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This article was downloaded by: [Fordham University]On: 18 January 2013, At: 14:36Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

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Techniques of persuasion: basic ground rules of Britis

propaganda during the Second World WarPhilip M. Taylor

a

aUniversity of Leeds

Version of record first published: 15 Sep 2006.

To cite this article: Philip M. Taylor (1981): Techniques of persuasion: basic ground rules of British propaganda during the

Second World War , Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 1:1, 57-66

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Historical Journa l of Film, Radio and Television, VoL z, N o. I, I9 8I

D O C U M E N T S

Techniques of Persuasion: basic ground rules ofBritish propaganda during the Second WorldWarPHILIP M. TAYLOR, University o f Leeds

The document shown on pages 59-65 can be found in the archives of Britain's secondMinistry of Information held at the Public Record Office in London. I t is a little knownmemorandum, dated 2z June x939, containing a total o f 86 basic ground rules which theRoyal Insti tute of International Affairs, who commissioned this enquiry into Broadcasting

9 Q 9and Propaganda, considered would be of value to t he pla-ners of the embryomcMinistry of Information.Although planning for the conduct of propaganda in the Second World War began as

early as I935, by the time of the Munich crisis the preparations were found to be hope-lessly inadequate. When the Ministry of Information was partially mobilised on 26September I938, it did so amidst chaos and confusion. Of the small group of Whitehallofficials who then knew of its existence, few were confident of the Ministry 's ability tocombat effectively the already tried and tested machinery of Dr Goebbels if war did breakout. Neville Chamberlain's third flight to Germany accordingly provided the plannersnot only with a welcome respite, but also with an ideal opportunity to remedy the manydeficiencies exposed in the ir arrangements by the crisis.

Of the numerous lessons to be drawn from the Munich dress rehearsal, one of he mostimportant lay in the field of propaganda techniques. Before 1939 little time or attentionhad been devoted to this vital area; the main preoccupation had been with constructingan appropriate machinery. Using Lord Beaverbrook's model of z9x8 as a blueprint fortheir new Ministry, the planners, led by Sir Stephen Tallents, had recognised some of theessential truths of propaganda in wartime, such as the inextricable connection betweenpropaganda and censorship. But they had too readily accepted that the methods em-ployed during the final stages of the First World War, which had allegedly proven soeffective in bringing the Central Powers to their knees, could equally be applied to a waragainst the Axis powers. In other words, although the means of disseminating propagandahad since altered radically through the advance of communications technology in areassuch as broadcasting and the cinema, the methods adopted towards propaganda in thenext war were to be essentially those employed during the last. This partially explains,perhaps, why British propagandists during the initial stages of World War Two attemptedto divide the German people from its leadership on lines similar to those followed by LordNorthcliffe's Department of Enemy Propaganda at Crewe House in I918. I t was not unti lI94i, and more particularly after the I943 Casablanca conference with its call for Un-conditional Surrender, that the Ministry of Information substituted for this approach thethemes so clearly illustrated in Vansittart's Black Record 9

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58 P . M . T a y l o rAlthough there can be little doubt tha t Britain entered the Second World War relatively

ill-eqnipped to conduct propaganda on anything like an efficient scale, historians have beentoo quick to devalue the considerable progress made in this direction during the finalyear of peace. The improvements which took place in the planning after Munich, andespecially after the German invasion of Prague six months later, were mainly due to thefact that, as war became increasingly likely, the nucleus of the Ministry of Informat ionwas finally permitted to recruit the services of interested experts and outside organisationssuch as Chatham House. This document reveals that a considerable degree of attentionwas devoted to the question of propaganda methods and techniques, albeit ra ther late inthe day. The ground rules set out here might appear somewhat fundamental, even naive,but it was because o f this and similar investigations tha t the planners were able to lay thefoundations of the basic principles o f Britain's wartime propaganda encapsulated in SirJohn Reith's maxim that "news is the shocktroops of propaganda" and in the Ministry'sgeneral view that it was more effective to tell the truth , nothing but the truth and, as nearas possible, the whole truth.Document reference: PRO, INFx/724. Memorandum by the International Broadcastingand Propaganda Enquiry, 2x June x939. Printed with the permission of the PublicRecord Office.Correspondence : Dr P. M. Taylor, School of History, University of Leeds, LeedsLS2 9JT, England.

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Techniques o/P ersuasion 5 9SECRET.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L P R O P A G A N D A A N D B R O A D C A S T I N G E N Q U IR Y .~ . R. D'0. Buzler.S SMemo No. H.P. (V) 85. Copy No.

