THE DEVELOPMENT OF VOCAL CONCEPTS IN CHILDREN

THE METHODOLOGIES RECOMMENDED IN

DESIGNATED ELEMENTARY

MUSIC SERIES

DISSERTATION

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

By

Janette M. Kavanaugh, B.M., M.M.

Denton, Texas

August, 1982

37f pi Qld I

p-

Kavanaugh, Janette Mae, The Development of Vocal

Concepts in Children: The Methodologies Recommended in

Designated Elementary Music Series.

Doctor of Philosophy (Music Education), August, 1982,

349 pp.,31 tables, bibliography, 141 titles.

This study's purpose was to investigate the kinds of

instructions provided for teachers by authors and publishers

of elementary music series for the development of children's

voices. Specifically, the study was 1. to investigate the

recommended methodology related to the development of vocal

concepts in children, 2. to investigate musical aspects that

could be indicators of expected vocal ability in children,

and 3. to relate the findings of this study to other re-

search results that give insight into the vocal capabilities

of children.

To collect the data, the teacher's editions of grades

one, three, and five of music series published by the Silver

Burdett Company and by the American Book Company during the

period circa 1945 to 1975 were subjected to a content analy-

sis and to a musical analysis. Three categories were

established for the content analysis: Vocal Characteristics,

Singing Objectives, and Teaching Strategies. Validity of

the research tool was tested by the jury method and by

logical validity. Reliability coefficients of .90 were

determined by using two additional coders and by re-coding

material.

Seven hundred twenty randomly selected songs were

analyzed. A frequency distribution of the pitches revealed

the song ranges and tessituras. Means and standard devi-

ations were computed for the range and tessitura pitch

levels and for the range intervals. Interval frequencies

were determined for each song. Seventeen analyses of

variance were conducted to test for difference among

grades, between companies, and among eras.

Several conclusions resulted. Great diversity is

noted in the objectives that require singing. If the

development of the child voice has been a conscious goal

in elementary music series, it is not manifest. Conceptual

development in other areas through singing was increased in

the series published 1955 to 1975. Melodic ranges are lower

in later series but the range interval remained consistent.

First grade song tessituras are quite high. Some differences

were noted in interval usage. Research findings are not

cited by textbook authors.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES vti

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . x

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . 1

Purpose of the Study Significance of the Study Delimitations Definition of Terms

II. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 11

The Period 1870 - 1900 The Period 1900 - 1920 The Period 1920 - 1940

III. RELATED LITERATURE . . . 49

Vocal Capabilities of Children Research studies Books and articles

Content of Elementary Music Series

IV. METHODOLOGY 89

Content Analysis Definition Advantages Criticisms of the technique Limitations of the technique

Design of the Study Selection of the content material Selection of the content unit Development of the categories Construction of the information sheet Validity of the study Reliability of the study The main study

V. DATA PRODUCED BY THE CONTENT ANALYSIS . . . . 116

Era A - The Period 1945 to 1954

iv

V

Page

Vocal characteristics Singing objectives Teaching strategies

Era B - The Period 1955 to 1965 Vocal characteristics Singing objectives Teaching strategies

Era C - The Period 1965 to 1975 Vocal characteristics Singing objectives Teaching strategies

VI. DATA PRODUCED BY THE MUSICAL ANALYSIS . . . . 189

Data Related to Song Ranges Song ranges: Silver Burdett Co. Song ranges: American Book Co.

Data Related to Tessitura Song tessitura: Silver Burdett Co. Song tessitura: American Book Co.

Data Related to Song Intervals Significance of intervals among grades Significance of intervals between

companies Significance of intervals between

eras Interaction among main effects

VII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECCOMMENDATIONS . . 254

Summary Finding's

Conclusions Recommendations

APPENDICES . 271

A. Elementary Music Series Used in the Study

B. Materials Designed for the Content Analysis Rater's Instrxictions Information Sheet

C. Elementary Music Series Use for Establishing Intra-Rater Reliatility

D. Word Frequency Tabulation

VI

Page E. Statistical Design for Analysis of

Variance

F. Key Signatures Used in the Song Sample

G. Note Coding Used for Computing Range and

Tessitura

H. Raw Data for Means and Standard Deviations

I. Raw Data for Analysis of Variance

BIBLIOGRAPHY 338

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

I. Inter-Rater Reliability Coefficients . . . . 104

II. Intra-Rater Reliability Coefficients . . . . 105

III. Word Frequencies of Specified Objec-tives for Vocal Development in Series Published by Silver Burdett Company - 1945 to 1954 121

IV. Predominance of Classified Objec-tives in Silver Burdett Series -1945 to 1954 . . . 125

V. Word Frequencies of Specified Objec-tives for Vocal Development in Series Published by American Book Company - 1945 to 1954 127

VI. Predominance of Classified Objec-tives in American Book Co. Series -1945 to 1954 . ... . . . . . . . 129

VII. Frequencies of Pitches Used in Compu-ting Range and Tessitura for Tone Games in Silver Burdett First Grade Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

VIII. Word Frequencies of Specified Objec-tives for Vocal Development in Series Published by Silver Burdett (MFL) - 1955 to 1964 150

IX. Word Frequencies of Specified Objec-tives for Vocal Development in Series Published by Silver Burdett (MMYO) - 1955 to 1964 . . 153

X. Predominance of Classified Objec-tives in Silver Burdett Series (MFL) - 1955 to 1964 . . . . . . . . . . . 154

VI l

viii;

Table P aS e

XI. Predominance of Classified Objec-tives in Silver Burdett Series (MMYO) - 1955 to 1964 155

XII. Word Frequencies of Specified Objec-tives for Vocal Development in Series Published by American Book Company - 1955 to 1964 . . . . . . . . . . 157

XIII. Predominance of Classified Objec-tives in American Book Co. Series -1955 to 1964 159

XIV. Word Frequencies of Specified Objec-tives for Vocal Development in Series Published by Silver Burdett Company - 1965 to 1975 169

XV. Predominance of Classified Objec-tives in Silver Burdett Series -1965 to 1975 171

XVI. Word Frequencies of Specified Objec-tives for Vocal Development in Series Published by American Book Company - 1965 to 1975 173

XVII. Predominance of Classified Objec-tives in American Book Co. Series -1965 to 1975 . 174

XVIII. A Comparison of Interval Usage by Three Grades from 1945 to 1975 241

XIX. A Comparison of Interval Usage by Two Companies for Grades One, Three, and Five from 1945 to 1975 . . . . . . . . . . 243

XX. A Comparison of Interval Usage During Three Eras from 1945 to 1975 244

XXI. A Comparison of Interval Usage for the Interaction Between Grade and Company for the Major Third 245

XXII. Word Frequency Tabulation for Grade One 293

IX

Table Page

XXIII. Word Frequency Tabulation for Grade Three 303

XXIV. Word Frequency Tabulation for Grade Five 313

XXV. Key Signatures Used in the Song Sample -1945 to 1954 326

XXVI. Key Signatures Used in the Song Sample -1955 to 1964 32f

XXVII. Key Signatures Used in the Song Sample -1965 to 1975 . . . 328

XXVIII. Range Pitch Level Means and Standard Deviations . . 332

XXIX. Tessitura Pitch Level Means and Standard Deviations 333

XXX. Range Interval Means and Standard Deviations 334

XXXI. Tabulated "F" Values for Intervals . . . . . 336

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Octave Coding Devised for the Study 110

2. The Frequency Distrubution of the Melodic Tones of a Song from New Musio Horizons 112

3. Coding for Intervals Used in Com-puting the Interval Frequencies in Song Material 113

4. Portion of a Song Recommended for Use in Tone Matching Exercises 131

5. Tones that Express the Pitch Means of High and Low Range Limits of Tone Games . . . . . . . . 132

6. Examples of Tone Games 133

7. Tessitura of Tone Games 135

8. Exercises for Beautiful Singing—II 138

9. Exercises for Beautiful Singing—III . . . . 139

10. Exercises for Beautiful Singing—IV 140

11. Diagram to Help Children Maintain an

Open Throat While Sining . 140

12. The Root Vowels 141

13. Exercise for Beautiful Singing—VI . . . . . 141

14. Exercise for Beautiful Singing—VII 142

15. Exercise for Beautiful Singing—VIII . . . . 142

16. Tone Calls to be Used in Tuning the Voice 164

17. Tonal Frequency: High Range of 1st Grade Song, Silver Burdett Co 191

*x.

Figure Page

18. Tonal Frequency: High Range of 3rd Grade Songs, Silver Burdett Co 193

19. Tonal Frequency: High Range of 5th Grade Songs, Silver Burdett Co 194

20. Tonal Frequency: Low Range of 1st Grade Songs, Silver Burdett Co 195

21. Tonal Frequency: Low Range of 3rd Grade Songs, Silver Burdett Co 197

22. Tonal Frequency: Low Range of 5th Grade Songs, Silver Burdett Co 198

23. Pitch Levels of Range Means and Standard Deviations for 1st Grade Books . 200

24. Pitch Levels of Range Means and Standard Deviations for 3rd Grade Books 201

25. Pitch Levels of Range Means and Standard Deviations for 5th Grade Books . . . . . . 202

26. Means and Standard Deviations of Range Intervals in 1st Grade Books . . . . 205

27. Means and Standard Deviations of Range Intervals in 3rd Grade Books . . . . 206

28. Means and Standard Deviations of Range Intervals in 5th Grade Books . . . . 207

29. Tonal Frequency: High Range of 1st Grade Songs, American Book Co. 208

30. Tonal Frequency: High Range of 3rd Grade Songs, American Book Co. . . . . . • 210

31. Tonal Frequency: High Range of 5th Grade Songs, American Book Co 211

32. Tonal Frequency: Low Range of 1st Grade Songs, American Book Co. 213

XII

Figure Page

33. Tonal Frequency: Low Range of 3rd Grade Songs, American Book Co. . . . . . . 214

34. Tonal Frequency: Low Range of 5th Grade Songs, American Book Co. 215

35. Tonal Frequency: High Tessitura of 1st Grade Songs, Silver Burdett 220

36. Tonal Frequency: High Tessitura of 3rd Grade Songs, Silver Burdett 222

37. Tonal Frequency; High Tessitura of 5th Grade Songs, Silver Burdett . . . . . 223

38. Tonal Frequency: Low Tessitura of 1st Grade Books, Silver Burdett 224

39. Tonal Frequency: Low Tessitura of 3rd Grade Books, Silver Burdett 226

40. Tonal Frequency: Low Tessitura of 5th Grade Books, Silver Burdett 227

41. Means and Standard Deviations of Tessitura Pitch Levels for 1st Grade Books 228

42. Means and Standard Deviations of Tessitura Pitch Levels for 3rd Grade Books 229

43. Means and Standard Deviations of Tessitura Pitch Levels for 3rd Grade Books 230

44. Tonal Frequency: High Tessitura of 1st Grade Songs, American Book Co 232

45. Tonal Frequency: High Tessitura of 3rd Grade Songs, American Book Co. . . . . 233

46. Tonal Frequency: High Tessitura of 5th Grade Songs, American Book Co 234

47. Tonal Frequency: Low Tessitura of 1st Grade Songs, American Book Co. . . . . . . 236

XI11

Figure Page

48. Tonal Frequency: Low Tessitura of 3rd Grade Songs, American Book Co 237

49. Tonal Frequency: Low Tessitura of 5th Grade Songs, American Book Co 238

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

From infancy children exhibit an interest in sound/

Functional sounds, first used to signal needs to those

around, are explored and manipulated. Young children derive

great pleasure in investigating the limits of their vocal

capabilities, repeating the sounds they find most fasci-

nating. Pond states, "A young child is able to savor a

single sound source as a unique experience" (10, p. 41).

Vocal experimentations lead to the discovery of a variety

of sounds ranging from high to low, long to short, and soft

to loud. Vocal timbres, which represent the basic elements

of music and the beginnings of songmaking, become apparent

(1, p. 49; 3, p. 1; 8, p. 39).

The vocal skills of the child develop gradually as he/

she listens to the singing of others. Songs frequently sung

elicit both rhythmic-physical movement and vocal partici-

pation. Initially, the last word or tone of a phrase may be

sung. However, as vocal control is gained, more and more of

the melody is sung accurately, especially if the song is in

a range of the child's choice. Numerous and varied singing

experiences catch and focus the child's attention, heighten

pleasure, and stimulate participation (6, p. 7).

Generally, a child's musical growth is guided in part

through the use of graded music series which provide the

basic content of the elementary music program (4, p. 56).

Several publications are available for selection by teach-

ers. The Music Educators National Conference recommends

"two current basal series for each classroom" (12, p. 36).

Book formats and approaches to music teaching are varied;

however, text authors try to remain within the suggested

guidelines as set forth by music educators. A perusal of

current series will verify that singing continues to be a

dominant developmental tool. A question that needs to be re-

searched is whether or not provision is made by textbook

authors in the instructional materials for the development

of the child voice. Is there a conscious effort to culti-

vate the vocal skills of children, or is singing to be used

only as a means for gaining insight into the music elements?

The elementary music series provide insight into the

attitudes of music educators toward the musical training of

young children. Because of the widespread use of these

books, the ideas set forth by the text authors appeared to

be endorsed by music educators as a whole. Several re-

searchers have focused their attention on the contents of

elementary music series. The availability of data in

various areas bears witness to this fact. Most of these

studies have centered on some aspect related to song litera-

ture found in the books. There has been no investigation

into the degree of emphasis placed upon singing as a devel-

opmental skill in the music program. A study centered on

the vocal training of children was needed in order to create

an awareness of past and present practices which can then be

used to provide direction to music educators and to pub-

lishers of future music series and/or classroom materials.

Meyer contends that an understanding of the past will pro-

vide insight into the future practices. He states,

. . . our understanding of the meaning and significance of the present depends in part upon the implications which the present ap-pears to have for the future. . . . What an event . . .is, what it means to us, is not merely a function of its existent present. Its meaning also depends in a very real way upon events which have preceded and implied it, and upon the events which it in turn is thought, rightly or wrongly, to im-ply. . . , What we perceive as the present is the vivid fringe of memory tinged with anticipation (7, p. 89).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the

kinds of instructions provided for teachers by authors

and publishers of elementary music series for the

development of children's voices. Specifically, the

study was

1. to investigate the recommended methodology re-

lated to the development of vocal concepts in children,

2. to investigate musical aspects that could be

indicators of expected vocal ability in children, and

3. to relate the findings of this study to other

research results that give insight into the vocal capa-

bilities of children.

Significance of the Study

Learning to sing is an imitative process. The child

is constantly being influenced and "trained" by his environ-

ment, intially by his mother and family members then

through the "examples" communicated to him by radio and

television. Little of this environmental music is appro-

priate for use as a model by the child in his singing.

Consequently, it is necessary to teach proper management and

care of the voice (1, p. 24). The human voice has tradi-

tionally been most often utilized by man to transmit the

emotional qualities of life. In all cultures, vocal styles

are used to reflect cultural differences (5, p. 11).

The logical place for early vocal training to begin is

in the elementary music classroom. Petzold found that "cor-

rect melodic reproduction is possible only when there is

adequate control of the singing mechanism . . (9,

p. 226). Wassum admonishes music educators to "encourage

vocal development as a conscious goal of the music program

. . . of equivalent value to the development of other music

skills" (15, p. 226). Sallstrom believes that music spe-

cialists should acquaint children with the knowledge that

each is equipped with an instrument capable of expressing

one's personality and should provide proper instruction on

the use of this instrument, teaching children to value their

voices so that singing remains/becomes natural (11, p. 22).

In order to instill correct vocal concepts in children,

it is of paramount importance that the instructional mate-

rials put into the hands of teachers are complete. These

materials should be of the nature that they can be easily

understood and used by both the classroom teacher and the

music specialist. The vocal training received by most young

children will be provided by an elementary teacher, not a

trained singer. Teacher's manuals of elementary music se-

ries should contain facts about the child voice, the normal

expectations at each grade level, and the teaching strate-

gies that develop the desired results. If teacher's

manuals are inadequate in this area, then it can be con-

cluded that children are being deprived of the kind of

instruction that could benefit them during youth and into

adulthood. Therefore, the study is important in that it

1. Examines the instructional materials in the teach-

er's manuals during a thirty year period and determines

whether the development of the child voice has been a con-

scious objective in the minds of persons who have authored

elementary music series;

2. Provides data showing the changes in attitude

toward the vocal development in children and the direction

of those changes during a thirty year period;

6

3. Provides a rationale for the revision of elementary

music series in order to facilitate the training of chil-

dren's voices by relating the results of the study to other

valid research.

Delimitations of the Study

The following delimitations were placed on the study.

1. The texts that were analyzed were delimited to

those published by the American Book Company and by the

Silver Burdett Company. An investigation into the pub-

lishing dates of various companies revealed that only three

companies published consistently from the beginning of

methodology in elementary music series, circa 1870. These

three companies included the two named above and Ginn and

Company. The last publication of Ginn and Company was

released in 1970; therefore, the publications of this

company were excluded from the study.

2. The text analysis was delimited to the books in-

tended for use with grades one, three^ and five. The use of

two coders in addition to the researcher made it necessary

to limit the material to be coded. Petzold found that a two

year interval was consistently significant in measuring the

musical growth of children (9, p. 163). According to series

authors, the developmental activities begun in grade one are

continuous throughout the series. The use of the books for

the grades listed above seemed valid for the study.

3. The data for this study were confined to the period

circa 1945 to 1975. An identical timeline for the two com-

panies could not be established because they did not release

their publications in the same years.

4. Revised, enlarged, or second editions of books were

not included in the analysis. A comparison between first

editions and revised editions revealed that little change

occurred, particularly in the written directions to teach-

ers. In most cases, observed revisions were in the form of

changes in the organizational features of the book, such as

the rearrangement of an index into a topical design.

Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined according to their use

in this study.

