits is detectable outside the body.

Which type of radiation would not be detectable outside the body?

Tick one box.

(1)

alpha

beta

gamma

(d) 1.3 (billion years)

allow 1.2-1.4 (billion years) 2

allow 1 mark for horizontal line drawn from ~ 550

(e) alpha 1

Q2.The figure below is a diagram of an alpha particle and a helium atom.

(a) What is the approximate size of a helium atom?

Tick one box.

1 × 10–5 m

1 × 10–10 m

1 × 10–15 m

1 × 10–20 m

(b) A helium atom is much

larger than an alpha particle.

Give one other difference be-

tween a helium atom and an

alpha particle.

(e) Helium is a gas that occurs naturally.

There is very little helium on Earth.

Helium has important uses in medicine and is also used to inflate party balloons.

Some scientists believe that helium should not be used to inflate party balloons.

Why?

M2.(a) 1 × 10-10 m 1

(b) (a helium atom) has 2 electrons

accept it has more mass

allow it is not charged 1

(e) helium will one day run out 1

there will be none left for medical uses so balloons waste helium 1

Q3.This question is about radioactive decay.

(a) Figure 1 shows a nuclear equation for the decay of an atom of uranium.

Figure 1

Use information from Figure 1 to complete the table below.

(3)

U Th

Mass number 235

Number of protons 90

Number of neutrons 143

(b) Figure 2 shows how the count rate from a radioactive isotope changes with time.

Figure 2

What is the half-life of the radioactive isotope?

Explain why you chose that value.

Half-life = ................................. hours

Explanation ....................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................ (2)

M3.(a) (mass number) 231 1

(protons) 92 1

(neutrons) 141 1

(b) 2 / two (hours) 1

(because) count rate halves in that time 1

(b) The names of three types of radiation are given in the box.

Complete each sentence by choosing the correct type of radiation from those given in the box. Each type of radiation should be used once or not at all.

(i) The type of radiation that travels at the speed of light is ........................... (1)

(ii) The type of radiation that is stopped by thick paper is .............................. (1)

alpha (α) beta (β) gamma (γ)

(b) A worker in a nuclear power station wears a special badge (diagram 1). Diagram 2 shows what is inside the badge. When the film inside the badge is developed, it will be dark in the places where it has absorbed radiation.

Diagram 1 Diagram 2

Which part of the film, X, Y or Z, would darken if the worker had received a dose of alpha radia-tion?

(b) (i) gamma

accept correct symbol 1

(ii) alpha

accept correct symbol 1

(b) Z

if Z is not given, the reason does not score 1

alpha will not pass through aluminium or lead

accept alpha cannot go through metals / dense material accept there is nothing to stop the radiation

accept alpha will not pass through aluminium do not accept alpha will not pass through lead

do not accept alpha stopped by air 1

Q6. The detector and counter are used in an experiment to show that a radioactive source gives out alpha and beta radiation only.

Two different types of absorber are placed one at a time between the detector and the source. For each absorber, a count is taken over ten minutes and the average number of counts per second worked out. The results are shown in the table.

Explain how these results show that alpha and beta radiation is being given out, but gamma radiation is not being given out.

Absorber used Average counts per second

No absorber 33

Card 1 mm thick 20

Metal 3 mm thick 2

Q7. (a) The diagram shows the parts of a smoke detector. The radioactive source emits alpha parti-cles.

The alpha particles ionise the air inside the sensor which causes a small electric current. Any smoke getting into the sensor changes the current. The change in current sets the alarm off.

(i) The smoke detector would not work if a radioactive source that emitted only gamma rays was used.

Why not?

...................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................

M6. answers must be comparative accept converse answers throughout

alpha: the count rate is (greatly) reduced by the card or the card absorbs alphas but not betas

accept paper for the card 1

beta: the count rate is (greatly) reduced by the metal or the thin metal absorbs alphas and betas or the thin metal absorbs all of the radiation (from the source)

accept aluminium for the metal 1

gamma: would pass through the thin

accept aluminium for the metal

metal but count rate is background or no radiation passing through or a higher reading would be recorded or to reduce the count to 2 would require much

more than 3 mm of metal

accept lead / aluminium for the metal 1

M7. (a) (i) gamma hardly ionises the air

accept does not ionise accept gamma radiation is not charged

do not accept answers in terms of danger of gamma or other properties 1

(ii) half-life (too) short

accept need frequent replacement ‘it’ refers to curium-242 1

(iii) (two) fewer neutrons

accept different numbers of neutrons if a number is specified it must be correct

do not accept more neutrons unless curium-244 is specified 1

Q8. In the early part of the 20th century, scientists used the ‘plum pudding’ model to explain the struc-ture of the atom.

Following work by Rutherford and Marsden, a new model of the atom, called the ‘nuclear’ model, was suggested.

(a) Describe the differences between the two models of the atom.

(b) In their investigation, Rutherford and Marsden fired positively charged alpha particles at a very thin sheet of gold. Over a period of several months, the scientists made over 100 000 measurements. These measurements showed that:

• a very small number of alpha particles were deflected backwards from the gold foil.