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P r o p a g a n d a N o t i o n s ( V a r i o u s S o u r c e s )

GENERAL IDEAS FOR PROPAGAY~DA.i . I n a s t r a t i f i e d s o c i e t y p e r s u a d e t h e d o m i n a n t g ro u p .2 . T o c o n v i n c e t h e e d u c a t e d m i n o r i t y , p r o p a g a n d a m u s t b es u b t l e a n d i n d i r e c t ( M a r k A n t o n y ' s s p e e c h i s ap e r f e c t e x a m p l e o f c a u t i o u s p r o p a g a n d a ) o n t h ef e e l i n g - i t s - w a y p ri n c i pl e . ( H i t l e r ' s m e t h o d is

the opposite).S . A s r e g a r d s t h e m a s s e s o f p e o p l e , a p p e a l to t h e i ri n a t i n c t s a n d n o t t o t h e i r r e a s o n.~ . P r o p a g a n d a s h o u l d f i t t h e p r e - c o n c e i v e d im p r e s s io n s ,e . g . , a C h i n a m a n t h i n k s e v e r y f o r e i g n e r a c u n n i n gp e r s o n w h o i s p r e p a r e d t o u s e a c o n c e a l e d g u ns h o u l d w i l i n e s s f a i l.5 . I n p r o p a g a n d a w e s h o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e o n a d e f i n i t eo b j e c t t o f i t p r o - c o n c e i v e d i d e a s .6 . E v i l s a g a i n s t w h i c h p r o p a g a n d a i s d i r e c t e d s h o u ld , i fp o s s i b l e , b e p e r s o n i f i e d ( e . g . , t h e a o a r l f l c a ~ i o nb y t h e G e r m a n P r e s s o f P r e s i d e n t B o n e s ) .7 . E s s e n t i a l s o f p r o p a g a n d a m e t h o d ar e a s f o l l o w s : -

( i ) R e w e t i t i o n ( a n d f r o m T o p i c a l a ng l e s ) .( l i ) C o l o u r ( ~ b s t r u c t i o n s ~ o b e a v o i d e d i n f a v o u r e fp e r s o n a l i t i e s ) .( i i i ) A m e a s u r e o f t h e tr u t h, o r a t a n y r a t e k e e p -ing the lie Just in front of theu l t i m a t e r e v e l a t i o n ( t h e ca s e o f t h eS u d e t e n G e r m a n s ) .( i v ) B u i l d i n g r o u n d a s l o g a n ( " t h a t s c r a p of p a p e r " )( v ) p r o p a g a n d a s h o u l d b e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s as p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e ( p l e k o u t k e yp e o p l e a n d s t u d y t h e m h a r d ) . T h e np r o c e e d t o g r o u p s , e . g . , d u r i n g t h e

W a r t h e G er m a n c o n c e n t r a t e d o n p e r -s u a d i n g t h e U . S. A . C o n g r e s s t o s t o ps a l e s o f m u n i t i o n s t o a l l c o m b a t a n ts .S i m i l a r l y , a l l i e d p r o p a g a n d a m i g h te x p l o i t t h e m i n o r i t i e s i n G e r m a n y a n dr a c i a l g r o u p s a b r o a d .

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6o P. M. Taylor3 .

9.

T h e m o t i v e s h o u l d b e c o n c e a l e ~ . T h i s d o e s n o t e x c l u d eo v e r l a p p i n g w i t h o p e n p r o p ag a n d a . T h u s t h e d c c t o r e ~s p e e c h e s o f f o r e i gn s t a t e s me n r e pr o d u c e d i n G e r m an ya r e a c o n t e m p o r a r y e x a m p l e o f s u c h o v e r l a p p i n g .( A g a i n p a t ~ t i c s o c ie t i es a b r oa d s A ~ i ~ i ~ n g - ~ ! l - ~ t~ %. J~ *a r m a m e n t f i r m s h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o l a u n c h o a m pa lN 11 e" fo r b i g g e r d e f e n c e f o r c e s . A g a i n , w a r s c a r e s s e n du p a r m a m e n t s h a r e s ) .

T l m ln ~ . F o r e x a mp l e , L l o y d G e o r g e ' s S a t u r d a y a f t e r n o o ns p e e c h e s p r o v i d e d h o t n e w s f o r t h e e v e n i n g p a p e r s ,s e c u r e d f u l l S u n d a y p u b l i c i t y , a n d a n e x t r a l o t o nt h e M o n d a y . A g a i n , p r o p a g a n d a c o n c e r n i n g l u x u r yg o o d s w o u l d , f o r e x a m pl e , c o n c e n t r a t e o n p l a c e sw h e r e t r a d e is b o o m l n g ~ w h i l s t I t i s a w e l l - k n o w sp r a c t i c e t o h o l d u p b a d n e w s u nt i l I t c an b e c o u n t e r -b a l a n c e d b y g o o d n e ws .O n e o f t he b e s t d e c l a r a t i o n s o f s u c c e s s f u lt i m i n g w a s t h e B r i t i s h d e c l a r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e l a t ew a r m a k i n g c o t t o n u n c o n d i t i o n a l c o n t r a ba n d . T h i sr e g u l a t i o n w a s i s s u e d J u s t w h e n t h e U. S . A . p r e s sw a s f u l l o f t h e s i n k i n g o f th e ' A r a b i c , ' a n d h a dn o t i m e f o r m o r e i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r s .