The term methodology refers to the written directions

that are intended to facilitate the learning situation and

to provide information necessary for aiding teachers in the

development of musicality in children.

The phrase vcical concepts refers to mental images of

tone production and/or of auditory experiences which remain

in the mind following a given experience (13, p. 15). Con-

cept is defined by Zimmerman as "a clear and complete

thought about something that has been acquired through sen-

sory perception" (16, p. 12). Regarding formation, she

states,

8

From our various perceptions of music, we develop the musical concepts that permit us to make com-parisons and discriminations, to organize sounds, to generalize, and finally, to apply the emerging concepts to new musical situations (16, p. 12).

The term range refers to the gamut of tones utilized

in the melodic structure of a song—the highest and lowest.

The term tessitura refers to the pitch region in which

most of the notes of a song lie, whether high or low in its

average pitch. If the general "lie" of a song is high, then

it is said to have a "high tessitura" (1, p. 839; 13, p.

238).

The phrase elementary music series refers to sets of

textbooks which are designed to provide a sequential music

program beginning with kindergarten and continuing through

the sixth grade. A series consists of at least six books

arranged in consecutive order according to grade or level

under a general title. The series may include teacher's

manuals, recordings, charts, and other related materials.

Other terms which may be used interchangeably by the in-

vestigator are basic music series and music text series.

The term imagery refers to mental images formed through

the use of language for expressing concepts which are dif-

ficult to understand literally (14, p. 261). This figur-

ative language helps the singer through the stimulation of

the memory and/or the imagination.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Andress, Barbara, Music Experiences in Early Childhood, Dallas, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980.

2. Apel, Willi, Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd. ed., Cambridge, Mass., The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1969.

3. Bayless, Kathleen M. and Marjorie E. Ramsey, Music: A Way of Life for the Young Child, Saint Louis, Mo., The C. V. Mosby Co., 1978.

4. Britton, Allen P., "Music Education: An American Spe-cialty," Music Educators Journal, XLVII (June-July, 1963), 27-63.

5. Crist, Christine, Joe Dunn, and Robert Revicki, "Song as a Measure of Man," Music Educators Journal, LXII (May, 1976), 26-35.

6. Haines, John E. and Linda L. Gerber, Leading Young Children to Music: A Resource Book for Teachers, Columbia, Ohio, Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1980.

7. Meyer, Leonard B., Music: The Arts and Ideas, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1967.

8. Moorhead, Gladys E. and Donald Pond, Music of Young Children: General Observations, Santa Barbara, California, Pillsbury Foundation for Advancement of Music Education, 1942.

9. Petzold, Robert C., "Auditory Perception of Musical Sounds by Children in the First Six Grades," Co-operative Research Project No. 1051, Washington, Office of Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966.

10. Pond, Donald, "The Young Child's Playful World of Sound," Music Educators Journal, LXVI (March, 1980), 39-41).

11. Sallstrom, Gunvor, assisted by Jan Sallstrom, "Singing Exercises that Develop and Liberate the Child Voice," The NATS Bulletin, XXIX (February-March, 1973), 22-24.

9

10

12. The School Music Program: Descriptions _& Standards, 1902 Association Drive, Reston, Va., Music Educators National Conference, 1974.

13. Simmons, Otis D., "A Conceptual Approach to Singing," The NATS Bulletin, XXVI (October, 1969), 15-17.

14. Vennard, William, Singing: The Mechanism and the Technic, rev. ed., New York, Carl Fischer, 1967.

15. Wassum, Sylvesta, "Elementary School Children's Vocal Range," Journal of Reisearch in Music Education, XXVII (Winter, 1979), 214-226.

16. Zimmerman, Marilyn P., Musical Characteristics of Children, 1902 Association Dr., Reston, Va., Music Educators National Conference, 1971.

CHAPTER II

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Music educators, through statements and written

recommendations, have guided the music education pro-

fession. Publications that include music series, music

method books, histories of music education, and periodicals

were read to determine what concepts of vocal developments

have been advocated by the music educators through the

years. The discussion is organized by periods beginning

with the introduction of music instruction into the

primary grades.

The Period 1870-1900

The post-Civil War period marked the beginning of an

era of rapid expansion in the United States in industry,

land development, and the field of education. Savage

relates,

Public school music was rapidly being in-cluded in the curriculum of most of the larger cities. Public interest in music was growing with the organization of many conservatories of music. Whereas the years preceding the Civil War had been an introductory period for most music in the schools, the decades 1870 to 1900 were marked by the development of a definite music pedagogy, by the establishment of training courses for music teachers, and by the production of well-planned teaching materials (34, p. 60).

Emphasis was placed on well-trained teachers. The

11

12

instructional structure was altered by the addition of the

primary school. The typical American school system con-

sisted of four major divisions: primary, intermediate,

grammar, and high schools (1, pp. 89-90).

Music had been taught in the grammar schools of Boston

for nearly twenty years before it was introduced into the

primary grades by official decree in 1857. The Boston

school committee concluded that music could not attain the

same degree of proficiency achieved in other subjects unless

instruction was extended into the lower grades. In 1864

Boston acquired the services of Luther Whiting Mason, who

initiated a unified system of music throughout the grades.

As elementary instruction spread, it became apparent that

the tunebook-based materials, intended for use with adults,

were inappropriate for use with children. Furthermore, as

music instruction increased, the responsibility of teaching

was shifted from the specialists to the classroom teachers,

creating a need for books that could provide simplified

instruction in music reading for both the teacher and the

student (22, pp. 110, 115; 38, pp. 76-77). As the role of

music specialist gradually became that of music supervisor,

it was within his realm of responsibility to direct the

whole program in a school and to compile the instructional

books that were used. John provides a description of the

atmosphere circa 1870 in which the first music texts were

created. He observes, "The controversial climate which

13

had produced the graded series was similar to that which

had produced the first instruction books nearly 150 years

earlier" (22, p. 103). The music supervisors compiled books

which were highly individual, reflecting the varied ap-

proaches to teaching music (10, p. 79).

The National Music Course3 compiled by Luther W. Mason

and published by Ginn and Company in 1870, is generally re-

cognized as the first graded series (22, p. 111). According

to Birge,

The title of the books proved prophetic, for their use became practically universal. A generation of school children became as familiar with their contents as a previous one had been with the Webster Speller. Luther Whiting Mason may be considered to be the founder of school methodology, for the National Music Course was not only the first completely planned course to receive national recognition—it was also the prototype of all the many methods which followed (1, p. 103).

A set of German method books, Hohmann's Practical

Course3 is reported to have served as Mason's model for de-

veloping his series (22, p. 111). The National Music Course

consisted of a group of seven books along with sets of

charts which were to assist in the music reading process.

The songs in the books were taken mostly from German folk

music. Novel ideas were expressed in the taching strate-

gies; however, the most profound influence on American music

lay in Mason's insistent advocacy of rote before note. He

became the champion of the rote song method (22, p. 111).

This break from the traditional method of the singing schools

14

placed him far in advance of his generation. Unlike many of

his contemporaries who were experienced singing masters,

Mason's experience was rooted in the public schools (1,

p. 107).

Mason believed that every child possessed the innate

ability to sing. Singing was a natural means of self-

expression. Proper employment of the child's speaking voice

in relation to the singing voice was emphasized in the

developmental procedures. The literature stressed comfort-

able voice ranges (10, p. 446). The ranges considered to be

appropriate were not mentioned.

Goodwin refers to the period 1865-1900 as "the era of

reading music" (14, p. 7). The controversy set in motion by

Mason was whether children should be taught by "the rote

method" or by "the note method." His rote method aligned

itself with the language reading techniques of the day. The

justification for his position was that sentences—songs—

represent the unit as opposed to words—fragmented reading

exercises (38, p. 72). He further states,

It is the idea as a whole, not the meaning of the separate words, which reaches his [the stu-dent's] mind. So in music, fragments must not be presented to him at the beginning. It should be borne in mind that this musical sense is a matter of instinctive feeling with the child. It is in him by nature, and our object is to unfold it (38, p. 73).

The instructional procedures stressed the musical

phrase and period as opposed to note-to-note singing.

15

Students were expected to learn the "musical alphabet" In

order to sing songs by note after having heard them by

rote (38, p., 73). This procedure came to be known as the

rote-note method of teaching. Early twentieth century music

series have songs designated specifically for use with the

technique.

Mason's books and his ideas were not to remain un-

challenged. Although several series were published, the one

which provided the greatest competition for the National

Music Course was the Normal Musio Course. Compiled by John

Tufts and Hosea Holt, the series was published by B. Apple-

ton and Company but soon thereafter became the property of

Silver Burdett and Company. Tufts and Holt championed sight

singing as the means of vocal development in children. The

theories advocated by the two men were in complete opposition

to those supported by Mason (38, p. 80). Complex exercises

were the mainstay of the progressive books, and song ma-

terial was selected to exploit skills previously learned in

the sight singing exercises (22, p. 71).

Music educators were divided upon the issue. Some were

aligned with the rudimentalists, stressing the elements of

music, while; others were in the camp of the combinationists,

stressing the interest of the pupil through singing (10,

p. 79). Holt felt that rote teaching placed music in-

struction on a false basis. Benjamin Jepson agreed, stating

that song singing—rote practice—-was the bane ' n ;

16

of all success in public school music (38, p. 71). However,

he expressed his concern regarding the tone quality of sing-

ing exhibited by the children in the New Haven Schools where

he was supervisor. He comments,

The 'quality of tone' in singing is very much im-proved throughout the schools, but I trust I may be pardoned for saying, that if the same pains were taken at every exercise through the year, as were in the preparation of children for examination, the "screaming" quality of tone would soon disappear (37, p. 119).

Downing states, "Jepson differentiated between note songs

for exercising the pupil's mental powers, and recreation

(rote) songs as diversion from academic studies" (10,

p. 195).

The Natural Musio Course, published by the American

Book Company in 1895, was perhaps the last outstanding se-

ries to emerge prior to the twentieth century. Compiled by

Thomas Tapper and Frederick Ripley, the series offered new

and novel ideas to simplify the learning and teaching of mu-

sic (22, pp. 114-115). John, quoting Ripley, notes,

"definition and theory were entirely eliminated. Numbers,

hand signs, ladders and the like were omitted. Rhythm was

joined to melody, and the interval as a study disappeared

from elementary work. All representations were musical and

complete" (22, p. 115).

In 1898, Ripley and Tapper published The Natural Musio

Serves: A Short Course in Musio. Note reading and rhythmic

drills in the form of phrase long exercises were a dominant

17

feature of the series. Little space was devoted to vocal

development. According to the authors, "it is the mind ra-

ther than the vocal organs that at first needs attention.

If the pupil hears the ideal tone, he will almost instinc-

tively imitate it" (33, p. 4). The best example for the

class was a child who possessed a good, natural tone quality

that could easily be matched. Through this method teachers

were assured of success even though they themselves were

deficient vocally (33, p. 4).

In 1898 the second edition of Francis E. Howard's book,

The Child-Voice in Singing3 was published. In the book,

Howard expresses his concern over the harsh, unnatural tone

qualities produced by children in the classroom. He set

down principles of good singing and offered solutions for

improving tone quality. Teachers were severely criticized

by Howard, who states that there was a "strong tendency in

the school room to emphasize the teaching of music 3 or

teaching about music, as contrasted with actual singing"

(17, p. 5). His approach to singing was through experience

and through knowledge of the physiological characteristics

of the vocal mechanism (17j p. 9).

In view of the fact that Howard's publication was a

great influence on the treatment of the child voice for many

years in public schools, his ideas deserve close scrutiny.

He states,

. . . children's voices, when properly used, are homogenous in tone.

18

The voices of boys and girls, prior to the age of puberty, are alike. The growth of the larynx, which in each is quite rapid up to the age of six years, then, according to all author-ities with which the writer is conversant, ceases, and the vocal bands neither lengthen or thicken, to any appreciable extent, before the time of change of voice, which occurs at the age of pu-berty .

The resemblance between the voices of boys and girls, a resemblance which amounts to identity, save that the voices of boys are stronger and more brilliant in quality, disappears at puberty (17, pp. 19, 22).

Howard recommends that ". . . children up to the age of

puberty, at least in class singing, should use the thin or

head register only" (17, p. 28). His advice was justified

on the basis that use of head register was safe from a

physiological standpoint; that the tones produced in this

manner were musical, pure, and sweet; and that use of the

chest voice was dangerous because it was difficult to con-

fine within its proper limits. Chest voice could be used

by children without injury to their voice only through pro-

per management. Since the child voice has no fixed points

of change, forcing the chest voice up into the head register

might create problems which could otherwise be diverted

through the exclusive use of the head register (17,

pp. 28-29; 40).

Two principles were stated as the basis of good tone

production for children's singing. First, children should

sing softly. Second, they should be restricted in compass

of voice. The best range for the first two or three years

19

1 2

was considered to be E to E . At that time, the practice

was to begin all singing in the key of C. Howard advised

teachers to present the songs in higher keys. He deplored

the practice of pitching the literature for young children

so low that they were sometimes forced to sing below middle

C. Exercises appropriate for vocal development remained

within the voice compass recommended (17, pp. 46, 51,

68-72).

Special attention was given to problems arising in the

care of boys' voices. Howard felt that boys experiencing

mutation should be allowed to continue to sing but that they

should retain as much of the head voice as possible. A com-

mon practice of that time was to assign the alto part to the

boys as the voice began to change in order to retain them in

the church choir. Howard labeled the practice as a form of

exploitation. He did, however, approve of assigning the in-

ner part to boys in an effort to aid them through mutation.

As the voice changed, the part was to be gradually lowered

until the voice settled into its new timbre (17, pp. 134-

135).

The Voice of the Boy by John J. Dawson deals with a to-

pic of much confusion—the period of voice change in boys.

Many teachers were of the opinion that singing should be

stopped during this period of a young man's life. Further-

more, there was a prevailing belief that boys who sang well

as children would not necessarily have a good adult voice.

20

Dawson theorized that boys should be encouraged to sing;

however, systematic training ought to begin early (8, p. 8).

Dawson divided his system of training into three per-

iods: the period of childhood, age 5-10; the period of

boyhood, age 10-15; and the period of adolescence, age 15

up. During the period of childhood, the boy's voice should

be treated in the same manner as a girl's voice because the

vocal conditions were felt to be identical. Due to a

strengthening process which occurs during the period of boy-

hood, the young boy benefited by singing alto in preparation

for the time when high notes in the head register would no

longer be comfortable. Boys were to be guided through the

gradual descent of voice change by using simple vocal exer-

cises. The age of adolescence, generally around age

fifteen, was the point considered appropriate for classifi-

cation of the male voice in terms of tenor or bass (8,

pp. 18, 28-30).

The Period 1900-1920

The last part of the nineteenth and the first decade of

the twentieth century witnessed a change in educational psy-

chology. Influenced by the theories of J. F. Herbert, G.

Stanley Hall, Francis W. Parker, and John Dewey, educational

procedures became more child-centered. Children were en-

couraged to exert their individuality in a more relaxed,

less drill-oriented school atmosphere , p. 165). Parker

21

asserted that the child could not be considered a miniatiUBe

adult. The child was now to be thought of as a product of

nature that matured as a result of a continual interaction

with his environment (38, p. 126). Hermann comments,

"the impact of the new philosophy had a positive influence

on music education. It not only justified its place in the

curriculum but it also gave music a more important

role. . . . It became . . . a unique and important ex-

perience in the development of the child" (16, p. 167). Al-

though music educators supported the direction indicated by

both Hall and Parker, there was some conflict concerning the

methods by which objectives should be achieved. One

functioning under Parker's premise would use rote singing

exclusively. On the other hand, Hall did not entirely dis-

miss knowledge and skill as a means of acquiring primary

goals. There appears to have been a preference for the

latter view (38, p. 126).

Many new publications emerged which supported the

child-oriented philosophy. Among them were The Congdon

Music Reader by W. L. Tomlins, The Song Series by A. E.

Bentley, and The Modern Music Series by Elenor Smith. The

following statement taken from the Preface of The Modern

Music Series provides an example of the kinds of specific

aims one might find in the books of this era:

There are two essential things to be con-sidered in the musical education of the child:

22

1st. The cultivation of the musical sense— the appreciation and love of music.

2nd. The development of the understanding in the elements of music—the ability to read at sight, etc.

These two phases of growth are in no way antagonistic to each other; on the contrary, the child can only grow properly in each through the influence of the other (35, p. 3).

While music reading remained a primary concern, the ap-

proach was now through songs or larger musical units as

opposed to note-to-note drill. Melodies were selected for

their beauty rather than abstract technicalities (38, pp.

135-140).

In 1903 Monroe collected data on tonal perception and

musical interests of young children. Studies were conducted

using children under six years of age in order to learn more

about their ability to learn scales and songs, their ability

to retain these skills once they had been gained, and their

interest in music. Monroe reported that five-to-six-year

old children learned scales quicker than the younger age

groups. A larger percentage of this group also was able to

sing scales correctly at a later testing date. The same age

group was more successful in learning and remembering rote

songs. In both instances, girls were superior to boys.

Large number differences between the testing groups and be-

tween the boys and girls raise questions regarding the

validity of Monroe's results. A child's mother was deemed

to be the greatest contributing factor toward instilling

musical interest (27, pp. 144-146).

23

A 1910 article by Weld provides insight into the cur-

rent attitudes regarding the vocal mechanism and its care.

The report is an assimilation of research conducted by

various vocal authorities. Of particular interest is his

discussion on the range of children's voices. The findings

of studies conducted by foreign researchers such as Paulsen,

Flatau, Gutzmann, and Garbini, revealed that children pre-

ferred a lower range than utilized by most elementary music

series. Gutzmann reported that both boys and girls had a

singing range of D to A at age six. By age twelve, the

girls had a range of D to F1 whereas a boy's range at the

same age was D to E"'" (39, pp. 155-156). Continuing, Weld

observes,

If these results are true for American chil-dren, the music offered them in the first four grades is certainly too high in pitch. It is quite true that 25 per cent of the children have a greater range; but great harm may accrue to the majority, by forcing them to sing notes, easily possible, only to a few (39, p. 156).