Use the nuclear model to explain this experimental result. (2)

(c) Why did the work of Rutherford and Marsden convince many scientists that the ‘plum pud-ding’ model of the atom was incorrect?

M8. (a) any two pairs from:

• nuclear model mass is concentrated at the centre / nucleus (1)

plum pudding model mass is evenly distributed (1)

accept the nuclear model has a nucleus/the plum pudding model does not have a nucleus for 1 mark

• nuclear model positive charge occupies only a small part of the atom (1)

plum pudding model positive charge spread throughout the atom (1)

accept electrons in shells/ orbits provided a valid comparison is made with the plum pudding model

do not accept on its own do not accept electrons at edge of plum pudding

• nuclear model electrons orbit some distance from the centre / nucleus (1)

plum pudding electrons embedded in the (mass) of positive (charge) (1)

• nuclear model the atom mainly empty space (1)

plum pudding model is a ‘solid’ mass (1)

to gain credit it must be clear which model is being described do not accept simple descriptions on the diagram without comparison

4

(b) nucleus must be positive to deflect/ repel alpha particles

answers in terms of electrons/negative charge causing deflection ne-gates mark answers in terms of reflection negates mark

1

nucleus (very) small so few alpha particles deflected backwards

accept most of atom empty space so most pass through 1

(c) many/ 100 000 measurements taken

accept results for measurements accept data valid / reliable 1

findings could not be explained by plum pudding model

accept a specific finding that could not be explained eg some alpha particles were deflected backwards

Q11. (a) Carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes. The isotope, carbon-14, is radioactive. An atom of carbon-14 decays by emitting a beta particle.

(i) Complete the following sentences.

The atoms of the three carbon isotopes are the same as each other because

...............................................................................................................

The atoms of the three carbon isotopes are different from each other because

............................................................................................................... (2)

(ii) What is a beta particle and from what part of an atom is it emitted?

...............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................... (1)

(c) Trees take in carbon-12 and carbon-14 from the atmosphere. After the tree dies, the proportion of carbon-14 that the tree contains decreases.

Graph A shows the decay curve for carbon-14.

(i) Lake Cuicocha in Ecuador was formed after a volcanic eruption. Carbon taken from a tree killed by the eruption was found to have a count rate of 10.5 counts per minute. At the time of the eruption, the count rate would have been 16 counts per minute.

Use graph A to find the age of Lake Cuicocha.

Age of Lake Cuicocha = ............................................. years (1)

M11. (a) (i) number of protons are the same

accept atomic number / number of electrons for number of protons 1

number of neutrons are different

accept mass numbers are different – only if the first mark is awarded 1

(ii) an electron from the nucleus

both parts needed 1

(c) (i) 3500

no tolerance

Q14. (a) The chart gives the number of protons and neutrons within the nuclei of 7 different atoms, A – G.

Which of these atoms are isotopes of the same element?

(b) Radium-226 is a radioactive isotope that decays into radon gas by emitting alpha particles.

The decay can be represented by the equation below.

(i) Complete the equation by writing the correct number in each of the boxes. (2)

M14. (a) B E G

all 3 required and no other

any order 1

same number of / 88 protons (and different numbers of neutrons)

same number of electrons is insufficient 1

(b) (i) 222 1

86 1

Q19.(a) The names of three types of radiation are given in List A. Some properties of these three types of radiation are given in List B.

Draw one line from each type of radiation in List A to its correct property in List B.

(3)

List A

Type of radiation

List B

Property of radiation

will pass through paper but is stopped by thin metal

alpha

has the shortest range in air

beta

will not harm human cells

gamma

is very weakly ionising

(b) The radioactive isotope iodine-123 can be used by a doctor to examine the thyroid gland of a patient. The iodine, taken as a tablet, is absorbed by the thyroid gland. The gamma radiation emitted as the

iodine atoms decay is detected outside the body.

The doctor uses an isotope emitting gamma radiation to examine the thyroid gland rather than an isotope emitting alpha or beta radiation.

Which one of the following gives a reason why gamma radiation is used? Tick ( ) one box.

(1)

Gamma radiation will pass through the body.

Gamma radiation is not deflected by a mag-net.

Gamma radiation has a long range in air.

M19.(a) 3 lines correct

allow 1 mark for each correct line

if more than one line is drawn from any type of radiation box then all of those lines are wrong

3

(b) Gamma radiation will pass through the body 1

Q20.The figure below shows how the activity of a radioactive isotope changes over an 8 hour period of time.

(a) Predict how long it will take for the count rate to fall from 100 to 1.56 Bequerels.

........................................................................................................................

Time = .............................. hours (2)

(b) Lead-210 is a radioactive isotope that decays to an isotope of mercury by alpha decay.

Complete the nuclear equation to show the alpha decay of lead-210.

(3)

(c) Explain how ionising radiation can have hazardous effects on the human body.

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................ (5)

M20.(a) half-life read from graph = 2 hours 1

time to fall to 1.56 is six half lives = 6 × 2 = 12 (hours) 1

(b)

one mark for each correct element in the equation 3

(c) ionising radiation turns atoms into ions 1

which can break up molecules 1

this can change DNA 1

causing mutations to genes 1

which can cause cancer 1