10,

ll.

T h e g e n er a l s e q u e n c e o f p r o p a g a n d a i s : -

lii)D o t h e g r o u n d - w o r k ;T h e n t h e m a s s a t t a c k ;C l e a r u p t h e r e m a i n d e r .

R a d i o c a n b e i s o l a t e d t o m i n o r i t i e s o v e r s e as , b u t c a n n o tp i c k o u t c l a s s e s I n t h i s c o u n t r y .12.15.

14.

1 5 .

F i l m s a r e s i m i l a r l y h a n d i c a p p e d .I n p r o p a g a n d a a J u d i c i o u s r e t i c e n c e i s a s i m p o r t a n t a sp o s i t i v e e m p h a s i s .O n e o f t he a i m s o f p r o p a g a n d a i s to a w a k e n t h e s o c i a l

c o n s c i e n c e . P o t t h ls p u r p o s e t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h ep s y c h o l o g i s t c a n n o t b e ig n o re d .A c e o r d l n g t o H i t le r , p r o p a g a n d a s h o u l d u s e b a s i c i d e a sa n d s h o u l d a d d r e s s i t s e l f s o l e l y t o t h e , ma ss es .

16. O n e s h o u l d g i v e c l a r i t y a n d p r e c i s i o n t o h a l f - f o r m e da n d n e b u l o u s i d e a s t h a t a r e s h a p i n g t h e p u b l i c m i n d .T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f r e s h i d e a s i s h a r d e r .17 .18.

T h e p os s i bi l i ty o f s t e a m s h i p s m u s t n o t b e n e g l e c t e d .T h e b e s t p r o p a g a n d a i s t h e s i l e n t m u r d e r o f th e o p p o s i -t i o n n e w s - C e n s o r s h i p .

1 9. U n d e r c e n s o r s h i p c o n d i t i o n s r u m o u r a s s u m e s g i g a n t i cp r o p o r t i o n s. H e n c e w h i s p e r i n g c a m p a ig n s .2 0. T r a p p i n g s an d p a g e a n t r y i n h e r i t ed f r o m t h e p a s t f o r mv a l u a b l e p r o p a g a n d a f o r s ta b i li t y .2 1, 4 5 % o f f i l m - g o e r s i n U . K . p a y n o m o r e t h a n 7 d. A n o t h e r3 7 % p a y n o t m o r e t h a n 1/ -. H e n c e t h e c i n e m a p r o -v i d e s t h e g r e a t m a s s - a u d i e n c e .* h a n d w r k tc n a m e n d r n e ~ r e a d s ' s u b s i ~ z e d b y ' ( E d , n ot e) .

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Techniques of Persuasion 6 122.

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" N o m a t t e r h o w i n n o c e n t a n d fr e e f r o m c o n t r o v e r s y as t o r y m a y a p p ea r , a f i l m p r o d u c e r m u s t h a n d l e i tw i t h k i d g l o v e s a n d w a l k o n e g g s u n t i l i t i s cc m -p l e t e d . "T h e f i l m c a n n o t b e e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r a d ic t e d .W e a t h e r r e p o r t s m u s t b e c e n s o r ed .R e t a l i a t o r y p r o p a g a n d a i n p e a c e - t i m e m a y p r o v o k e w a r b yd e p a r t i n g f r o m t he d e m o c r ac l e c ' p r i n c i p l e t h a te v e r y s t a t e h a s t h e r i g h t t o o r g a n i s e i t s o w n l i f ea s i t t h i n k s f i t w i t h o u t m e d d l i n g e l s e w h e r e .T h e p r o p a g a n d a o f th e d em o c r a c i e s m u s t d e m o n s t r a t e t h a tw a r w o u l d b e f a t a l t o t h e d i c t a t o r s .W e m u s t g e t h o l d o f a l l t h e b i g f i n a n c i a l h o u s e s e v e r y -w h e r e .A p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e m e a n s o f p r o p a g a n d a i s t heI d e a l i s a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l h e r o es .E v e n s c i e n t i f ic p u b l i c a t i o n s m a y s e r ve p r o p a g a n d a p u r -p o s e b y b e i n g J u d i c i o us l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n i s o la t e dn u m b e r s . T h e y k e e p t h e n a m e a f l o a t .A u s e f u l d e v i c e i s t o g e t a n e u t r a l t o s t a t e o u r n a t i o n a lcase.T h e g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e R o y a l F a m i l y i s a n i m p o r t a n tp u b l i c i t y m a ~ t e r .T h e i d e a l f u n c t i o n o f p r o p a g a n d a i s to w i n p o p u l a rs u p p o r t f o r a c a u s e b y c a p t i v a t i n g t h e e m o t i o n s a n ~f l a t t e r i n g t h e r e a s o n o f th e p u b l i c . ( i. e. M e nl l k e t o t h i n k t h a t t h e y a r e a c t i n g a c c o r d i n g t or e a s o n e v e n i f i n r e a l i t y e m o t i o n a n d o t h e r n o n -r a t i o n a l f o r c e s a r e , a s s o o f t en , m u c h s t r o n g e rd e t e r m i n a n t s ) . P o p u l a r p r o p a g a n d a s ho u l d s u b -