During this period, there were those music educators

who retained some of the concepts of the Spencerian period

which required a scientific approach to subject content, in-

cluding music. These educators supported a content-centered

curriculum as a means to develop mental discipline. Whereas

child-centered music educators were more concerned with the

development of the child's aesthetic nature, advocates of a

subject-centered approach felt that specific knowledge was

a means to man's complete fulfillment (38, pp. 78, 132^ 143).

24

Textbooks which reflected the more traditional philosophy

were The Melodic Readers by Ripley and Tapper, The New

Normal Music Course by Tufts and Holt, and The New Educa-

tional Music Course by McLaughlin and Gilchrist (38,

p. 144).

The stated aims of The New Educational Music Course

were "to inspire love of good music; to develop a musical

voice; to teach sight singing; to induce musical interpre-

tation" (26, pp. iii-iv). In the section devoted to vocal

development, the authors more fully explain their views.

The proper treatment of the child voice is of great importance and has received the utmost at-tention in these books. No elaborate scheme of voice culture is desirable or practicable in the elementary schools; but, beginning with the culti-vation of the head tone quality of the child voice through the descending scale, the few simple vital principles which induce breath control, proper tone direction, voice quality, and enunciation are pre-sented in specific voice drills and underlie the material of the entire course. . . . all selections are so placed in pitch and range as to conserve and foster the pupil's voice at that stage of his devel-opment. The aim is to establish so thoroughly a, correct use of the voice that the vocal poise is not lost when the attention is given to the intellectual demands of sight singing (26, p. iii).

The Hollis Dann Music Course was published in 1912 by

the American Book Company. Dann, a product of the old sing-

ing school, was a proponent of music reading; however, a

balance was maintained between the mechanical and the artis-

tic sides of the subject. According to Tellstrom, Dann was

an expert in the development of the child voice. Influenced

by his experience with William Tomlins, his work emphasized

25

beautiful singing. Dann did not agree with those who were

willing to sacrifice everything for the success of sight-

singing. Like Mason, he viewed music and language alike as

far as the learning process was concerned. Considering that

one learns to read language through imitation, rote singing

seemed to be the only logical way to commence the study of

music (6, p., 5). Sight-reading, initiated in the Second

Jeav Book, was viewed as a long, gradual process, dependent

upon the student's prepardness (7, p. 6).

Dann devoted a great deal of attention to the acqui-

sition of tone. He advised that children ought to be

encouraged to "sing with a mellow, flutelike tone, easily

and without effort" (6, p. 5). He also felt that the tone

production and quality peculiar to that of a good choir-boy

could be obtained in the school music class if teachers

would learn "to discriminate between good and bad tone and

to teach children correct tone prodution" (6, p. 5). He

states,

The one, true, musical way for children to sing is with the "thin, or head voice," This is the unanimous opinion of all the great au-thorities on the child voice. The tone is sweet and agreeable, mellow and musical. . . . By extending the thin, head voice downward, the so-called "break" is avoided, and all tendency to force and strain the voice and throat is removed . . . Unless under skill-ful direction, children in classes invaribly sing with a coarse, harsh, shouting tone which impairs and often ruins the voice, makes good singing impossible, and causes all manner of bad vocal conditions (6 , p. 6),

26

Dann warned against allowing children to sing in the

low compass of the voice on the basis that the practice en-

couraged them to sing in their "chest" voice, ultimately

leading to abmormal conditions. The recommended range for

b #1

first grade was E to F (5, p. 4). Scale studies pro-

vided in the text for vocal development consistently began

on E b and descended into the lower register, thus avoiding

the possibility of carrying "chest voice" into the upper

register. Physical irregularities affecting tone were to be

guarded against. Placed into this category were a stiff

jaw, rolled-up tongue, and puckered lips. Breathing exer-

cises were not recommended with young children because

clavicular (collar bone) breathing often was the end result.

Children unable to match pitches were not to actively parti-

cipate. Their out-of-tune singing would impede their

ability to hear the pitch properly (5, pp. 4-7).

Great empasis was placed upon the singing ability of

the teacher, who was instructed to sing with the same tone

quality that she expected to elicit in the children. Tea-

chers who could not sing well were counseled to secure aid

from those who could. Three books were suggested for study:

How to Train Children's Voices by T. Haskell Hardy, The

Child's Voice in Singing by F. E. Howard, and The Boy's

Voice by J. Spencer Curwen (5, p. 7).

With the rise of progressivism, attention was directed

toward the whole man, man as an individual as well as a part

27

of society. Progressivism represented a collection of

theories and beliefs. Tellstrom observes,

Progressivism was a movement of protest and re-action against traditional beliefs that had no scientific basis. . . . Progressivism dedicated itself to the development of the individual, without failing to realize that society as a whole must be improved (38, p. 169).

The implication for music education is that art was to be

for all, not; for the few. This attitude was to eventually

manifest itself in the unofficial slogan coined by Karl

Gehrkens and adopted by the Music Supervisors National Con-

ference: music for every child; every child for music (38,

p. 177).

A wide range of experience appeared to be essential to

the progressives. The theory that any act must include both

mental and physical activity was given support by the music

educators who served as spokesmen for the period. Emphasis

was now placed on physical response as a means for acquiring

a better understanding of the rhythmic elements in music

(38, p. 177). The Progressive Music Series, published in

1914 by Silver Burdett and Company, was designed to meet the

needs of the latest developments in music education. Edited

by Horatio Parker, Osborne McConathy, Edward Birge, and Otto

Meissner, the series contained four books, three teacher's

manuals, and a primary book for sight reading. Special

editions were designed to meet the individual needs of rural

schools, parochial schools, and schools in foreign countries.

There were two features of the music series that set it

28

apart from previous publications. First, the teacher's

manuals were more complete, having monthly lesson guides.

Second, the series was the first to provide recordings as

a part of the prescribed materials. The recordings had

two types of selections: those to be used in the devel-

opment of music appreciation, and those with selected song

materials taken from the children's books (14, pp. 23-24).

Among the suggestions for teaching in the primary

grades is a major section devoted to the child voice. In

several instances, the authors agree with the ideas ex-

pressed by Hoilis Dann: that children's singing should be

light, sweet, and melodious; that coarse, reedy tones should

be avoided; that loud, harsh effects or deep tones can cause

stress, possibly permanent damage; and that the muscles of

the neck, face, especially the jaw.,, lips, and tongue, should

be loose and relaxed during phonation (31, p. 15).

Suggestions given for development and/or improvement of

tone quality were to utilize the expressive qualities and

mood of the song; to turn well known, loved songs into vo-

calises by singing them on neutral syllables such as "loo,"

"no,""may,""me;" and to avoid undue boisterousness in the

singing tone, or by contrast, the unwanted hushed, breathy

quality. Lessons on vocal hygiene were recommended for

safe-guarding the voice. Both psychological and pedagogical

principles were claimed to have been used by the authors as

the basis for the suggested procedures (31, pp. 15-16).

29

The editors theorized that any child who was able to

hear and speak normally could be taught to sing. Children

who experienced difficulty were classified into the fol-

lowing categories: those whose attention span or lack of

attention prevented an adequate response to music; those

who could readily distinguish between songs and phrases of

songs but were unable to reproduce them; those whose pitch

memory was deficient, necessitating a breakdown of phrases

into motives which were sharply defined so that the child

could reproduce them; and those who possessed physical ab-

normalities which prevented correct tone production (31,

pp. 16-17)

The Period 1920-1940

During the 1920's, the scope of music education was

broadened. Peabody states, "a music education program which

included the general activities of singing, listening, play-

ing, and responding rhythmically to music came of age" (32,

p. 153). Two events were felt to have been influential in

enriching the elementary music program. First, World War I

had accelerated the status of music education far beyond the

expectations of everyone. McConathy comments, "What we ex-

pected would take years, and possibly decades, to bring

about in the way of general realization of the need of music

in the life was suddenly made obvious to the most casual ob-

server. . . (23, p. 5). Widespread interest in instrumental

30

music, generated in large part by the war, was not confined

to secondary schools. Instrumental music activities, such

as toy rhythm orchestras, were now incorporated into the

elementary music program (1, pp. 177-178).

Second, the advance in technology influenced the use of

recordings in the classroom. Radio programs were especially

designed for the young listener, causing more emphasis to be

placed upon music appreciation. The music memory contest

which became popular had the adverse effect of placing more

value on remembering the names of composers and compositions

than on appreciating the music (14, p. 26).

The series of the 1920's emphasized involvement with

music instead of the mechanics of music. Teaching proce-

dures were simplified and the drills, scale or interval

exercises, were abandoned. Melodic and rhythmic elements

were dealt with as they occurred in the song. Singing was

emphasized for its aesthetic value as well as its social

merit. The song material relied heavily on folk music with

a few songs by recognized composers. The texts were fre-

quently on topics assumed to be of interest to children (1,

pp. 174-175; 14, pp. 25-26).

Satis Coleman, a leading music educator of the

1920's, felt that children who came from a musical family

were more likely to sing well at an early age and that sing-

ing ought to be as spontaneous as speaking. With her,

vocal training began with rote singing. Inaccuracies

31

were due either to a lack of experience in the use of the

voice or inattention to the sound being imitated (4, pp.

100-103). She states that if the child "listens intently

to the tone he wishes to imitate and sings with a relaxed

throat, the tone will usually come approximately true" (4,

p. 103).

Vocal chants were used in the classroom as a form of

improvization and as a means of correcting poor intonation.

These chants were sentences that were sung on one pitch

level. Regarding the practice, Coleman says,

. . . I tried the experiment of having children sing entire sentences on one tone. Often we held lengthy conversations in the form of one-note chants, changing occasionally to another tone, but always singing steadily on pitch. This seemed to help the children very much to a realization of pitch; the physical sensation of steadily holding one tone gave them an experience in pitch control that seemed to make further singing easier. It seemed reasonable to suppose that the ability to hold the tone in one place would facilitate con-trol in adjusting the voice to different pitches (4, p. 104).

From a study of two- and three-note scales, the children ad-

vanced to an understanding of the pentatonic scale to which

they showed a partiality. They fell quite naturally into

the use of it in their improvizations (4, p. 107).

Coleman referred to monotones as the most elemental

singers. Since these children sing everything on or nearly

on one tone, she felt that they could be better helped by

first teaching them consciously to sing one steady tone. As

a child's singing improved, the power of voice control was

32

gradually increased by adding tones to the range. Playing

on the water glasses provided an additional aid for these

children. Concentrating all efforts—the brain, the hand,

the eye, and the voice—on the same melody helped the voice

to become truer in pitch. The soft tones of water glasses

were preferred because they blended better with the young

voice. Above all, every effort was to be made to avoid em-

barrassment to the child (4, p. 109). A further observance

by Coleman was "one's own nervous mechanism takes care of

adjusting the pitch of the voice, and one's conscious ef-

forts to help the fixing of those muscles usually hinder

rather than help" (4, p. 101).

The Musio Education Series, published in 1923 by Ginn

and Company, is considered to be a good example of the types

of books to emerge during this period. Edited by Ralph

Baldwin, T. P. Giddings, Will Earhart, and E. W. Newton, the

series was versatile in that a school system could, depend-

ing on its needs, select from a four, five, or eight book

course. The series completely eliminated the old exercises

associated with the note approach (14, pp. 26-27). The ed-

itors' viewpoint on vocal development is "an attractive

singing tone must be cultivated, for a child's voice can be-

come a wonderful instrument, and when used correctly, it can

possess the power of making beautiful music" (13, p. 5).

Teachers requiring more than the brief description of

children's vocal capabilities were referred to F. E.

33

Howard's book (17). Vocal "calls" were suggested for use in

the cultivation of good tone production. The "calls" were

felt to be useful in a variety of ways for the student and

the teacher alike. Large intervals were to be used first.

Extended, complex "calls" sung in a legato style were con-

sidered to benefit the development of an even tone quality.

Breath capacity could be aided through lengthening the final

tones of phrases (13, pp. 10-13).

Children who were unable to match pitches were referred

to as "defective singers." The first step in tuning these

voices was to teach them how to produce a smooth tone.

Learning to use the voice in combination with others was im-

portant; therefore, defective singers were to be placed in

the front of the room with the good singers seated behind

them. Soft singing was considered necessary in order to ad-

just the voice to the true pitch (13, p. 12).

Clark states that in the late 1920's, there was a grow-

ing consciousness of the relationship of school music to the

social and economic trends. The "Art for Art's Sake" atti-

tude, inherited from private teachers, gave way to the

realization that, in mass education, it was necessary to in-

tegrate music into the problems of everyday living (3, p.

26). Silver Burdett embodied these ideas in their 1929

publication, The Music Hour, which had several unique fea-

tures. First, music appreciation was integrated into every

musical activity. Second, there was a correlation of music

34

to other subject areas such as literature, art, history, and

geography. Third, bodily movement was closely aligned with

the development of rhythmic expression (14, p. 29).

The series has three teacher's manuals in which activi-

ties for each level of vocal development are outlined. In

the kindergarten and first grade manual, the description of

the child voice reflects little change in the ideas ex-

pressed in the series predecessor The Progressive Music

Series or in the Hollis Dann Series. Imagery played a large

role in the suggested procedures for developing the neces-

sary ability to control the kinesthetic action of the

throat. Small animals, whistles, and sirens were among the

imitative devices recommended for helping the young child

discover the associative feelings related to head tone.

Motions were added to help secure melodic conceptuality (25,

pp. 189-192).

The developmental activities in the Intermediate Book

are more sophisticated. One finds the following:

1. Vocalize familiar songs on a neutral syllable . . . going as high as is easy and unforced.

2. Sing scales and tonic chord figures down . . . 3. Sing the words of a phrase of a song on one

pitch to secure a smooth tone and to retain the same good quality when singing different vowels and consonants. Sing only as high as is very easy.

4. Sing phrases, motives and figures occuring in songs, on neutral syllables, on so-fa syllables, and with words working for light ringing head quality (24, pp. 14-15).

Special exercises were provided for both boys and girls

35

during voice change. In order to provide possible solutions

for the special problems experienced by students at this

point in their vocal development, the text editors desig-

nated exercises which were more appropriate "for girls,"

"for boys," and "for boys and girls" (24, p. 15).

In the 1930's, a wealth of new psychological data came

to the fore which proved highly significant (38, p. 225).

Musical experiences now advocated were to provide growth for

the "whole child" (36, p. 34). Three kinds of musical acti-

vities were necessary for a favorable music program:

listening, performing, and creating. Singing remained at

the core of the entire program. An appreciation and under-

standing of music became the highest aim as opposed to the

acquisition of skills. It also became necessary for music

to establish contact with other phases of school work (38,

pp. 225-226).

Books intended for use in teacher preparation courses

reveal the opinions expressed by leading music educators of

the period. Dykema regarded singing as a basic activity for

its own value and for its developmental qualities into other

activities. In the primary grades, most of the emphasis was

to be placed on learning to sing with a beautiful quality

and on learning to sing in tune. The causes given for mono-

tone singing were lack of practice in singing, shyness, lack

of attention or careful listening- use of low or chest tones,

physical defects,- and poor musical endowment. Dykema felt

36

that it was unwise to allow monotones to participate in

fast moving songs. Singing sustained tones allowed more

vocal control (11, pp. 23-25),

Dykema also points out that the added maturity and

firmness of the voices of children in the intermediate

grades permits more emphasis on the elements of beautiful

singing—"light, well-sustained tones, differing in color

and force according to the mood or sentiment of the song"

(11, p. 40). Children were to be directed in proper breath-

ing and posture habits for singing. Facial expression and

enunciation were brought into focus as conveyers of text

meaning; however, they were not to get in the way of good

tone. As part singing was developed, children were to be

made aware of the necessity of careful listening for blend-

ing and tuning their voices to the rest of the class (11,

P- 41).

Researchers began to take an active interest in provid-

ing scientific data to educators which would help them to

understand the capabilities of children. In 1931 Jerseld

and Beinstock (19) tested the influence of training on the

vocal ability of three-year-old children. The results re-

ported were contradictory to generally accepted practices of

that time. Their findings concurred with the information re-

ported by Weld (39) that children's voices were placed

lower than commonly supposed. Although the experimentation

was approached at the pitch level considered to be accurate

37

for young children, the procedure had to be revised. Trans-

position into a lower key frequently enabled a child who had

previously remained silent to successfully participate (19,

p. 279).

The results refuted the general opinion that chromatic

intervals ought to be avoided in the song literature for

young children. Interval tests indicated that smaller

intervals (seconds and thirds) were more readily reproduced

than the larger ones (fourths and fifths) and that minor

seconds were often utilized by children during spontaneous

vocalizations (19, p. 280). With these facts in mind, the

directions in The Music Education Series (13) to use large

intervals for voice tuning activities might be considered

less useful.

Practice was found to have a positive effect on all

singing activities. The researchers also reported that the

children reacted very favorably to the testing situation,

frequently asking to participate. Range and interval dupli-

cation were markedly increased through systematic practice

(19, p. 290).

A second study by Jersild and Beinstock, 1934, investi-

gated the vocal capabilities of children at different age

levels, the effects of training on improvement, and the best

training methods. Children and adults were used in the

study. The criterion of the research was pitch, not the

quality of tone. A subject's score was an indicator of his

38

ability to reproduce the tone presented to him by singing

it. Extreme ranges and interval reproduction were tested.

In terms of range, findings indicated that children had

the capacity to produce a wide range of tones at an early

age, and realized a large portion of their potential pitch

range during the first three grades of school. Emphasis was

placed on vocal training in the lower grades to aid students

in the acquisition of vocal skill and to help prevent the

formation of habits of disuse which might avert the

child from realizing his full vocal potential in later

years. The results of the study reaffirmed findings of the

earlier research that children were able to sing in a lower

range and to reproduce chromatic intervals successfully.

Implications for music educators were that the pitdh level

of songs should be adjusted to fit the child's natural range

and that song material should not be restricted to materials

that avoid certain intervals (20, pp. 481-484, 489-490,

492-497).

Hattwick's (15) investigation in 1933 centered on de-

termining the mean range and the mean pitch level of — ~

preschool, first grade, and second grade children when vol-

untarily choosing and singing any song. A control group was

given practice periods to determine if children would sing

in the pitch range and at the pitch level of the practice

period. The findings were compared to songs printed in

music series (15, p. 281).

39

Hattwick reported that the mean pitch level used by

children in all the age groups tested was significantly

lower than the pitch level for the same songs printed in

song material sources. The mean pitch range of pre-

school children in semitone value was significantly smaller

than that found in music texts. The mean pitch range of

first and second graders was found to be equal to that in

music series. A comparison of mean pitch levels indicated

that all groups with known and unknown practice sang signi-

ficantly lower than they were taught to sing. It was

concluded that children sing at a pitch level of their own

choosing (15, p. 290).

Mursell and Glenn declared that singing was for musical

development and for growing joy in music. Their interests

lay in developing "a musically intelligent singing voice, ra-

ther than a mechanically trained instrument" (28, p. 278).

Parallels were drawn between singing and speaking. Stress

was placed on the song material to be used (28, p. 280).

Several aspects were considered essential for good

tone. Children ought to be trained to sing using only the

head voice—a directive common to all music educators. Ima-

gination and emotional reactions were felt to influence

the quality of the tone. The authors state that emotions

can cause tenseness; therefore, anything that interfered

with a pupil's pleasant feeling would adversely affect tone

and would work against proper voice control. Breath

40

control was to be developed through proper phrasing (28,

pp. 282-296).

The educators believed that vocal development should

not be toward mechanical precision, rather towards flexible

and intelligible control (28, p. 293). They state, "the

singing instrument is the entire personality, physical and

mental. It is not the child's voice that sings. It is the

child who sings" (28, p. 285). Furthermore, they disagreed

with formal rules that were substituted for musical expres-

siveness. Singing with a hushed tone was objected to stren-

uously. Overstrain was warned against; however, perpetual

soft singing was not advocated because it could lead to bad

vocal error and a breathy quality. Vocal action that was

not in terms of human value, meanings, and desires was con-

demned (28, p. 285). in their opinion, "the child must: sing

because he loves to sing or not at all" (28, p. 286).

Norton's brief comments about singing were primarily

directed toward aiding the monotone singer and the adoles-

cent boy. Her procedures for teaching the monotone were

similar to those already reviewed. She recommended that

teachers should use imitative devices and have children sing

on the vowel "o" and "oo." Norton agreed with Mursell and

Glenn in that the "hushed tone" only served to repress the

natural, joyous freedom of singing (30, pp. 49-52).

The relationship between an adolescent boy and his

teachers was felt to be a determining factor in whether or

41

not a boy retained his interest in music past the point of

mutation. Easy material in the proper range was advised.

Emphasis was placed on making certain that the boy remained

at ease with himself and with his peers during this period

(30, pp. 94-95).

In 1934, Gehrkens' writing referred to Howard's (17)

book, stating that it had influenced many teachers and

supervisors. Howard's principles were the basis for the re-

commendations made by Gehrkens, who considered four items to

be important in the training of children's voices: light

singing in the head voice, careful listening to their own

voice, correct range—limited to the staff--and good pos-

ture. Non-singers could be helped by having them sing a

neutral syllable on a high tone, by singing musical "calls,"

and by singing tones into the child's ear, then having him

match the tone. Gehrkens advised that the better singers

should be placed in the back of the room. Listening to re-

cordings was also felt to be helpful to children in fixing

an image of beautiful tone (12, pp. 32-35; 39, 89-95).

Hubbard's directions were more general in nature. He

agreed with the premise that children should sing, using the

head voice. He believed that children would benefit if

grouped by ability for singing in the same way they would be

for reading—Blue Birds, Yellow Birds, and Red Birds.

Furthermore, a Blue Bird could help a Red Bird by standing by

him and singing in his ear (18, pp. 56-63; 123-126).

42

Early in the 1930's, American Book Company published

Books of Songs by Robert Foresman. The series provided lit-

tle new information, conforming, for the most part, to the

generally accepted theories governing the voices of chil-

dren current with the time. The Wovtd of Musi-a Sevies3 pub-

lished by Ginn and Company in 1935, exemplifies the

principles of the time. The editors are Mabelle Gleni), Helen

Geavitt, Victor Rebmann, and Earl Baker (9, pp. 133-141; 21,

pp. 126-138). Most of the song material consisted of folk

songs. However, due to simplification of the music and the

texts, they were not true representations. Suggestions for

teaching were relegated primarily to the task of teaching

music reading (14, p. 33). The World of Music represented

the first series where there was an attempt on the part of a

publisher to include all of the musical activities of the

school program in one series. It was widely accepted and

approved (29, p. 50).

In 1937, Borland expressed the opinion that the foun-

dations of all music education should be laid in the school

class and that the singing voice was the most practical me-

dium. There appeared to be two schools of thought about

desirable tone quality. Teachers were to resist the in-

fluence of those who recommended "hearty" singing. Instead,

the true baby—tone, the flute—like little voice that the

tiny child uses naturally, the voice that floats, that needs

no effort" should be cultivated (2, p. 18).

43

Poor singing was attributed to the inability of tea-

chers to select the correct singing compass for young

voices. Books that limited the child to a range of an oc-

tave, C to or D " were considered inappropriate. Borland,

like others, was an advocate of a medium range, E*5 to E 3"*",

that would insure development of the head voice (2, pp.

18-19). His stated opinions reveal either an ignorance

or a non-belief of the research results produced by Hattwick

(15), Weld (39), or Jersild and Beinstock (19, 20) who found

children's singing preference to be in a lower compass.

Proper breathing habits were emphasized. Concise di-

rections were provided to help children experience expansion

at the central diameter of the body. Teachers were told to

avoid violent hand-signs, loud and sharp orders, or in-

structions that required children to "hold their breath"

(2, p. 21).

The vocal resonators were explained by Borland. The

areas described were the mouth, the tube of the neck above

the larynx, and the nasal passages. The nasal passages and

the mouth were classified as the upper resonators, respon-

sible for adding richness and volume to the sound. Voice

placing exercises began on D" and did not go lower than D.

The tonal direction always preceded downward in order to

cultivate head voice and to avoid pulling chest tones into

the wrong register. The syllables "loh" or nloo" and hum-

ming were recommended for securing a good tone. Tone

44

expansion was best achieved using words such as moon, moan,

and morn,whereas the soft, humming consonants aided in se-

curing a forward, resonant tone (2, pp. 23-27).

Five books were listed for further study: Practical

Lessons in School Singing by T. Haskell Hardyj Voice Culture

for Children by James Bates; Young Singers: Their Voice

Cultivation and Preservation; The Training of Children's

Voices by Walter Carroll; and The Voice by W. A. Aiken

(2, pp. 28-29). Bates, who was highly respected by Borland,

was quoted as saying,

. . . the child's voice is a sacred trust, a seed to be so carefully nurtured that, later, the po-tentialities within it may have unimpeded development. . . . The teacher who successfully instills the principles of correct singing, and thereby renders possible the lifelong use and enjoyment of a pleasing voice, is conferring on his young charges a boon of inestimatible value. This thought should be his constant encourage-ment in times of difficulty and lack of immediate success (2, pp. 28-29).

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Birge, Edward Bailey, History of Public School Music in the United States, rev. ed., Washington, D. C. , Music Educators National Conference, 1966.

2. Borland, John E., Musical Foundations, 2nd. ed., London, Oxford University Press, 1932.

3. Clark, Frances Elliott and others, "Fifty Years of Music Education in America," Music Educators Journal, XXXVI (April-May, 1950), 23-26.

4. Coleman, Satis N., Creative Music for Children, New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1922.

5. Dann, Hollis, Hollis Dann Music Course: Complete Ma:n-ual for Tfeachers, New York, American Book Co., 1912.

6. > Hollis Dann Music Course : First Year Music, New York, American Book Co., 1914.

7 . , Hollis Dann Music Course: Second Year Music Course, New York, American Book Co., 1915.

8. Dawson, John J., The Voice of the Boy, New York, Laidlaw Brothers, Inc., 1919.

9. Dominy, Elizabeth E., "Music Textbooks in Elementary Education: The Appropriateness of Current Text-book Materials in Elementary School Music in Relation to the Aims and Purposes of Modern Ele-mentary Education," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Music, New York Univer-sity, 1958.

10. Downing, Eldon R., "An Analysis of the Objectives and Methods of Principal Nineteenth Century Elementary Vocal Instruction Books," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Fine and Applied Arts, Boston Univertisy, 1966.

11. Dykema, Peter W. and Karl W, Gehrkens, The Teaching and Administration of High School Music, Boston, C. C. Birchard and Co., 1941.

45

46

12. Gehrkens, Karl W., Music in the Schools, Boston, C. C. Birchard and Co., 1934.

13. Giddings, Thaddeus P. and others, Music Education Series: The Teachers Book, Dallas, Ginn and Co., 1925.

14. Goodwin, Allen W., "School Music Textbooks Published in Graded Series: An Introductory Historical Re-view," unpublished research paper, School of Music, North Texas State University, 1976.

15. Hattwick, Melvin S., "The Role of Pitch Level and Pitch Range in the Singing of Preschool, First Grade, and Second Grade Children," Child Development, IV (December, 1933), 281-291).

16. Hermann, Edward J., Supervising Music in the Elementary School, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965.

17. Howard, Francis E., The Child-Voice in Singing, rev. ed., New York, The H. W. Gray Co., 1895.

18. Hubbard, George E., Music Teaching in the Elementary School, New York, American Book Co., 1934.

19. Jersild, Arthur T. and Sylvia F. Beinstock, "The In-fluence of Training on the Vocal Ability of Three-Year-Old Children," Child Development, II (March, 1931), 272-291.

20 . ' "A Study of the Development of Children's Ability to Sing," The Journal of Educational Psychology, XXV (October, 1934), 481-503.

21. John, Robert W., "A History of School Vocal Instruction Books in the United States," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Music, Indiana University, 1953.

22 . , "Nineteenth Century Graded Vocal Se-ries," Journal of Research in Music Education, III (Fall, 1954), 103-118.

23. McConathy, Osbourne, "Big Ideas from Saint Louis," Music EdUca.tors Journal, VI (September, 1919), 5-8.

47

24. McConathy, Osbourne and others, The Music Hour: Intermediate Teacher's Book, New York, Silver Burdett and Co., 1929.

25. The Music Hour in the Kindergarten and First Grande, New York , Silver Burdett and Co., 1929.

26. McLaughlin, James M., George A. Veazie, and W. W. Gilchrist, The New Educational Music Course: First Music Re>ader, Dallas, Ginn and Co., 1906.

27. Monroe, Will S., "Tone Perception and Music Interest of Young Children," The Pedagogical Seminary, X (March, 1903), 142-146.

28. Mursell, James L. and Mabelle Glenn, The Psychology of School Music Teaching, New York, Silver Burdett and Co., 1931.

29. Neil, Ronald J., "Fifty Years of Music Texts," Educational Music Magalzine, VIII (November-December, 1951), 31, 48-50.

30. Norton, Alma M., Teaching School Music, Los Angeles, California, Crawford Publishing Co., 1932.

31. Parker, Horatio and others, The Progressive Music Series: Teacher's Manual, Vol. I, Boston, Silver Burdett and Co., 1919.

32. Peabody, Ida Isobel, "Music by Recognized Composers in Elementary School Music Textbooks Published in the United States 1870 Through 1959," unpublished doc-toral dissertation, School of Music, Indiana University, 1963.

33. Ripley, Frederick H. and Thomas Tapper, National Music Series: A Short Course in MUsic, Book I, New York, American Book Co., 1898.

34. Savage, Edith Jones, "The Development of Instruction in Music Reading in Public Schools of the United States," unpublished doctoral thesis, School of Education, University of Missouri, 1960.

35. Smith, Eleanor, The Alternate Third Book of Vocal Music: Modern Music Series, New York, Silver Burdett and Co., 1903.

48

36. Smith, Hermen F. , "Fifty Years of Music Education in America," Music Educators Journal, XXXVI (June-July, 1950), 34-37.

37. Sunderraan, Lloyd F., Historical Foundations of Music Education in the United States, Matuchen, N. J., The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1971.

38. Tellstrom, A. Theodore, Music in American Education: Past and Present, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. , 1971.

39. Weld, Harry P., "The Mechanism of the Voice and Its Hygiene," The Peidagogical Seminary, XVIII (June, 1910), 143-159.

CHAPTER III

RELATED LITERATURE

The related literature to be discussed herein has

been divided into two sections: studies which have dealt

with some aspect of the vocal capabilities of children

and studies which have dealt with the analysis of the

content of elementary music series.

Vocal Capabilities of Children

Research Studies

Adcock (1), Wilson (26), and Wassum (25) tested the

voices of children in order to provide pertinent student

vocal range information. The data were expected to assist

in estimating the characteristic vocal ranges of elementary

and middle school aged children. The primary purpose of

each study was to establish the outer perimeters of vocal

compass by having the children sing as high or as low as

possible. Voice quality was not a consideration. Adcock

and Wilson correlated their findings with music textbooks

currently in use in order to evaluate the materials in terms

of ranges preferred by children. To procure the data^ they

tested the children individually by having them sing scale

patterns and by having them sing a song, one of their choice

49

50

(1, p. 16) or one designated by the researcher (25, p. 216;

26, p. 16). Wilson and Wassum designed longitudinal studies

in order to observe the vocal developmental characteristics

of children. These data also permitted the comparison of

growth patterns between boys and girls.

Wassum and Wilson reported a positive correlation

between growth patterns and range development; therefore,

children's voices develop at different rates in all grades

(25, p. 225; 26, p. 164). They found that children pre-

ferred singing in ranges lower than the average range of

songs in the 1962-1966 textbooks, creating a shortage of

songs that children could comfortably sing (1, p. 58; 26,

1 2

p. 165). Singing below the range of E to E will not

damage children's voices if the tone is not forced (26, p.

165). Range levels were shown to be greater and they ex-

tended higher than previously reported (25, p. 225). Wassum

reported no significant differences in range with regard to

sex (25, p. 225). Adcock and Wilson concurred with this

finding with the exception of age eleven at which point the

male range decreases preceding puberty (1, p. 58;26, p.165).

Implications for the classroom were noted. First,

songs should be used that do not exceed the vocal limi-

tations for most children of a particular age group. Key

adjustments ought to be made if necessary (26, p. 176).

Second, some songs selected should have wide ranges in

order to stimulate vocal development. Third, vocal

51

development should be encouraged as a conscious goal of

the music program of equivalent value to the development

of other music skills (25, p. 225). Elementary music

teachers need to know more about vocal techniques as ap-

plied to the child voice and the psychology of learning in

that area (26, p. 166).

Kirkpatrick (12) and Smith (23) devoted their energies

toward examining the effect of certain variables on the

singing abilities of young children. Kirkpatrick explored

"the child's home musical environment and other pre-school

music influences" (12, p. 2). To accomplish his purpose,

he devised a rating system, based on musical criteria, that

would differentiate the singing abilities of children. He

hoped to determine the relationships that existed between

the home musical environment and singing performance and

to discover which musical situation—home environment or

pre-school environment—was the most influential. The

judgement criterion for the study was limited to the melodic

precision of the singer. Subjective factors- such as rhythm,

beauty of tone, and musical expression, were omitted (12,

pp. 2-3, 8). The data were collected through personal in-

terviews conducted by the reseacher in one hundred fifty-

three homes and through the tape recorded responses of

five-year-old children singing any and all songs they knew.

The percentages of correct tones sung over the course of a

child's best performed song determined singing ability.

52

Children were categorized as 1. singers—those who sang 90

per cent or more correct tones without loss of tonality;

2. partial—singers—those who sang 75 to 89 per cent correct

tones with one or more loss of tonality; and 3. non-

singers those who sang less than 74 per cent correct tones

and could not establish tonality. A Conn Chromatic Strobo-

scope was used to aid in the judgement of correct tones. An

analysis of the performance revealed the range and preferred

starting tones, keys, and pitch levels which were then com-

pared with the song material in the state adopted Birohard

Musio Series: Kindergarten Book (12, pp. 71-85).

Kirkpatrick reported the following.

1. Of the children tested, 51.7 per cent were classi-

fied as singers, 28.5 per cent as partial-singers, and 19.8

per cent as non—singers. The favored range of the singers

a n d partial-singers was G below middle C to B b l. The

highest tone sung was E and the lowest tone was fourth

line F in the bass clef. The children preferred singing in

their lower range and most often sang in the keys of A, B,

C, D b, and E b (12, pp. 152-154).

2. A strong relationship existed between a child's

singing ability and his home musical environment. The bet-

ter singers came from homes where the children were involved

in the actual singing process. Gf most significance among

the activities were parental singing with/to the child,

consistent help and encouragement in learning to sing,

53

musical conversations, family participation in singing and

musical instrument playing, and parents who had studied

music. Musical stimulation outside the home was minimal.

The child's mother was felt to exert the greatest in-

fluence; however, support from other adults was considered

important in a child's vocal development (12, pp. 155-156).

3. The song repertoire utilized by the sample was

extremely varied. Nursery rhymes and folk songs were pre-

dominant. Popular music was of little interest indicating

that radio and television were not a great influence. Mu-

sical tastes seemed to depend on musical and word

satisfaction. (12, p. 155).