~ t i t u t e e m o t i o n f o r r e a s o n u n d e r t h e g u i s e o ff a c i l i t a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f r e a s o n i n g .P r o p a g a n d a i s a m a c h i n e f o r g e n e r a t i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n ge n t h u s i a s m . P r o p a g a n d a s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e : -

n e v e r b e d u l l .~ ) n e v e r b e o f f e n s i v e t o i t s a u d i e n c e .T h e h i g h e s t a r t i n p r o p a g a n d a i s to m a i n t a i n t h ea p p e a r a n c e o f i m p a r t i a l i t y w h i l e s e c u r i n g t h ew h o l e h e a r t e d a d o p t i o n o f t h e y i e w p r o p a g a te d .A S r e g a r d s f u n d a m e n t a l s m ~ n y p e o p l e a r e v a i n e r a n d i d l e r~ h a n t h e y i m a g i n e o r a d m it . P r o P a g a n d a s h o u l d t a kenot ice of this.

$6. " T h e m a r c h i n g - t u n e s e t s t he b l o o d c o u r s i n g f a s t e r t h a nd o t h e b a t t l c - ~ t n n d ~ r d s . " T h i s m a x i m s h o u l d p r o -b a b l y b e b o r n e i n m i n d d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h eE n g l i s h a r e n o t a r e m a r k a b l y m u s i c a l p e o p l e .

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62 P. .M. Taylor5 7 . ~ r o 9 a g a n d a m e a s u r e s i n t i me o f w a r s h o u l d a l w a y s b et e s t e d b y t h e s i m p l e q u e u t i o n , " W i l l t h i s m e a s u r ei n c r e a s e p e o p l e ' s d c s l r e t o s e r v e a n d to k e e p o ns e r v i n g ? " E x c e p t i o n s m a y o c c a s i o n a l l y o c c u r o w i n gt o o v e r r i d in g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f F o r e i g n P o l l c y ,b u t t h i s s h o u l d n o t a f f e c t t h e g e n e r a l r u l e .~ 8 , ~ h e E n g l i s h p u b l i c l i k e s c o m p e t i t i o n s ( e .g . f o o t b a l lp o o l s a n d c r o s s w o r d p u z z l e s) . P r o pa g . ~' ~ . ~a h o ul dt a k e n o t e o f t hi s .5 9 . ~ n ~ e l l e c t u a l r e a s o n i n g s h o u l d b e a s o b j e c t i v e a s p o s s i b l e .P r o p a g a n d a I s, in i t s v e r y n a t u r e , s u b j e c t i v e . I ti s s u bj e c t i v e b e c a u s e : -

( i )

( 1 1 )

A s o e c l f l c o b j e c t ( e. g. n a t i o n a l v i c t o r y i na w a r ) s h o u l d i n f o r m a l l i t s a r g u m e n t s ,m e t h o d s o f p r e s e n t a t i o n , e tc .P r e p a y - a d s s h o u l d a p p e a l l a r g e l y t o n o n -r a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s w h i c h a r e m o r e s u s c e p t i b l et o s u b j e c t i v e t h a n t o ~ o J e c t l v e i n f l u e n c e .( e . g. I s s u e s s h o u l d b e p r e s e n t e d i n p e r s o n ~ l -I s e d f o r m a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e ) . T h e s u b j e c t i v ea p p r o a c h u s u a l l y h a s g r e a t e r ~ r m. na tl o a p p e a lt h a n t h e o b j e c t i v e .