The purpose of Smith's study was "to plan, implement,

and report the effectiveness of a specialist-directed vocal

skill-centered music program for two nursery school groups"

(23, p. 11). A Junior Group, twenty three-year-old chil-

dren, and a Senior Group, twenty-one four-year-old children,

were used in the project to test the hypothesis that "a vo-

cal skill-centered program directed by a music specialist is

both applicable and appropriate to a nursery school" (23,

p. 11). Smith pointed out that the previous studies of

Jersild and Beinstock and of Updegraff, Heileger, and

Learned had not utilized group training techniques. Fol-

lowing a three week orientation period, a pre-test was

administered to the subjects by the investigator. During

the study, the children received fifteen to twenty minutes

54

of instruction three times a week for the first testing

period. Interviews with parents provided data needed to

determine the extent to which training had been trans-

ferred to the home. A comparison was made of the study

results with professional literature suggestions and with

previous research (23, pp. 12-14, 21).

Training was centered around range expansion, lower

range singing accuracy, and successful transition from the

lower to the upper register. Songs selected for use during

the training period had a variety of ascending and descend-

ing intervals, repeated melodic segments, and repeated text.

Specific training techniques, including vocal calls and phy-

sical movement integrated with vocal exploration, were

chosen to help the children gain control of their upper

singing register (23, pp. 38, 48, 54).

Smith reported that large-group, specialist-directed

training had a positive effect on both age groups. Ini-

tially, less than one third of the Junior Group (N=20) were

able to sing accurately in the lower range. By the end of

the study, eleven students achieved perfect scores on all

lower range intervals and the remaining students showed a

marked improvement. The pre-test results of the Senior

Group (N=21) indicated that only three could sing accurately

in the lower range. Their improvement was greater and more

rapid than the Junior Group. Fifteen students sang with

complete accuracy on the final test. Upper range training

55

was not as successful with either group. Interviews with

parents indicated that the incidence of singing at home was

greater and more tuneful; therefore, a transfer from school

to home seemed to have taken place. Smith further reported

that the findings of his study agreed with the results of

other similar studies but did not agree with the viewpoints

found in professional literature. He recommended the use of

songs limited to the C to F, or D to G range in early train-

ing stages, gradually expanding the range upward (23, pp.

90-96).

Boardman's interest lay in determining "the relation-

ship between maturation and the development of vocal

accuracy in young children" and "the effect of pre-school

training on that development" (3, p. 4). Three objectives

were stated: 1. to obtain information that could clarify

confusion regarding the optimum time for training young

children, 2. to provide more data concerning the appro-

priate ranges used in training, and 3. to furnish evidence

about normal patterns of vocal maturation in children

(3, p. 4).

A total of ninety-two children participated in the

study. Forty-six children who had experienced a vocal

skill-centered program under the direction of Smith (23) at

the University of Illinois Child Development Laboratory

formed the Experimental Group. A Comparison Group consisted

of an equal number of children in the same classrooms who

56

had not participated in the early training program. The

numbers for each grade level were equal: kindergarten

(N=16), first grade (N=15), and second grade (N=15). Other

variables considered in the selection of the population were

age, sex, and the socio-economic background of parents (3,

pp. 27-28).

For testing purposes, twenty tonal patterns were se-

lected from the forty-seven configurations identified by

Petzold (15) in his studies as being the most common. One

pattern was altered through the addition of high "do" so

that upper ranges could be tested. The tonal patterns were

grouped into three categories according to range: lower

range—c' to a', middle range—f1 to c'1, upper range—c1'

to a''. Words which were added to the tonal patterns de-

termined the rhythmic flow (3, pp. 29-30).

The tonal patterns, sung by a woman, were recorded.

The children were tested individually. The criterion for

evaluation was the ability to accurately reproduce the tonal

figures heard on the recording. There was no training prior

to the test (3, p. 35). The results were subjected to sta-

tistical analysis appropriate for each stated hypothesis.

In order to determine the consistency of the scoring proce-

dure, two independent raters were used. Coefficients of

correlation between the investigator and each rater were ob-

tained. A high correlation of .911 was reported (3,

pp. 46-47).

57

The following results were reported by Boardman.

1. There was no difference in the vocal accuracy of

children who had experienced vocal skill-centered training

at the pre-school level and of those who had not received

such training (3, p. 79).

2. Early training can accelerate the developmental

process; however, it does not affect the end-product in any

other manner. Once children who have not been given the

training are allowed to experience the same musical

situations, their abilities become equal (3, p. 80). These

findings are contrary to those reported by Smith (23) that

nursery children are better singers than those in regular

elementary schools (3, p. 82).

3. Maturation had an effect on; scores. There was an

improvement with each successive grade level (3, p. 81).

4. The students experienced more tone matching dif-

ficulty in the upper range—c" to a"—than in the lower and

middle ranges. The lack of consistent difference in scores

implies that the range of tonal patterns may not be as im-

portant as other studies have implied (3, p. 81).

In concluding, Boardman states, " . . . The problem of

vocal training seems to be primarily a question of 'if'

rather than 'when.' Vocal experience must occur at some

period during the early elementary years" (3, p. 84). She

agreed with Wassum (25) that children's inability to sing

patterns which included tones above f" might be due to

58

inexperience. A lack of consistent significant difference

in range ability suggested that young children may be able

to sing over a wider range than generally supposed.

Boardman suggested that teachers of these children might in-

clude songs having a wider range in order to avoid limiting

the child's range (3, p. 85). The recommendation was made

for further research into the development of aural acuity

and its relationship to singing and for experimentation in

the field of methodology (3, p. 86).

Petzold conducted a five-year, longitudinal study in

order "to determine the differences between children at each

of the first six grade levels in the ways in which they per-

ceive and respond to the auditory presentation of musical

sounds" (19, p. 5). The identification of within- and

between-grade differences would allow for a more precise

definition of the growth patterns that could exist "in the

development of the child's 'ear response' to musical ele-

ments" (10, p. 5). Furthermore, the establishment of

competence levels could serve as a guide for the development

of music reading programs (19, p. 5).

Subjects for the study were randomly selected from the

public schools. Initially, the study was to include all six

grades; however, the plan was altered so that only grades

one, two, and three were used. The reasons given for the

change were that the data collected over a two- or three-

year period would be limited, and that the design

59

of the project permitted the administration of a restricted

number of tests within any given year. Measures were taken

by Petzold to insure that the numbers of children to be used

in the study for the collection of data would remain consis-

tent throughout the timespan (19, pp. 15-18).

Commercial testing measures were not available for the

project. Consequently, tests were constructed for each part

of the investigation. Test items had to be of a nature that

they could readily be understood by the child. To satisfy

this criterion, Petzold most often utilized patterns or

figures frequently encountered in elementary music texts.

Pilot studies were conducted to test the effectiveness of

each instrument prior to its use in the study. In order to

secure uniformity of the testing procedure, test items were

recorded. The children, all of whom were tested indivi-

dually, were required to make an overt musical response to

the aural presentation of the test items. A singing re-

sponse was usually required because this activity was a

familiar part of the music program. Pupil responses were

also recorded (19, pp. 5-7).

Three hypotheses were stated.

1. Age and musical experience are significant factors in the development of auditory per-ception .

2. The auditory perception of musical sounds is significantly affected when two or more musical elements are combined to create more complex auditory situations.

3. Definite patterns of musical development can be identified with respect to:

60

a. The perception of short melodic fragments and the perception of larger musical seg-ments.

b. The perception of rhythmic patterns. c. The ability to maintain a steady tempo. d. The ability to respond successfully to

melodic fragments that are given com-plex harmonic treatments (19, p. 8).

Four areas were tested. Children were first given the

task of learning a four measure phrase after hearing it no

more than ten times. A process of listening and responding

was repeated until the child either accurately reproduced

the phrase two times in succession or had heard all ten

presentations. Children were given no assistance by the

examiner (19, pp. 89-90). The data showed that "the ability

to learn a short musical phrase without any external as-

sistance is an extremely difficult task" (15, p. 255).

Older children showed more competence. However, only a

small number were able to learn the phrase in ten trials.

A second phrase, introduced in the sixth grade, revealed

that experience with the learning process did not signifi-

cantly change the outcome of scores (19, p. 255).

A timbre study was conducted in order to determine

whether the type of performing medium used for the aural

presentation of melodic items had an effect on the accuracy

with which children reproduce these items. Initially, eight

different media were to be used to test not only timbre

relationships but also the ability of the child to relate

musical examples sung in other vocal ranges to his own

61

normal soprano range. A pilot study revealed that the

latter aspect created too many problems for the child. Con-

sequently, four musical media were utilized for the test:

piano, soprano voice, flute, and violin (19, pp. 117-19,

122). Although the test results for this section of the

investigation were disappointing to Petzold, he felt that

certain insights had been gained for further research. The

findings indicated that timbre did not greatly affect the

accuracy of responses. Of the media used as a stimulus,

children responded less accurately to the piano and the

flute than they did to the violin and the voice. Responses

made when the voice was used as the stimulus showed more

variation from one grade to the next than any other medium

(19, pp. 137-144, 256).

The third element to be examined was "the accuracy with

which children perceive and reproduce melodic items when

such items are presented within varying harmonic contexts"

(19, p. 146). The child was tested in several ways. After

hearing the stimulus, he was required to sing the melody

with the stimulus, to sing the melody independently, and to

sing the melody with a variety of chordal styles—a single

chord, a three-chord progression, and a multi-chord pro-

gression. It was found that accuracy was not significantly

influenced by harmonic versus non-harmonic treatment. The

complexity of the harmonic treatment did have a bearing upon

the responses which were more accurate when accompanied by a

62

simple three-chord progression. Furthermore, there were

three distinct levels of accuracy: Grades 1 and 2, Grades 3

and 4, and Grades 5 and 6 (19, pp. 151-152, 182-183, 256).

Petzold designed three forms of rhythm tests for the

study in order to determine the relationship between dif-

ferent modes of the aural presentation of rhythm patterns

to children for subsequent duplication and the various kinds

of responses that can be made to those stimuli, the effects

of length and complexity of a rhythm pattern upon the ac-

curacy with which children are able to duplicate patterns,

the age level that children demonstrate the ability to

maintain a steady beat, and the age level that children in-

dicate an awareness of the underlying meter of a musical

composition (19, pp. 187-188, 205).

On Form A of the test, a non-melodic stimulus was

utilized for presenting examples and the response was made

by tapping on a wood block. A melodic stimulus was used on

both Forms B and C. Answers for test items on Form B were

the same as for Form A. A singing response was necessary

for Form C which required the child to duplicate both the

rhythmic and melodic content of the test item (19, p. 205).

Findings of the study indicated that neither the mode

of presentation nor the mode of response was significant in

the accuracy of responses. However, children responded with

greater accuracy to the rhythmic content of a melodic-

rhythmic item than to the melodic content. Once the child

63

reaches the third grade, a plateau has been attained both

for responding accurately to the aural presentations of

rhythmic patterns of medium difficulty and for maintaining a

a steady beat. The slower tempos--60 and 92 beats per

minute—were significantly more difficult for trying to keep

a steady beat. There was a general tendency for all chil-

dren to rush the beat (19, pp. 250-257).

Additional interesting results of the Petzolid study

were as follows:

1. Approximately 85 per cent of the children had

learned how "to control the singing voice by Grade 2" and

about "eight per cent of the 'problem singers' in grade one

remained 'problem singers' throughout their total elementary

school experience" (19, p. 257).

2. The differences that exist between boys and girls,

in terms of auditory perception of musical sounds, seems to

be related to the nature of the task. Results of the aural

project indicated a tendency for girls to perform with more

accuracy than the boys, particularly in the upper grades.

Petzold attributed part of the problem to the attitude of

older boys toward using the singing voice. He states,

" . . . they lack both confidence and competence in being

able to view singing as a natural musical response" (19,

p. 260).

Data concerning the musical characteristics of children

attracted the interest of Zimmerman who summarized the : ;

64

findings of selected research to show how they can be

applied by the music teacher in his/her daily involvement

with the teaching-learning process. The information is or-

ganized under domains of development (27, p. 6).

Children's ability to discriminate between and among

pitches has intrigued many researchers. Investigations in

this area have not met with much success. The difficulties

encountered are inherent in the two testing methods gener-

ally used. One method requires the child to express his/

her discrimination of pitches verbally. The terms up-down,

high-low, large-small, necessary for verbal response, have

no immediate meaning for children when pertaining to musical

learning. The tendency to reverse the conventional meaning

of high and low when applied to pitch creates confusion be-

cause the child thinks of these terms as meaning big or

small in relation to himself. Zimmerman states that the

use of a same-different comparison helps to overcome the

difficulties of the high-low comparison. However, the

order of judgement must be made clear to the child if he

is to respond accurately (27, p. 7).

The second testing method requires the child to respond

vocally to a musical stimulus. Several studies supported

the assumption that if a musical stimulus is accurately re-

produced vocally, the element of pitch has been differen-

tiated from the other elements by showing a relationship

between singing ability and pitch discrimination (27., p. 8).

65

Research findings related to pitch discrimination

reported by Zimmerman are as follows.

1. Wide intervals are easier to perceive than small

intervals with "the percentage of correct discrimination

increasing with both size of interval and the age of the

children" (27, p. 8). The greatest increase in ability

ocGUEBSd with the younger children, particularly between the

ages of six and nine (27, p. 8).

2. There is a definite relationship between pitch dis-

crimination and tonal memory. Both pitch discrimination and

apprehension of phrases are dependent upon tonal memory.

The greatest improvement in tonal memory scores occurs be-

tween ages eight and nine after which there is a fairly

strong increase until age fourteen (27, p. 8).

3. The terms loud and soft are learned casually in

everyday experiences with sound. Consequently, young chil-

dren can make accurate judgements concerning relative

loudness of the pitches they perceive (27, p. 8).

4. Age eight marks the beginning of a critical period

for the development of harmonic perception (27, p. 8).

The research conducted by Andrews and Deihl was cited

as an example of an attempt to determine children's devel-

opment of a conceptual framework based on concepts of the

elements of music. The two researchers developed a battery

of musical concept measures for studying the conceptual

understanding of the dimensions of pitch, duration and

66

loudness by means of verbal, listening, manipulative, and

overt measures. The instrument was administered to randomly

selected fourth grade students. Of the three dimensions

measured, the concept of loudness was the most highly devel-

oped. Conceptual development of duration was greater than

that of pitch. The use of both verbal and behavioral mea-

sures revealed that a number of children possessed the

concept but did not possess the vocabulary with which to

express it (27, pp. 12-13).

Research into the listening skills of children revealed

that age was a factor in how well children scored* that

eight- and nine-year-olds were unable to relate the aural

sound of a tonal pattern to its notationj and that eight- and

nine-year-old children had not developed the ability to hear

design in music to a very high degree (27, p. 14).

The Piagetian theories have formed the theoretical

basis for^several research projects in music education,

among which are studies conducted by Pflederer (Zimmerman).

An early study which tested conservation of meter, tone, and

rhythm showed that five-year-old children gave answers indi-

cative of preoperational thought and that eight-year-old

children reflected an intermediate stage of conservation

(27, p. 18).

Pflederer and Sechrest designed a study consisting of

five experiments which were administered to 619 elementary

and junior high students in order to study the conservation

67

process in musical learning. The children were tested by

taking a simple stimulus, altering it in certain systematic

ways, and then noting whether the subject could retain and

report accurately his recognition of the unchanged aspect of

the original stimulus. Findings seemed to be in agreement

with those of other researchers. First, there was a "pro-

gressive improvement on the tasks from the younger to the

older age groups . . . a plateau . . . was reached by the

fourth grade" (27, p. 19). Second, children in all age

groups lacked the vocabulary necessary for describing and

discussing the music. Third, conservation of melody was

less difficult than that of rhythm (27, p. 19).

Collected data pertaining to the affective domain re-

vealed that the verbal responses of young children show a

tendency to read a vague meaning into purely auditory stim-

uli. There was no discernable preference for consonance

over dissonance before age nine whereas the preference

stated by twelve- and thirteen-year-olds was much like that

of adults. While there is a developmental sequence, envi-

ronment and education can speed up the process (27,

pp. 21-22).

Of particular importance to this study is the report of

research into the vocal development of children. Two stu-

dies, Boardman (3) and Smith (23), have already been discussed

in this report. From other research, Zimmerman reported

that one investigator found that "the ability to reproduce a

68

given tonal pattern is an evolutionary process that pro-

gresses from a vague apprehension of the total pattern to

a differention of the specific intervals within the pattern

as evidenced by accurate vocal reproduction" (27, p. 24).

Findings revealed that, as with many phases of musical

development, learning to sing is commensurate with maturity.

There are

. . . critical periods in the development of speci-fic skill and behavioral patterns. When a child reaches a stage of maturation where he can best profit from a certain kind of learning, the with-holding of this experience may cause the behavior pattern in question to remain undeveloped (27, p. 23).

Children must learn "how it feels to sing" (27, p. 25).

In order for this skill to develop, two basic principles of

learning to sing are necessary:

. . . (a) the child must listen to his own voice in speaking and in singing so that he can con-trol high and low pitches, (b) the child must be able to sing in unison either with another voice or with an instrument so that he learns the sound and feeling of his own voice as it matches pitches (27, p. 25).

Books and Articles

Gunvor Sallstrom, a Swedish singing pedagogue, dis-

cusses the use of vocal exercises in the development of

the child voice. She recommends indirect methods of train-

ing using comprehensive exercises which have certain

characteristics. First, there is an appropriate arrangement

of text and melody from the point of voice production suit-

able for developing the singing voice without strain. Then.,

69

the melody, in a key suitable for the register of the

child's voice, is sung with spirit, rhythmically, and with

accents according to the text. Third, the text plays an im-

portant part by creating different moods that help make the

exercise easier to sing spontaneously and naturally.

Finally, the exercise is designed to give the maximum im-

pulse to the activation of the whole voice (22, p. 22).

The exercises range from four to eight tones and are

in a descending pattern. The text content for the younger

child is light, playful. With maturity, the text is altered

accordingly,. Care is taken in the selection of words at all

levels of development. Combinations are chosen that will

promote resonance, the right openness of the mouth, and vocal

intensity. Each exercise includes a logical and useful

variation between light and dark tones (22, pp. 22-23).

Working with vocal damage in adults led S&llstrom to

the belief that every child should receive correct, early

training in caring for his voice. She states,

. . . in the complex and stressful world we live in, it is necessary to teach the child how to manage his voice properly, since he is constantly influenced and "trained" by his environment—-not the least by radio and television through the "examples" they communicate (22, p. 24).

She further states that children are prone to imitate every-

thing they hear sung or spoken and that much of what they

choose to mimic can be injurious to the voice (22, p. 24).

The child's self-image is a key factor in the vocal

development process according to Nordholm. Early in the

70

training process, effort should be made to help the child

gain confidence for both individual and group singing

experiences throughout the grades. On occasion, teachers

become concerned when young children seem unable to sing

well. Nordholm advises teachers to remember that the child

is in the process of finding his singing voice. Gaining

control of that voice ought to be looked upon as a growing

developmental process which does not set itself into a fixed

pattern of achievement. She further cautions teachers not

to force children into roles of imitation beyond their capa-

bilities. Children learn to sing simply by singing and

should be judged on their own level rather than by critical

adult standards (1^, pp. 17-20).

The practice of grouping singers by ability is vigor-

ously opposed because it only serves to call attention to

inadequacies. Positive suggestions are felt to be more bene-

ficial. Devices recommended for teaching included vocal

imagery, utilizing phrases such as "think high,""come over

the top," "lift your voices," and "sing as tall as I am

standing." Children should be allowed to sing in a com-

fortable range, regardless of how low it might be; however,

problems sometimes experienced by older children in their

upper range were credited to the fact that they had not been

encouraged to explore the upper range limits. Nordholm sug-

gests that once children develop a feeling for melodic

contour, the pitch levels of songs can be gradually raised.

71

She advocates the development of a free, enthusiastic tone

quality. Neither raucous, strident singing nor a soft,

enemic, devitalized tone is considered appropriate for the

classroom (14, pp. 21-14).

Co-authors Gould and Savage provide practical ap-

proaches and answers to children's singing problems. They

state, "there is a need for help with teaching all children

to sing, to develop good tone quality, and to sing worth-

while song material expressively and appreciably" (9,

P* xii). An important contribution made by the two music

educators is the identification of concepts and skills re-

lated to the singing process and to gaining vocal confidence.

They are as follows: the singing tone versus the speaking

tone the ability to sustain a vocal sound, requires prac-

tice with their own voices; the definiteness of pitch—the

ability to sustain a mental image of pitch, reinforced by

listening to the sustained tones of an instrument or another

voice; the sameness of two pitches—the ability to recognize

matching pitches and to match pitches with one's voice; the

highness and lowtiess of sound—the ability to move from high

to low or low to high with the voice; the sound and feeling

of the act of singing the ability to move from one tone to

another with the voice, to form mental images of tone pro-

duction, and to use both the high and low register; the di-

rectional flow of a melody--the ability to sense the

organizational quality which makes a group of sounds a

72

melody; a vocabulary of singing skills—the ability to re-

produce melodic patterns and melodies at will with accuracy

(9, pp. 1-2, 7).

Choric poetry readings are suggested for helping chil-

dren discover the qualities of the whispering voice, the

speaking voice, and the calling voice. Exploration of the

various pitch levels and dynamic levels ought to be en-

couraged along with the interpretation of the words. These

concepts can then be transferred to singing. Gould and

Savage contend that a great deal more can be done with both

the singing and the speaking voice than is currently being

accomplished (9, p. 7).

Considerable emphasis is placed on helping children

learn to sing by using tones produced in the head register.

Tones that lie above G# or A in the treble clef should be

sung with a head tone quality. Since the normal speaking

tone is generally in the chest voice region, children must

be taught to recognize the difference in the associative

resonance feelings peculiar to each register. The authors

recommend the use of sound effects at story time, having

the children imitate barnyard animals, pets, or various

other animals such as high-pitched baby chicks or the bark-

ing of a small puppy. Activities of this nature prove valu-

able in that children perform in a natural manner that allows

tone production to be free of strain. Gould and Savage

state, "these high tones cannot be forced. . . . The teacher

73

must help the child relax and let the sound 'float1 up in

the head" (9, p. 10), The following procedure was suggested

for assisting older st.udents who might feel uncomfortable

about singing high tones:

In class, have all the children place their hands firmly on their chests and sing a low tone • . . on the syllable "Oh sustaining the sound until they can feel the vibration in the chest. Then ask the class to place their hands on either side of the nose, pressing lightly against the nose and face while singing a high tone (high C or above) on the syllable "00.". . . Have the class make some high sounds; choose types of sounds that are appropriate to the age group. While younger children do not mind squeaking like mice or sounding like puppies or kittens, older children might feel insulted if asked to to so. They might be asked to relax, with an audible yawn, or to imitate the sound of the wind or a ghost at Halloween (9, p. 10).

Several methods books were consulted to obtain the

opinions of recognized music educators toward the development

of singing concepts in children (4, 7, 8, 10, 15, 16, 17, 21,

24). Representative statements have been taken from some.

Vernice Nye (19) expresses the opinion that when work-

ing with young children, melodies or parts of melodies that

are not in the range of the child must either be used in a

lower key, or one must find some way to alter the melody to

better suit the child or group (17, pp. 83-84, 87).

The child voice is a mechanism capable of interpreting

the many moods found in song and of producing a pleasing

sound free of strain and tenseness. Voice quality suitable

for expressing the text of a song should be decided upon

through a discussion between the teacher and the students

74

(15, p. 231). Robert Nye states, "there are as many chil-

dren's voices as there are children. . . . Children use

their voices in many ways, and anyone who has listened to

them at play knows that the range and type of tone is

varied (16, p. 4).

Ellison believes that learning to control the voice

must be regarded as a developmental problem dependent in

part on growth and maturation of the individual. The voice

is a function of human personality; therefore, our voices

reflect us as people. When a child sings, his whole body

becomes an instrument for making music. Feeling, attitudes,

emotional tone, and intellect are involved. Singing offers

rewarding and joyous musical experiences for the child.

Furthermore, a student should have a deep-seated feeling of

keen satisfaction through his musical accomplishments (7,

pp. 31, 35, 57).

Swanson states that one should not always expect chil-

dren in the primary grades to conform to the traditional

concept of the child voice. Greater use of the voice brings

an extended range and flexibility in the same manner that

other muscular activities are developed through exercise and

training. Voice quality is a variable, dependent on three

factors: available vocal examples, experience, and physical

structure. Since children are able to produce rather real-

istic imitations of a siren or of the deep whistle of a

steamboat, a teacher should expect considerable variation in

75

children's singing. When kept within musical limits,

variation is a highly desirable trait because singing is ex-

pressive of many ideas and moods (24, pp. 175-177).

Content of Elementary Music Series

Six of the studies reviewed utilized elementary music

series as the primary source for collecting data. Dominy

examined the appropriateness of materials in music textbooks

as compared to the aims and purposes of the elementary

school (5, p. 6). In order to formulate a frame of re-

ference by which the music textbook material could be

evaluated, data were presented which seemed to represent the

guiding principles of elementary education as they had been

established and adopted through the years. A detailed

analysis was conducted using books two, four, and six of

the following music series: Music Education Series (1923-

1927),, Books of Songs (1925)., The Music Hour (1927-1930).,

The World of Music (1936)., A Singing School (1939-1943), New

Music Horizons (1944-1946), The American Singer {1944-1947),

and Our Singing World (1949-1951). For the analysis, five

major categories were established: Format—to give a com-

parative picture of the usability and attractiveness of the

books; Purposes of Materials—to determine the activities

and purposes of classroom music; Sources of Materials—to

show the amount of material selected from modern-idiom com-

posers, recognized composers, traditional sources, folk

76

sources, and little known sources; Qualitative Musical

Items—to analyze tonality, meter, and form in order to de-

termine the quality of the music and the extent to which the

series provided experience with all types of music; and

Range of Songs—to determine the highest and lowest pitches

within the textbook songs (S, pp. 20-35).

The results of the study indicated that the main thrust

of music series was to develop vocal sight reading skills.

The song materials were most often in a major tonality, had

common meter, had a common form structure, and were from

folk or little known sources. Although later music text-

books indicated an improvement in the quality of folk song

material, the small number of songs appearing in more than

two series was felt to be a problem in developing a reper-

toire that could be used outside the school. The

contemporary idiom was barely represented (5, pp. 254-270).

Dominy was critical of the emphasis placed upon the me-

chanical and/or technical drills by textbook editors. She

theorized that children listening, singing, and playing real

music could discover intellectual, technical, emotional, and

expressive elements that work together to provide a musical

experience. She concluded the music series followed stand-

ards outlined in the 1921 course of study and were no longer

in keeping with modern curriculum concepts which stressed

creative-appreciative ways of nurturing inquiry, fact-

finding, evaluation, and judgement (5, pp. 254-270).

77

Three hundred sixty-three music textbooks representing

various editions of eighty series, arranged on a decade ba-

sis, constituted the source for the basic data of Peabody's

investigation. The purpose of her study was "to determine

to what extent and for what purposes art music has been in-

cluded in music textbooks of series published 1870-1960"

(18, p. 36). Two Farnsworth studies were influential in

compiling a list of two hundred seven composers who were

classified on the basis of nationality and style. Music was

classified according to form and the media of performance

(18, pp. 36-50).

The data were collected and tabulated in order to show

the frequency with which selections of music by recognized

composers appeared in books and with which implied or sug-

gested uses of individual selections were indicated.

Percentages were computed for sub-divisions in various

classifications in relation to the total frequency for all

music, music by recognized composers, music by master com-

posers, and music in each classification, suggestions for

its use. Four measures of music, with or without words, were

used in the study (18, pp. 57-59).

Peabody reported that there has been an increase of

music by recognized and master composers during the decades

1879-1959. However, the percentage remains small (5.9 and

3.8) when compared to the total musical content of the ele-

mentary music series. She attributed part of the problem

78

to the dualistic task of teaching children not only to sing

but to sight read music, creating a preponderance of ma-

terial written expressly for pedagogical purposes. Other

causes were attributed to curriculum changes and the inter-

national role assumed by the music education profession

which led to an increased interest in folk music. Music of

the Romantic period was favored over that of the Classic and

Baroque periods. Little comtemporary music was found. The

music of German composers was utilized more frequently than

that of other nationalities and there was an indication that

editors seemed to follow the trends established in part by

the orchestral fare of the country. Peabody recommended

that art songs ought to be accessible to children for sing-

ing, that all pertinent background information be furnished,

and that a tested list of vocal and instrumental art music

would prove helpful (18, pp. 387-402, 508-512).

Two studies were related to the text content of songs

in selected elementary music series. Roberts analyzed the

language vocabulary and the rhythm patterns in the books

for grades one through four. The data collected were used

to determine whether the vocabulary of the songs was on

the children's level of understanding, whether any of the

music texts were suitable for remedial reading, whether

rhythm patterns were presented frequently enough to en-

courage retention and development of music reading skills^

and whether inferences could be drawn from the analyses by

79

professional educators to assist in the selection of music

texts for elementary schools (20, p. 1).

The English texts in the student editions of four

series—Music for Living3 Music for Young Americans 3 Our

Singing World3 and Together We Sing—were tabulated for

each book. These tabulations were then coded according to

their appearance or nonappearance on three reputable word

lists, The Basic Vocabulary of Elementary School Children3

The Dolch Basic Sight Vocabulary of 220 Words3 and Remedial-

Reading Vocabulary for the Primary Grades. The same songs

used in the word-count were utilized in the rhythm-pattern

data. After the different rhythm patterns had been tabu-

lated according to their frequencies, they were coded with

a number to facilitate in a comparative analysis (20,

pp. 3-6).

The results of the study indicated that the number and

frequency of words and of different rhythm patterns appear-

ing in the song books within a basic series were greater at

each succeeding level. There did not appear to be a positive

correlation between the number of songs and word or rhythm

pattern frequency. Words used only once or twice caused the

vocabulary loads to appear excessive in developing word rec-

ognition skills. Furthermore, the language vocabulary was

inappropriate for use in remedial reading activities.

Roberts felt that the rhythm patterns were not repeated of-

ten enough to elicit an instantaneous response on the part

80

of a music reader. He recommended that editors of text-

books ought to provide opportunities for language and music

reading skills by giving careful consideration to text and

rhythmic vocabulary and by presenting activities that have

been sequentially developed for grades one through six (20,

pp. 130-133).

Blair analyzed the song texts in order to determine

value distribution of verbal content. Five series adopted

for use in Texas public schools, grades four, five, and six,

were examined. Each song was analyzed to isolate the one

prominent value enhanced, using a value framework based upon

Harold D. Lasswell's system of values. A comparison was

made of the value distribution by grade level and by series.

A value behavior thesaurus was used as the criterion for

judging the appropriate value enhanced. Eight values, felt

to be influential in developing human potential, were used

to code songs: affection, respect, enlightenment, skill,

power, wealth, well-being, and rectitude. A profile pre-

sented for each book was based on the total songs in the

book, the total songs relative to each value, and the per

cent of songs in each book devoted to each of the eight

values. After the mean was determined for each value in

each textbook and grade level, the significance of the dif-

ference between means was established (2, pp. 1-23).

The analyses revealed that the strongest values ex-

pressed in the song texts were well-being and affection.

81

Enlightenment was the second strongest value, occurring in

three of the five series, with rectitude the least strong-

est, occuir'tog in only one text. There was no significant

difference when comparing grade levels with each other

(2, pp. 119-120).

Emphasis was placed on multicultural music education in

the studies conducted by James (11) and Moore (13). Each

was interested in providing answers to questions related to

the Afro-American music contained in the elementary music

series. James wanted to determine the extent to which Afro-

American music had been included in music series published

from 1864 to 1970. To answer the needs of her study, she

investigated : the frequency and types of Afro-American mu-

sic included in texts, the kinds of specific directions and

illustrations provided to facilitate learning and under-

standing the selections, the identity and number of Afro-

American composers whose music was included in the song

materialj and the presence of materials for correlation of

Afro-American music with other subjects (11, pp. 5-6). The

materials were not evaluated. To collect the data, books

intended for use with elementary children—kindergarten

through grade six—were analyzed. Each song of four mea-

sures or longer was counted. A comparison was made between

the total number of songs and the number of Afro-American

songs. No attempt was made to show a cause-effect between

the changes in America's attitude toward the education of

82

black people and corresponding changes in the content of mu-

sic series; however, the various developments related to

Afro-American education were discussed or listed chronologi-

cally as they occurred during the 1864-1970 periods (11,

pp. 40-45).

According to James, a 1912 publication, The Lyric Music

Series, was the first to contain Afro-American music.

Several other series, including The Hollis Dcznn Music

Course, The Music Hour3 and The World of Music soon there-

after were found to have from two to eight songs attributed

to black culture. As the trend toward integration increased

in America, the numbers and kinds of songs presented in ele-

mentary series changed appreciably. Along with the increased

number of folk songs and songs by black composers, the series

now provided teaching suggestions which frequently employed

recordings by black artists. In the late 1950's and 1960's,

the amount of Afro-American music to be used in the class-

room was altered substantially. The quality of the examples

was better and included a variety of forms attributed to

black music (11, pp. 88-89).

Elementary music series were analyzed by Moore in order

to establish whether the songs of Afro-AmericRss and Native

Americans were authentic and typical of the two ethnic

groups. Other facets of the research were: to ascertain

the degree that world cultures are represented in books, to

define the effect of educational philosophies on the

83

selection of song material for elementary music textbooks,

and to document the social factors within the United States

that appeared to have influenced the inclusion of the music

of ethnic groups. The study was limited to the periods

1928-1955 and 1965-1975. The song content of two widely

used elementary music series published in each period by

the American Book Company and by Silver Burdett Company was

analyzed. The process by which authors selected folk songs

from various cultures was investigated through phone inter-

views and through a questionnaire (13, pp. 2-4). Thirty

Afro-American and twenty Native American songs for which

authentic sources had been located were randomly selected

for analysis. The criteria formulated were based upon char-

acteristic musical features of the two ethnic groups as

cited by scholars in the field (13, p. 8). 'Original' and

'textbook' versions of the analyzed songs were provided in

Appendix A of the document.

The results of Moore's study mirrored, in part, those

reported by James (11). During the 1925-1955 period, the

contributions and involvement of minorities in society were

poorly represented in instructional materials. The Afro-

American songs in music texts were neither authentic nor

representative of that ethnic group. Native American folk

songs were authentic but the selections presented were not

true musical illustrations. Furthermore, composed songs re-

flecting the life-style of minorities often presented them

84

in a negative way which created a conflict in the minds of

children between music in school and music in the home and

community. Moore attributed the Civil Rights Movement, a

more humanistic educational philosophy, and a commitment to

multi-cultural music education as being influential in fo-

cusing scholarly attention on Afro-American music during the

1965-1975 period. The percentage of black American songs

increased in elementary music texts and there were fewer

alterations; however, the number of Native American songs

decreased. Questionnaire returns revealed that both text-

book companies had formulated policies aimed at serving the

musical needs of a multi-cultural society (13, pp. 181-186).

Summary of Related Literature

Studies dealing with certain aspects of children's

ability to sing were reviewed. Some investigated the vocal

range capabilities of children while others examined the in-

fluence of certain effects on young children's singing

abilities. One outcome, reported by more than one re-

searcher, was that young children prefer to sing in lower

ranges than those found in the song material of most elemen-

tary music series. Inappropriate keys were cited as a

primary contributing factor to out-of-tune singing. On the

whole, authorities agreed that the vocal range can and

should be expanded, especially in the upper singing register.