SUGGESTIONS F0R FQREIGNPR2PAG.9~DA.l , A s r e g a r d s D o m i n i o n s a n d C o l o n i e s , g e t h o l d o f t h e b i gp e o p l e h e r e h a v i n g r e l a t i o n s a n d f r i e n d s o v e r t he r e .2 . I n t h e E a s t t h e q u e s t i o n o f p r e s t i g e i s a l l im p o r t a n t ,5 , A s r e ~ a r d s t h e G e r m a n s , t h e i r n a t i o n a l i n f e r i o r i t yc o m p l e x i s a b a s i c f a c t o r i n p r o p a g a n d a a m o n g t h e m.4 , S o u t h A m e r i c a i s s e r v e d b y A . P . a n d H a v a s o f F r a n c e .

E n g l a n d i s l a r g e l y e x c l u d ed .5. Y_n t h e G e r m a n P r o p a g a n d a M e m o r a n d u m o n S p a i n ( 1 9 3 5 )i t is s a i d t h a t i t i s b e t t e r t o i n f l u e n c e s m i l e rr a t h e r t h a n t h e l a r g e r S p a n i s h n e w s a g e n c i e s .L a r g e r o n e s w o u l d d e m a n d m o r e m o n e y a n d w o u l d n o tb e a u c h u n q u e s t i o n i n g a l l ie s . T h e r e i s n o t h i n gm o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n a g o o d n e w s a g e n c y f o r i n -f l u e n c i n g p u b l i c o p i n i o n . " I t i s, s o t o s p e a k , t h es k e l e t o n , w h i l e c o m m e n t i n g a n d r e p o r t i n g a r e t h ef l e s h . 0 n l y t h e t w o t o g e t h e r c a n m a k e a l i v eb o d y c a p a b l e o f d o i n g t h e w o r k . "6 , S o u t h A m e r i c a . T h e m o s t s o u t h e r l y S t a t e s o f B r a z i l -S a n t a C a t h e r i n a a n d R i o G r a n d s d o 8 u l - c o n t a i nl a r g e c o l o n i e s o f G e r m a n s w h o f o r m a n y y e a r s h a v eb e e n t a u g h t t o c o n s i d e r G e r m a n y a s t h e i r F a t h e r l a n d ,a n d n o t Br a z i l . T h e r e a r e s a l d t o b e 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0G e r m a n s I n B r a z i l .7 . I t m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o f e e d ~ n t l - B r l t l s h n e w s p a p e r ~ w i t hF r e n c h n e w s .

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Techniques of Persuasion 6 38 . T h e I t a l i a n c o l o n i e s i n th e U n i t e d S t at e s , S o u t hA m e r i c a ( e s p e c i a l l y B r a z il a n d A rg e n t i n e ) a n dA u s t r a l i a a r e k e p t i n c l o s e c o n t ac t w i t h t h e h o m e -l a n d . I t m i g h t b e n o t e d t h a t th e A r g e n t i n e q u i c k l y

a b s o r b s I t a l i a n s a n d t u r n s t h e m in t o s t a u n c hA r g e n t i n i a n s .9 , I n A u s t r a l i a t h e I t a l i a n c o l o n y h a s b e e n t h e m e a n s o fp r o m o t i n g h o s t i l i t y t o w a rd s I t a l y a n d F a sc i s m,

I 0 , T h e I t a l i a n a t r o c i t i e s i n L i b y a g i v e u s a u s e f u l p o in t .( T h e r u t h l e s s n a t u r e o f M a r s h a l G r a z i a n a S s e o n q u e s t )I i , F r o m t h e o u t s e t H i t l e r c o n c e n t r a S e d o n @ o l o u r, s y m b o l i s ma n d s p e c t a c u l a r d i s p l a y s . ( T h e G e r m a n t hi n k s i ni m a g e s ) .1 2 , T h e 2 5 u n a l t e r a b l e p o i n t s o f t h e N a z i p r o g r a m m e ( s t a t e dt o b e f i x e d f o r a l l t i m e) s h o u l d f o r m i n i n c r e a s i n gm e a s u r e p o i n t s d ' a p p u i f o r ou r p r o p a g a n d a ~ g a i n s tthem.1 3 , R o t a r i a n s a r e b a n n e d i n G e r m m n y : s o a l s o i s t h e P . E . N .Club.1 4 . T h e o n l y c o u n t r i e s w h e r e t h e r e i s a g e n u i n e l y f r e e p r e s sa r e t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e ( e x c l u d i n g I n d i a a n d P a l -e s t i n e ) , U . S . , H o l l a n d , S w i t z e r l a n d a n d p e r h a p sS c a n d i n a v i a .1 5 . I n A r g e n t i n e p r o v i n c i a l J o u r n a l s w e r e o f f e r e d b y I t a l i a na n d G e r m a n b u r e a u x f r e e t e l e g r a p h i e n e w s . S u b -s i d i e s t o n e w s p a p e r s i n t he A r g e n t i n e a s w e l l a si n s o m e o f t h e s m a l l e r s t a t ~ s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d .