A review of books written for use in teacher training

courses reveals that the information devoted to the

85

the child voice, though minimal, is useful in facilitating

an understanding of the developmental process. Most author-

ities agree with the premise that the voice is a child's

most natural and personal form of musical expression. How-

ever, few teaching strategies are provided for the develop-

ment of vocal concepts. A great deal of space is devoted to

"singing activities" which include the teaching of the ele-

ments of music—rhythm, form, texture, and harmony—through

singing.

The review of research which utilized the elementary

music texts as a means of collecting data revealed that

these books lend themselves well to analysis. Two authori-

ties were concerned with the word content of song lyrics.

Others were more concerned with the musical content—music

of recognized composers, Afro-American music, and the music

of Native Americans.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Adcock, Eva J., "A Comparative Analysis of Vocal Range in the Middle School General Music Curriculum," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Music, The Florida State University 1971.

2. Blair, Genevieve L., "Value Analysis of Verbal Con-tent of Songs in Certain Elementary Music Textbooks," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Education, East Texas State University, 1967.

3. Boardman, Eunice Louise, "An Investigation of the Ef-fects of Pre-School Training on the Development of Vocal Accuracy in Young Children," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Education, Uni-versity of Illinois, 1964.

4. Cheyette, Irving and Herbert Cheyette, Teaching Music Creatively, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969.

5. Dominy, Elizabeth E., "Music Textbooks in Elementary Education: The Appropriateness of Current Text-book Material in Elementary School Music in Relation to the Aims and Purposes of Modern Ele-mentary Education," unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1958.

6. Dorman, Phyllis E., "A Review of Research on Obser-vational Systems in the Analysis of Music Teaching," Council for Research in Music Edu-cation Bulletin, XXVII (Winter, 1979), 35-44.

7. Ellison, Alfred, Music with Children. New York. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1959.

8. Garretson, Robert L., Music in Childhood Education. New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.,~1966^

9. Gould, A. Orenand Edith J. Savage, Teaching Children to Sing, Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall Hunt Publishing Co * 1972»

10. Grant, Parks, Music for Elementary Teachers, 2nd. ed.. New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1951.

86

87

11. James, Janice Legette, "The Music of Afro-Americans in Elementary Music Series Books: An Investi-gation of Changing Textbook Content, 1864 to 1970," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Music, University of Southern Mississippi, 1976.

12. Kirkpatrick, William C., Jr., "Relationships Between the Singing Ability of Prekindergarten Children and Their Home Musical Environment," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Education, Uni-versity of Southern California, 1962.

13. Moore, Marvelene Clarisa, "Multicultural Music Edu-cation: An Analysis of Afro-American and Native American Folk Songs in Selected Elementary Music Textbooks of the Periods 1928-1955 and 1965-1975," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Music, The University of Michigan, 1977.

14. Nordholm, Harriett, Singing in the Elementary Schools, P a r t of Foundations of Music Education, edited by Allen P. Britton, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.

15. Nye, Robert and Vernice Trousdale Nye, Music in the Elementary School, 4th ed., Englewood ClTffsT" N. J., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977.

16. Nye, Robert and others, Singing with Children, 2nd. ed., Belmont, Calif., Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1970.

17. Nye, Vernice, Music for Young Children. 2nd ed.. Dubuque, Iowa, Wm. C. Brown Co., 1979.

18. Peabody, Ida Isobel, "Music by Recognized Composers in Elementary School Music Textbooks Published in the United States, 1870 Through 1950," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Music, Indiana University, 1963.

19. Petzold, Robert C., "Auditory Perception of Musical Sounds by Children in the First Six Grades," Co-Operative Research Project No. 1051, Washington Office of Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966.

20. Roberts, Alfred Lester, "Analysis of Vocabulary and Rhythm Patterns in Songs from Selected Elementary School Books," unpublished doctoral dissertation, College of Education, University of Wyoming, 1963.

88

21. Runkle, Aleta and Mary LeBow Erikson, Music for Today's B°ys and Girls, Boston, Allyn and Bacon, In~, 1966. '

22. Sallstrom, Gunvor, "Singing Exercises that Develop and Liberate the Child's Voice," assisted by Jan Sallstrom, The NATS Bulletin, XXIX (February-March, 1973), 22-24.

23. Smith, Robert B., "A Study of the Effects of Large-Group Vocal Training on the Singing Ability of Nursery School Children," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Deparment of Music, University of Illinois, 1961.

24. Swanson, Bessie R., Music in the Education of Children, 3rd ed., Belmont, Calif., Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1969.

25. Wassum, Sylvesta, "Elementary School Children's Vocal Range," Journal of Research in Music Education. XXVII (Winter, 1979), 214-226.

26. Wilson, Dorothy S., "A Study of the Child Voice from Six to Twelve," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Uni-versity of Oregon, 1970.

27. Zimmerman, Marilyn P., Musical Characteristics of Chil-dren, 1902 Association Drive, Reston, Va.,"Music Educators National Conference, 1971.

CHAPTER IV

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to investigate the kinds

of instructions provided by authors and publishers of ele-

mentary music series that may be used in the development of

children's voices. The specific problems were to investi-

gate the recommended methodology for the development of

vocal concepts in children, to investigate the musical as-

pects that could be indicators of expected vocal ability in

children, and to relate the findings of this study to the

results of research that give insight into the vocal capa-

bilities of children.

In order to satisfy the stated purpose and problems

of the study, the books for grades one, three, and five of

designated €*lementary music series published during the per-

iod circa 1945 to 1975 by the American Book Company and by

the Silver Burdett Company were subjected to a content ana-

lysis and to a musical analysis.

Content Analysis

Definition

Content analysis is a process of classifying and count-

ing terminology used by authors to characterize their

89

90

interests and emphasis of certain topics. As a metho-

dology, the technique was devised some twenty-five years ago

in the field of journalism research (8, p. 283). The pro-

cess has been defined as "a research technique for the

objective, systematic and quantitative description of the

manifest content of communications" (1, p. 18). Pool calls

it "a systematic and rigorous way of doing what humanists

have always done, namely, to note what symbols are used in

available bodies of text and thereby documenfeing the eval-

uation of ideas"(9, p. x), in other words, quantitatively

comparing uses of symbols with the ideas they are used to

communicate in some specific discussion. Through this pro-

cess, data can be collected which can then be summarized and

compared (6, p. 3). One advantage of the procedure is that

it allows the investigator to observe a communication at a

time and place of his own choosing (4, p. 2). One writer

has compared it to

. . . a rabre which has a range of heads with various arrangements of teeth. We use it to rake in all of the objects which a particular set of teeth is designed to catch, from all of the area we are raking. The teeth are chosen to suit the objects we want to rake in and the terrain from which we have to rake them (5, p. 6).

Finally, content analysis is "a technique which aims at de-

scribing with optimum objectivity, precision, and gener-

ality, what is said on a given subject in a given place at

a given time" (9, p. 26) in such a way as to produce

91

countable results which can either be presented as per-

centages or used in statistical procedures (3, p. 3).

Content analysis has been used as a research tool by

journalists assessing newspaper coverage since the beginning

of the twentieth century. During World War II, the proce-

dure was pressed into service for the analysis of propo-

ganda. Major developments occurred in the fifties and

sixties until the technique became common in other areas in-

cluding Sociology, Anthropology, Social Anthropology,

Political Science, and Psychology (5, pp. 27-28).

Brook has attached significance to use of the tool in

arriving at an unbiased analysis of music. He says, "the

term 'content analysis' is largely unknown in musicology,

although some musicologists have been grappling with tech-

niques of systematic and objective quantification under the

name of 'style analysis'" (2, p. 287). The position taken

by Brook is that a valid style analysis cannot be arrived at

unless a true "content analysis" takes place. A computer

input language, the Simplified T?Zaine and Easie Code for

Rotating Music, was designed to serve music researchers in

a variety of ways. Through its use, a precise quantifi-

cation of the musical score is possible. It is currently

being used for music bibliographic purposes, for the order-

ing and transposition of musical indexes, and for the

ordering and transposition of musical information (2,

pp. 292-295).

92

The use of the technique as applied to music education

communication has been demonstrated by Hooper (7). Issues

of the Music Educators Journal published 1957 through 1967

were analyzed in order to identify the nature of topics dis-

cussed by music educators in their attempt to define the new

role of music in contemporary curriculum (7, p. 3). Five

topics were selected to be used as categories. A major

premise of classic content analysis is that the greater

the author's interest in a given topic, the greater the use

of terminology associated with that topic; therefore, key

words were selected to define each category. High inter-

rater reliability correlation coefficients were reported

(7, pp. 33, 38). Results of the study indicated that the

technique can be effectively applied to the analysis of

music education documents.

Advantages

Content analysis has several advantages over other

methods of research. First, it uses data that are readily

available. Our society is highly verbal and produces com-

munication in prolific abundance which becomes a storehouse

of political, historical, societal, and psychological data.

The problem facing the researcher is that of topic se-

lection for the study and analysis. One is limited only

by his imagination in what may be analyzed and in what

way (6, p. 22)..

93

Second, a researcher can be sure of having his data

and of knowing its source. Furthermore, an investigative

frame of mind is adopted so that instead of seeking facts

to prove or disprove an idea, details are recorded, each in

itself too insignificant for one to be able to see—or to

be biased by it. Only when all the facts are gathered is

one able to see which are emphasized the most, which the

least, and which are not there at all (5, p. 17). An

omission can be equally or more important than a high fre-

quency count.

Finally, content analysis has been designed to help

the researcher draw inferences from the data. Various pos-

sibilities for processing each step in the analysis are

explored. One is able to work out the consequences that

each step implies in order to draw inferences from the in-

vestigation as a whole. The sampling process and the units

of analysis are important considerations as each has a

direct effect upon the study results. Consequently, con-

clusions are only as good as the criteria used in deriving

them from the data.

Criticisms of the Technique

The subjective nature of some studies has caused

critics to label content analysis as more of an art than

a science. Carney's response to this criticism is that

there are logical ways of reasoning about probabilities

94

and that content analysis is in accordance with these

ways (5, p. 13). Conversely, it has been alleged that

the technique is overly concerned with quantification of

data. Though this is a valid criticism, both the critics

and the proponents have deemed the quantitative require-

ment an essential element. There are differences of

opinion on what the symbol frequency actually denotes.

It is believed that frequency is a valid index of concern,

pre-occupation, and intensity (6, pp. 15-21).

Some critics feel that the tool is restrictive be-

cause attention is focused on one aspect. Proponents

reply that by consciously restricting attention, one is

more aware of the limitiations. This is not generally

true of impressionistic or intuitive approaches (5,

p. 13).

Another objection raised is that a written document is

only part of the "total" message conveyed; therefore, con-

tent analysis cannot deal with it. While true, this fact

should be viewed as a constraint, not a criticism. Accord-

ing to Carneyj "content analysis can tell things about a

document that the writer of that document was not aware of.

In fact, through content analysis a deeper and more de-

tailed case study of a document can be made than is

generally possible through an impressionistic approach

(5, p. 14).

95

Limitations of the Technique

There are two limitations of content analysis that

must be taken into account. First, since the materials

on which one must work tell only part of the story, only

the manifest attributes of a document should be coded.

Inference about latent meanings is permitted only if cor-

roborated by independent evidence.

Second, content analysis will produce data in answer

to a question but it will not produce a question. The

technique makes the question "operational," capable of

being tested in some way that provides a common basis for

broad questions that might be interpreted with considerable

variance on the part of researchers.

The Quantitative-Qualitative Dilemma

The definition quoted earlier in this report included

quantification as an essential element of content analysis.

Not all agree with this theory on the basis that .subjecting

the data to a statistical test will not insure rigor of

proof. The unsystematic nature of the nonquantitative re-

search draws criticism, the results being labeled "sketchy"

or "impressionistic." These labels are often correct be-

cause qualitative research is difficult to replicate and

there are serious doubts about validity and reliability

(3, p. 2 ) .

Quantitative research is based on counting or measur-

ing, using the standard numbers system. The quantities

96

provided by this method can be interpreted by the usual

mathematical operations. Furthermore, the study can be

replicated by others (3, p. 21).

Design of the Study

Selection of the Content Material

The first task in the administration of the study was

the selection of the content material. This body of ma-

terial consisted of the written directions found in

elementary music series intended for use by teachers in

helping children learn to sing. Certain criteria were

established in order to select the books that were

utilized.

1. The publication date of the series (see Defi-

nitions) had to fall within the time span circa 1945 to

1975.

2. The publishers of the books in the study had to

have publishing records of long standing and had to pub-

lish during the timeline of the study.

3. The series had to have at least six books, one for

each grade, designed to present a sequential music program

to children in an elementary music class.

4. The content material, found in the teacher's

edition/manual only of grades one, three^ and five, dealt

with concepts, theoretical or practical, related to

singing.

97

All of the music textbooks published during the 1945-

1975 timeline were examined in light of the criteria. Of

the nine companies that had produced series, only two had

published consistently. Therefore, the series published by

the American Book Company and by the Silver Burdett Company

were used for the collection of data.

For organizational purposes, the timeline was divided

into decades: Era A—1945 to 1954, Era B—1955 to 1964,

and Era C—1965 to 1975. Silver Burdett and the American

Book Company each had one publication to emerge during Eras

A and C. During Era B, Silver Burdett published two series

whereas American Book Company had only one. A total of

seven series was analyzed for the study (See Appendix A).

Selection of the Content Unit

In content analysis, it is necessary to transform the

qualitative material into elements rendering it susceptible

to quantification. The first step in this direction is the

selection of the content unit. Several possibilities are

feasible in making this decision. Researchers reviewing

articles in newspapers or periodicals have used column size,

paragraph length, or entire articles as their content unit

(4, p. 34). Budd, Thorpe, and Donohew state, "the content

unit needs to be large enough to provide the background

necessary to permit accurate judging, but not so large that

coders become confused" (4, p. 36). At the onset, it

98

appeared that each book could be used as a single unit for

analysis. However, after a careful examination of the

literature, a further breakdown was deemed necessary. The

investigator was not only interested in determining the

kinds of directions provided to teachers for developing

children's voices but was also interested in indicating the

location of those directions in the text. Consequently,

each single coding unit for analysis was based upon the

location of the material in the teacher's manual, for ex-

ample, the preface, throughout the book, or the appendix.

Most books contained material that formed two single coding

units.

Development of the Categories

Of crucial importance was the careful development of

categories that were to serve as the basis for the objective

analysis of the selected content material. Authorities (4^5)

agree that the usefulness of content analysis is highly de-

pendent on the categories selected. Categories are vari-

ables that are linked to the problem and to the theories

on which the research is based. Furthermore, they dif-

ferentiate and describe the content being investigated.

They form a link between the actual counting and the larger

fields of theory and concept. Finally, they are compart-

ments with explicitly defined boundaries into which material

is grouped for analysis (3, pp. 10-11; 4, p. 39).

99

Categories must suit both the questions and the subject

matter. To suit the question, they set out clearly what

sort of "thing" goes into each of them and how that "thing"

is to be recognized. To suit the subject matter, they must

be appropriate and exhaustive (3, pp. 10-11; 5, pp. 167,

176). The categories established for this study are major

aspects of vocal development as discussed by music educa-

tors. Statements in which the words appeared were judged

as to whether they were positive (+), neutral (o), or ne-

gative (-). The categories and their definitions are

forthcoming in this chapiter.

Construction of the Information Sheets

Once the categories had been established and key words

selected for each one, an information sheet was developed

to facilitate in the collection of data. Teacher's edi-

tions were then selected from the content material and an

attempt was made to tabulate the word frequencies. It was

discovered that the categories had not been adequately de-

fined and that the subunits were incomplete; therefore,

word frequency tabulation was not possible. After the con-

text in which words were to be placed had been more clearly

defined, words were grouped in relation to the meaning that

best described the nature of the category. The books were

then re-examined using the revised coding sheets. More de-

finitive results were obtained. The format was altered to

100

aid in tabulation. A copy of the final form of the infor-

mation sheet may be found in Appendix B.

Construction of the Rater's Instruction Sheet

A rater's instruction sheet was written to regulate

and assist in the analysis of the content material. The in-

structions included a statement of the purpose of the study,

a brief description of the research design, a definition of

the categories, a statement outlining the rater's responsi-

bilities, and explicit instructions for the analysis of

the content material.

The rater's instruction sheet was given to music ed-

ucation faculty members who read it and offered suggestions

for clarification in the instructions. After the revisions

had been made, the final copy (see Appendix B) was pre-

pared for use.

Validity of the Study

In determining the validity of content analysis, a re-

searcher is asking whether his methods will produce the

desired information. Ordinarily, validity is established by

the known-group method. This procedure allows a comparison

of study results with previously validated external mea-

sures. Because no previous data were available in connection

with the present study, other procedures were necessary.

Two types of validity measurement were applied to test

the research tool. First, because the data collecting

101

method employs categories and evaluations that correspond

directly to the definable topics, a type of logical va-

lidity was established. Budd, Thorp, and Donahew state,

"this method of validity presumes that a measure self-

evidently measures what it is supposed to if the categories

are rigidly defined and the coding has a high degree of

reliability" (4, p. 69). Logical validity is also referred

to as "direct" and "face" validity (4, p. 69). Logical

validation limits the interpretation of the study results to

the content materials under investigation (3, p. 28). Since

the study was descriptive in nature as opposed to predic-

tive, this was not viewed as a limiting factor.

The second validity check was by the jury method, an

extension of logical validation (4, p. 69). Three music

educators were asked to judge the relevant parts of the

information sheet: the appropriateness of the categories,

the sub-categories, and the words used within the cate-

gories; the logical sequence of the words listed under each

category; and the completeness of the list of words listed

under each category or sub-category. The jury recommended

changing the word sequence in one sub-category, I:B——Phy-

sical Characteristics, and the additions of words in other

categories. The word additions are indicated with brackets

whereas the original word sequence of sub-category I:B is

indicated by numbers placed to the left of the words (See

Information Sheet, Appendix B).