C h i n a b a n n e d t h e B r i t i s h f i l m " J a c k A h o y " b e c a u s e t h es t o r y o f n a v a l l l f e i n c l u d e d a b u r l e s q u e o f C h i n e s ep i r a t e s .J a p a n r e j e c t e d t h e f i l m " T h e K i n g S te p s O u t " b e c a u s e i tt e n d e d t o r i d i c u l e r o y a l t y .R u s s i a l e a d s w i t h c o nm mu ni ty l i s t e n i n g - i n .O u r G e r m a n p r o p a g a n d a s h o u l d e m p h a si s e t he e s s e n t i a lo o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h G e r m a n f r i e n d s h i p c a n e n du r e~

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I n A m e r i c a t h e B r i t i s h p o s i t i o n a b o u t w a r d e b t s n e e d sr e p e a t e d e x p o s i t i o n .T h e G e r m a n w a r l i t e r a t u r e m u s t b e s e a r c h e d t o p r o v i d ep r o p a g a n d a p o i nt s .A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l p a p e r i n E s p e r an t o w o u l d p r o b a b l y b en e c e s s a r y .

T h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f l i s t s o f G e r m a n p r i s o n e r s i n o u rp u b l i c a t i o n s w i l l t e n d t o m a k e t h e m r e a d b y G e r m a nc o l o n i e s a b r o a d .W e m u s t a l s o p r o d u c e a m a g a z i n e f o r p r i s o n e r s o f w a ri n % h i s c o u n t r y c o n t a i n i n g s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n .

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P.M. Taybr2 5 . W e r m ~s t s e a r c h H i t l e r ' s s p e e c h e s f o r p r o p a g a n d a p o i n t s .2 6 , W e m u s t s ea r c h a l l i e d a n d n e u t r a l l it e r a t u r e f o ra n t i - G e r m a n m a t e r i a l - e s p e c i a l l y S p a n i s h l i t e r at u r e .

I I I . P A S T E N P E R ! E N C E I N p R O PA G . ~N D Ai.

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T h e G e r m a n p r o p a g a n d a b e f o r c C a p o r e t t o i n c l u d e d t h el a v i s h d i s t r i b u t i o n b y s e c r e t a g e n t s o f f a k e dI t a l i a n n e w s p a p e r s a m o n g t h e t r o o p s .A s s h o w i n g t he i m p o r t a n c e o f c o u n t e r - e s p i o n a g e , t h ed e c i p h e r i n g o f a N a u e n r a d i o m e s s a g e b y t h eA d m i r a l ty , p r o p o s i n g a n a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n G c r m a ny ,M e x i c o , a n d J a p a n , g a v e t h e c o u p - d e - g r a c e t o G e r m a np r o p a g a n d a i n t he U. S . A .

3 , T h e t i m e f a c t o r i s v i t a l . T h u s t h e Z i n o v i e v l e t t e r -w h i c h w a s t h e s a m e a s s c o r es o f o t h e r s f r o m M o s c o w -w a s e x p o s e d a t j u s t t h e r i g h t m o m e n t , w h e n t h ep u b l i c w e r e m i s t r u s t f u l o f R u s s i a a n d b e g a n t o d i s -l i k e t h e B r i t i s h L a b o u r P a r ty .

4 . J a p a n d i s t r i b u t e d f r e e w i r e l e s s s e t s i n M a n c h u r i a .5 , I t a l y g i v e s y o u n g A r a b s a f r e e h o l i d a y i n I t a ly .6. T h e G e r m a n e h a v e a s p e c i al s e c t i o n i n p r o p a g a n d a m a c h i n et o c o u n t e r a c t a t r o c i t y p r o p a g a n d a , t o w i n o v e r

f o r e i g n J o u r n a l l s t s , a n d t o w a t c h t h e f o r e i g n p r e s s,s o t h at p a p er s c o n t a i n i n g u n d e s i r a b l e m a t t e r m a yb e c o a f l s c a t e d o n t h e i r a r r i v a l i n G e r m a n y .V , I t a l y a n d G e r m a n y b e l i e v e i n m a s s v i s i t s . T h u s i nJ a n u a r y , 1 9 1 8, 1 , 5 0 0 R o u m a n i a n s w e n t t o R o m e a t t h ee x p e n s e o f t h e I t a l i a n G o v e r n m e n t . S i m i l a r l y ,t h o u s a n d s o f I t a l i a n c h i l d r e n a b r o a d a r e t a k e n t o

I t a l y a n n u a l l y f o r a h o l i d a y .8 . M u s s o l i n i ' s h a b i t o f p e r s o n a l r e c e p t i o n i s i n v a l u a bl ep r o p a g a n d a : h e i m p r e s s e s a n d f l a t t e r s .9 .

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T h e I t a l ia n s h a v e a l r e a d y e m p l o y e d t r a v e l l i n g c i n e m av a n s i n P a l e s t i n e s h o w i n g f a k e d f i l m s o f J e w i s ha t r o c i t i e s a g a i n s t t h e A r a b s .A s p e c i a l p r o p a g a n d a s e c t i o n o f t h e R e d A r m y w a s f o r m e da n d 1 6 s u p e r p l a n e s p l a n n e d f o r i t s u s e . T h eM a x i m G o r k i, b u i l t i n 19 3 3 , h a d s w i n g s p r e a ~ o f

6 5 0 f ee t : i t c o u l d b e h e a r d f r o m 4 , 0 0 0 f e e t f o r2 0 0 m i l e s. I t a l s o c a r r i e d a p r i n t i n g p l a n t w h i c hc o u l d t u r n o u t 4 , 0 0 0 l e a f l e t s a n h o u r .I n G e r m a n y c i n e m a a t t a n d a n c e s h a v e r i s e n d e s pi t e t h e

i n j e c t i o n o f m o r e a n d m o r e p r o p a g a n d a i n t o t h ep r o g r a m m e .I n 1 9 5 4 t h e r e w e r e m o r e t h a n 3 0 , 0 0 0 c i n e m a s i n R u s s i a .

T h e f o r e i g n f i l m s u s e d i n R u s s i a a r e c a r e f u l l y e d i t e db y a s p e c i a l D e p a r t m e n t .

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Techniqueso f P e r s u a s i o n 65i ~ . L",~eSng * -h e G r e a t W a r t h e U .S . A . G o v e r n m e n t F i l m s w e r e

r u n a t a p r o f i t. O v e r s e a s e x h i b i t o r s w h o r e f u s e dt o s h o w t he U . S . A . G o v e r n m e n t f i l m s w e r e b o y c o t t e d ;s o t o o w e r e ~ h O s e w h o u s e d G e r m a n f i l ms .I S . P o l a n d c u t o u t o f " S h o w - b o a t " t h e l i n e s i n " O l e M a n

R i v e r ~ : -" Y o u a n d m e w e s ~ e a t a n d s t r a i nB o d y a l l a c h l n ' a n d r a c k e d w i t h p a i n "o n t he g r o u n d t h a t ~ n e y w e r e l i k e l y ~ o s t i r u p

c l a s s e n m i t y .! 6 0 " I t a l i a n ~ I n e m a s i n t h e n e a r E a s t , e . g. a d d t o t h er e s p e c t f o r F a s c i s m b y s h o w i n g p i c t u r e s o f It a l i a nm i l i t a r y m i g ht , : n c o n t r a s t w i t h s o m e v e r y d ul l

a n d s t a i d n e w s i t e m s f r o m B r i t a i n ."1 . D u r i n g t h e l a s ~ W a r t h e G e r m a n s r a n a c o m i c p @ p e rp r i n t e d i n S p a n i s h ( w e r a n o n e i n R u s s i a ) .1 8 . 0 n e of t h e G e r m a n f a i l u r e s l a s t t i m e w a s t he u s e ofs t a t i s t i c s i n a m o r p h o u s a n d d e t r i m e n t a l m a s s e s .1 9 . E x p e r i e n c e h a s t e n d e d t o p r o v e t h a t i n p u b l i c m e e t i n g sa d d r e s s e d t o l o c a l a u d i e n m e s a s p e a k e r c a r r i e s m o r ew e i g h t t .h ro ug h l o c a l r e p u t a t i o n t h a n t h r o u g h

n a t i o n a l e m i n e n c e .2 0. I t i s r e p o r t e d f r o m o n e s o u r c e t h a t d u r i n g t h e G r e a tW a r i s w a s r o t u n d t h a t o n e g o o d p o s t e r w o u l d d o t h e

w o r k o f a b o u ~ t w e n t y p u b l i c m e e t i n g s ,2 1. I n M e l n K a m o f i t i s s t a t e d t h a t t h e c o l o u r c o m b i n a t i o nw h l c h p r o d u c e s t he g r e a t e s t p s y c h o l o g l c a l r e a c ti o ni s r e d , b l a c k , a n d w h i t e . ( H e n c e t h e G e r m a n

n a t i o n a l c o l o u r s . )

Jttne 21st, 1939. 3 2 , C h c s h a m P l a c e ,B e l g r a v e S q u a r e ,S . W . I .

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66 Techniques f PersuasionNo tes for poten tial contributors to 'Doc ume nt' section :G u i d e l i n e s fo r t h e P u b l i c a t io n o f D o c u m e n t sT h e Jo urna l w i l l cons i de r pub l i sh i ng docu me nt s o f pa r t i cu l a r s ign i f i cance fo r t he h i s t o ryo f m a s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d p r o p a g a n d a i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . I n s u b m i t t in g d o c u -ment s fo r pub l i ca t i on i n t h i s s ec t i on , con t r i bu t o r s shou l d bea r i n mi nd t he fo l l owi ngcr i t e r i a :I . T h e d o c u m e n t m u s t n o t h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d e i th e r i n w h o l e o r in s u b s t a n ti a l e x t ra c t

be fore .2 . T h e d o c u m e n t h a s n o t b e e n d i s c u s s e d, c i t e d w i th r e f e r e n c e to i ts c o n t e n t s o r it s m a i n

po i n t s o r conc l us i ons i ncorpora t ed i n any book o r a r t i c l e pub l i shed i n r ecen t yea r s .3 . P u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e d o c u m e n t d o e s n o t i n f ri n g e e i t h e r t h e p e r s o n a l c o p y r i g h t o f a n y

par t i cu l a r i nd i v i dua l o r co n t r ave ne t he l aws o r a r ch i va l r egu l a t i ons i n fo r ce i n t hecou n t ry o f i ts o r i g i n o r cur r e n t a r ch i va l l oca t ion .

4 . T h e d o c u m e n t s h o u l d p r o v i d e s i g n i fi c an t n e w i n f o r m a t i o n i n a s u f f ic i e n tl y s e l f-c o n t a i n e d a n d s e l f -e x p l a n a t o r y f o r m w i t h o u t t h e n e e d f o r e x t e n s iv e c o m m e n t a r y . T h eed i t o r w i l l cons i de r f o r pub l i ca t i on an exc hange o f l e t t e r s o r a sma l l g rou p o f i n t e r -r e l a t e d d o c u m e n t s p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e t o t a l l e n g t h d o e s n o t e x c e e d 1 , 5 o o w o r d s , T h eJ o u r n a l w i l l n o t c o n s i d e r p u b l i s h i n g s e l e c te d e x t ra c t s f r o m a d o c u m e n t . I n t h e c a s eo f a d o c u m e n t w h i c h c o n t a in s e x t e n d e d f o r m a l s e c ti o n s o r p h r a s e o lo g y , i t m a y b eabbrev i a t ed by t he omi ss i on o f t h i s ma t e r i a l.

5 . D o c u m e n t s s h o u l d b e s u b m i t t e d t o t h e e d i t o r i n f u ll , p r e f e r a b l y in t h e f o r m o f ap h o t o s t a t , a n d s e c t io n s t o b e o m i t t e d s h o u l d b e i n d i c a te d o n i t . M a r g i n a l c o m m e n t so r o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d o n t h e o r ig i n a l d o c u m e n t w i ll n o r m a l l y b e p u b l i s h e da s p a r t o f t h e d o c i a m e n t , a t t h e d i s c r e ti o n o f th e ~ d i tb t , a h d s h o u l d n o t t h e r e f o r e b er e m o v e d f r o m t h e m a n u s c ri p t s u b m i t te d .

6 . T h e d o c u m e n t sh o u i d b e s u b m i t t e d t o t h e e d i t o r r 1 62 a n I n t r o d u c t i o n n o t e x c e e d i n g2 5 o w o r d s p r o v i d i n g t h e f o l lo w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n :( a ) t h e p r e s e n t l o c a ti o n o f t h e d o c u m e n t p r o v i d i n g f u l l i n f o r m a t i o n e n a b l in g t h e

r e a d e r t o f i n d t h e d o c u m e n t h i m s e l f .( b ) a b r i e f desc r i p t i on o f t he o rgan i sa t i on whi ch was r e spons i b l e fo r o r i g i na t i ng t he

d o c u m e n t .( c ) t h e a u t h o r o r a u th o r s w h e r e k n o w n .( d ) t h e p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h t h e d o c u m e n t w a s c r e a t e d a n d a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e

h i s to r i ca l s i g ni fi c an c e o f t h e d o c u m e n t i n t e r m s o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h i t m a k e st o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a p a r ti c u l a r a s p ec t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p e r i o d .

D o c u m e n t s f o r c o n s id e r a t io n s h o u l d b e s u b m i t t e d t o :N i c h o l a s P r o n a yS e n i o r L e c t u r e r i n H i s t o r yS c h o o l o f H i s t o r yU n i v e r s it y o f L e e d sL e e d s L S 2 9 J T , E n g l a n d