102

Reliability of the Study

The reliability of any study refers to the consistency

of results with replication. In establishing reliability

for content analysis, a researcher is asking how well other

reseachers recognize the referent from the investigator's

descriptions or coding instructions (4, p. 66). The relia-

bility of this study was determined in two ways: by testing

the degree to which the tabulation of the data by the major

investigator could be replicated by other coders working

within the same guidelines, referred to as inter-rater re-

liability, and by testing the degree to which the tabulation

of data by the major investigator could be replicated in a

repeated examination of the material by the same person,

referred to as intra-rater reliability.

Two music educators worked in co-operation with the in-

vestigator to test the inter-rater reliability. After the

two coders read the rater's instruction sheet, a sample con-

tent unit was tabulated. The results were checked against a

sample tabulation prepared by the investigator after which

it was determined that the two coders sufficiently under-

stood the process and were prepared to begin the tabulation

of the data. All of the content material used in the study

was tabulated by the music educators as well as the investi-

gator. The books were arranged in random order according

to a table of random numbers for coding. The data were re-

corded on the information sheets.

103

The coding reliability was tested statistically by

calculation of correlation coefficients for each category

in each era of the timeline to determine the inter-rater

reliability of the Investigator versus Coder A, the In-

vestigator versus Coder B, and Coder A versus Coder B. The

results of the test for inter-rater correlation are shown

for each era (See Table I). The results revealed high

correlation coefficients for all categories throughout the

timeline when comparing the investigator with each music edu-

cator and when comparing the music educators with each other.

After a six-month time span, intra-rater reliability

was tested. The investigator repeated the tabulation of

data for three books, one from each period in the timeline.

The books (see Appendix C) were randomly selected from the

content material. The intra-rater reliability tests the de-

gree to which an investigator is able to replicate the

tabulation of data. The same statistical test was utilized

for establishing the degree of correlation between the first

and second examination of the content material by the in-

vestigator. With the exception of Category I, Era C (1964

to 1975), all coefficients indicate a high level of relia-

bility (See Table II). The low coefficient for Category I_,

Era C was re-examined in order to determine its cause.

Category I has four sub—categories. Sub-category C, In-

fluences, was the only one of these four to have marked

responses. Consequently, there was a very small sampling

104

TABLE I

INTER-RATER RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS

Era Categories

10 05 rH

ctf o U 4->

lO

I. Vocal Charac-teristics

II. Objectives That In-volve Sing-ing

III. Teaching Stra-tegies

Investigator vs

Coder A

. 9 9 0

. 9 9 7

. 9 9 4

Investigator vs

Coder B

, 975

994

996

Coder A vs

Coder B

. 9 6 3

. 998

. 9 9 6

IT) CO 05

PQ iH a o k -p

lO 05

to t> C5

O H d O

-P W m CO O)

I. Vocal Charac-teristics

II. Objectives That In-volve Sing-ing

III. Teaching Stra-tegies

I. Vocal Charac-teristics

II. Objectives That In-volve Sing-ing

III. Teaching Stra-tegies

. 9 9 1

. 9 9 5

. 9 8 8

. 9 2 1

. 9 9 8

. 9 9 6

. 9 8 8

. 9 9 8

. 9 9 2

. 8 4 8

. 9 9 7

. 9 9 7

. 9 8 2

. 9 8 9

. 9 8 9

. 7 5 6

. 9 9 8

. 9 9 8

105

TABLE II

INTRA-RATER RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS

Era Categories

gr m Q rH

< o

ctf HP U W LO Gi

1st Examination vs

2nd Examination

I. Vocal Characteristics

II. Objectives That Involve Singing

III. Teaching Strategies

.989

.812

.984

m CD 05

PQ • cS O U -P W LO o> rH

I. Vocal Characteristics

II. Objectives That Involve Singing

III. Teaching Strategies

.997

.950

.998

01 o H a o f-i -P m m CO 03

I. Vocal Characteristics

II. Objectives That Involve Singing

III. Teaching Strategies

.624

.941

.967

106

total which led to the low reliability coefficient. In view

of this information and the high coefficient reported for

inter-rater reliability (see Table I), the .624 coefficient

for intra-rater reliability was not interpreted as a weak-

ness in the coding instrument.

The Main Study

Problem one.—The first problem investigated was the

recommended methodology related to the development of vocal

concepts in children. Three categories were established

for the analysis of the material.

Category I-Vocal Characteristics contains terminology

utilized by text authors in discussing the qualities, capa-

bilities and limitations, that are typical of the child

voice. Organization of the material required four sub-

categories. Tone Quality has terms that describe the char-

acteristics of tone quality one can conceivably encounter in

teaching young children to sing. A wide spectrum of traits,

such as natural, head tone, clear, dark, heavy, and harsh,

were taken into account in compiling the list of terms (see

Category I-A, Information Sheet, Appendix B). Physical

Characteristics takes into account the physical development

of children as it applies to the voice. The terms found in

this sub-category are related to the text authors opinions

regarding range, tone coloration, speech/singing growth

patterns, and levels of maturation (see Category I-B,

107

Appendix B). Influences lists the sources considered to

have an effect on children's vocal quality/habits. The

items included reflect a variety of activities, such as

community, home, and school (see Category I-C, Appendix B).

Theoretical Basis/Opinion consists of terms that refer to

the stated rationale that were influential in forming the

opinions expressed regarding the child voice (see Category

I-D, Appendix B).

Category II-Singing Objectives has terminology that

reflects the attitude of music educators in selecting

activities that involve children in the singing process.

Four sub-categories were necessary. Vocal Development

is made up of terms that specify the desired results of

the procedures included in the instructional materials for

developing the child voice. In order to adequately de-

velop the sub-category, a further breakdown of the material

was necessary, for example, tone production, singing habits,

part singing development (see Category II-A, Appendix B).

Musical Development/Other Areas contains terms that are

related to the stated goals in other areas of music devel-

opment that are expected to be attained or furthered

through singing. Included in this sub—catetory are the

elements of music (see Category II-B, Appendix B). Extra-

musical Development has terms that designate goals in other

subject areas, in social development, and/or in personal

development that are expected to be supported through

108

participation in singing activities (see Category II-C, Ap-

pendix B). Theoretical Basis consists of terms that refer

to the stated rationale that were influential in forming

the opinions expressed by textbook authors regarding the

objectives of singing (see Category II-D, Appendix B).

Category III-Teaehing Strategies examines the tactics

recommended for helping children develop an understanding

of the singing process. Three sub-categories were estab-

lished: ; Devices/Tone Quality explores the terminology

utilized to denote teaching methods focused on helping

children attain a good tone quality. The means for develop-

ing kinesthetic responses and vocal imagery awareness are

included (see Category III-A, Appendix B). Untuned Singers/

Theories scrutinizes the ideas advanced by text authors in

discussing the uncertain singer, why he/she does not sing

in tune (see Category III-B, Appendix B). Devices/Tuning

contains a list of the procedures and devices advocated for

assisting children who are unable to match pitches accu-

rately. The terms also reflect the activities suggested

for children who sing out-of-tune (see Category III-C, Ap-

pendix B).

Terms used in more than one category were identified

to the coder with an asterisk (see Categories I-C, I-D, II-D,

HI-A, III-C, Appendix B). Coders were instructed to ascer-

tain the context of the statements in which these terms

appeared before coding them.

109

General information including the series title, grade

level, book title, book editors/authors, date of publi-

cation, and the location of the content material in the

book was recorded by each coder on the prepared infor-

mation sheets. Each time a word listed on the information

sheet was accepted by the investigator as meeting the re-

quirements of the study, a tally was made in the appropriate

space. Upon completion of the tabulation for each book,

the tallies were totaled for each category. The findings

were placed in the space provided on the information sheet.

The same procedure was followed for each of the twenty-one

(21) books used in the study.

Finally, all information was transferred to data re-

cording sheets after which word frequencies were tabulated

for each of the categories (see Table XXII, Appendix D).

The results are discussed in Chapter V.

Problem two.—The second problem of the study was

to investigate musical aspects that could be indicators

of expected vocal ability in children. A song sample was

taken from the student editions, grades 1, 3, and 5, that

correspond with the teacher's editions used in the content

analysis. Seven hundred twenty (720) songs, 25.4 per cent

of the total song population, were analyzed. To insure

objectivity in deriving the sample, each song in the

books was assigned a number. Subsequently, forty (40)

110

songs were selected from each music book by using a table

of random numbers.

Since Silver Burdett Company had two publications to

emerge during Era B, 1954 to 1965, a further sampling of

songs became necessary in order to maintain a balanced

statistical design for all three periods. The additional

sample was obtained by selecting songs on an alternate basis

from the original song sample of the series Music fox> Living

and Making Musio Youv Own.

After the sample had been selected, the song melodies

were coded and processed on an Omega 480 computer using a

special program (10) developed for determining the range,

the tessitura, and the kinds and frequency of intervals

utilized in the melodic structure. For this procedure,

it was necessary to devise an octave coding system (See

Figure 1).

1

C5

IS C4-

-e- C3

-0- G l

Figure 1.—Octave coding devise for the study

Range was scrutinized in two ways. First, a frequency

distribution of the melodic tones was made in order to

Ill

determine the pitch levels used most often to express the

upper and lower limits. Once the extreme limits had been

established, a numerical value was assigned to each pitch

within the tonal parameter for statistical computation.

Graphs display the tonal frequencies by grades, by company,

and by era. A mean (X) and standard deviation (SD) were

computed for both the upper and the lower limits for the

songs in each book.

Second, the intervals formed by the pitches that

expressed song range were determined. A frequency distri-

bution of range intervals was made for each grade by company

and by era from which a X and SD for range intervals was

computed. The results are shown in graphs.

The frequency distribution of the melodic tones also

revealed the tessitura, the pitch region in which most were

located. It was felt that a suitable algorithm could not

be determined to calculate tessitura by using the computer;

therefore, this was done manually using primarily the note

frequency count data and the investigator's intuitive ex-

perience. Much of the difficulty in this area stems from

the fact that tessitura is not well defined in the litera-

ture, and it includes a wide range of contributing elements,

some of which are not applicable to the child voice. The

issue was further clouded by the fact that tone frequencies

of the song melodies did not always fit into a pattern that

could easily predict tessitura. In several instances, two

112

tones were used an equal number of times as well as a third

tone which occurred more frequently (see Figure 2).

E 4 1 D 4 5 C 4 8* B 4 9 A 3 7 G 3 8* F# 3 2 C 3 1

*Established Tessitura

Figure 2.—The frequency distribution of the melodic tones of a song from New Music Horizons , grade three.

If one only considered the two tones with the highest fre-

quencies in determining tessitura, it would be difficult to

4 4 3 3 decide whether to accept B to C , or G to B as the tes-

3 4 situra. Since the frequencies between G and C were fairly

3 uniform, the tessitura for the song was established as G to

4

C . The tessitura for other songs fitting the above des-

cription were computed in the same manner. The procedures

and statistics utilized with range were applied to tes-

situra. The data are displayed in graphs in Chapter VI.

Semitones were used as both a coding device and as a

numerical value in determining interval frequencies for

each of the songs. The number of semitones that form an

interval was used as the code number (see Figure 3). The

songs in the sample were of varying lengths, creating an

imbalance in the total number of intervals calculated for

each song. Consequently, there was a need to equalize

113

Number of Number of Semitones Interval Semitones Interval

0 prime 9 maj . 6th 1 min. 2nd 10 min. 7th 2 maj. 2nd 11 maj. 7th 3 min. 3rd 12 per. 8ve 4 maj. 3rd 13 min. 9th 5 per. 4th 14 maj. 9th 6 tritone 15 min. 19th 7 per. 5th 16 maj. 10 th 8 min. 6th

maj.

Figure 3.--Coding for intervals used in computing the interval frequencies in song material.

this material. Percentages were computed to show the fre-

quency relationship of an interval to each of the other

intervals in the same song. These percentages were then

used in the statistical design.

The only way the data could be obtained was by testing

the intervals on an individual basis. Consequently, seven-

teen analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted to test

for differences among grades, between companies, and among

eras. A split plot design with a factoral arrangement of

treatment was used because it tested for differences among

and within the main effects as well as the interactions

among and within the main effects (see Appendix E for the

statistical design).

The ANOVA on interval usage and reliability mea-

surement on content analysis data were generated on the

McGill University System for Interactive Computing (MUSIC)

114

at North Texas State University. Additional information

concerning mean and standard deviation of range, tessitura,

and range interval usage was developed on a 48K Apple II.

Problem three.—Several of the research studies re-

viewed in the related literature (Chapter III) were devoted

to learning more about the child's singing ability. These

projects were primarily concerned with providing data re-

lated to range capabilities and preferences. Some studies,

however, revealed pertinent information regarding appro-

priate key signatures for song literature and the

relationship between interval size and in-tune-singing. The

findings of this study that pertain to range, tessitura, and

interval usage are related to the results of those pro-

jects. A major point of consideration was the question of

whether textbook authors have considered the recommendations

generated by research regarding range and key selection of

songs in choosing materials for the elementary music series.

A survey of the keys used in the song sample was initiated

to help in providing an answer (see Appendix H).

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Berelson, Bernard, Content Analysis in Communication Research, Glencoe, Illinois, The Tree Press. 1952.

2. Brook, Barry S., "Style and Content Analysis in Music: The Simplified 'Plaine and Easie Code'," The Analysis of Communication Content, edited bv George Gerbner and others, New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1969.

3. Budd,Richard and Robert K. Thorp, An Introduction to Content Analysis, Iowa City, Iowa, The University of Iowa School of Journalism, 1963.

4. Budd, Richard W. , Robert K. Thorp, and Lewis Donahew, Content Analysis of Communication, New York, The MacMillan Company, 1967.

5. Carney, Thomas F., Content Analysis: A Technique for Systematic Inference from Communications, : Winnepeg, Canada, University of Manitoba Press, 1972.

6. Holsti, Ole R., Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Reading, Mass., Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1969.

7. Hooper, Maureen Dorothea, "Major Concerns of Music Education: Content Analysis of the Music Educa-tors Journalj 1957-1967," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Education, The University of Southern California, 1969.

8. Paisley, William J., The Analysis of Communication Content, edited by George Gerbner and others, New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1969.

9. Pool, Ithiel de Sala, The Prestige Press: A Compa-rative Study of Political Symbols, Cambridge. Mass., The M.I.T. Press, 1970.

10. Watson, Paul, "A Computer Program Designed to Determine Range and Intervallic Characteristics of Melody," unpublished research, Dept. of Computer Science, East Texas State University, 1981.

115

CHAPTER V

DATA PRODUCED BY THE CONTENT ANALYSIS

Content analysis is a procedure whereby one can dis-

cover what is or -is not present in written documents. The

data attained through this process may then be used to iden-

tify the patterns (characteristics) within the communi-

cations whereupon inferences may be drawn'(7, pp. 72, 301).

The content analysis for this study was centered upon re-

vealing the kinds of written directions that have or have

not been provided to aid teachers in the development of

vocal concepts in elementary school aged children. Twenty-

one teacher's editions of music series, grades one, three,

and five, published by two companies during the period 1945

to 1975, were examined. The findings are presented according

to category by eras arranged by decades.

Era A - The Period 1945 to 1954

Two music series published during the period 1945 to

1954 were analyzed, one each from Silver Burdett Company and

the American Book Company. Three categories, established on

the basis of the content material, were utilized in the col-

lection of the data.

A highly competitive environment among publishers cre-

ated the need for the authors of each music series to strive

116

117

for uniqueness. Consequently, the amount of emphasis placed

on each music skill shifts from one publication to another.

It seemed logical, therefore, to present the findings of

this study by publisher.

Vocal Characteristics

The space devoted to describing the quality of the

child's voice depended largely on the kind of importance

placed upon singing by the text authors. Two distinct view-

points were observed in the series of Era A.

Silver Burdett Company.—The authors of the Hew'Music

Horizons music series placed singing at the core of what is

referred to as "the five-fold music program." Five activi-

ties—singing, listening, playing, dancing, and creating—

were considered essential for a rich and complete musical

experience (16, pp. iv-v). The teacher's manuals each con-

tained a special section devoted to "The Singing Voice."

The authors state,

The so-called "child-voice" is the voice of a boy or girl before adolescence. This voice is na-turally soprano. At first thin, shrill, and perhaps weak, it gradually develops strength, mel-lowness, and clearness. The child voice is never heavy or raucous. Strident or harsh singing is incorrect and ruinous to voices (18, p. v).

The voices of first graders entering school were des-

cribed in terms of "small" and"piping" (16, p. vi). The

continuous use of the voice was expected to develop a good

tone, having more strength by the time the third grade was

118

reached (17, p. vi). Fifth graders could look forward to

experiencing that point in their lives when the voice was

nearing the time of its greatest beauty—just prior to

mutation, usually in the sixth or seventh grade. The voices

of boys between the fourth and sixth grades were felt to be

clearer, more flexible, more brilliant, and of greater com-

pass than girls at the same stage of development (18, p. vi).

Much emphasis was placed upon the effectiveness of the

teacher. It was his/her responsibility to instill concepts

of tone quality, diction, phrasing, and posture by setting

an example (18, p. v). McConathy and others ;c>offimeiit ,

Teachers who have good, free, clear singing voices themselves will secure excellent results if they remember not to sing with too heavy an adult tone. Children imitate tone quality, gestures, and man-nerisms to a startling degree (17, p. vi).

The American Book Company. — In discussing the tone

quality of children, the editors of The Ameviean Singer be-

lieved that young children are able to sing in two vocal

registers. The chest voice sometimes used by children is a

harsh, reedy, unpleasant sound whereas the head voice has a

light, thin, unforced, flutelike quality (2, p. 5).

In the series, a strong analogy is drawn between the

acquisition of singing skills and language skills. Both in-

volve a response to a sound first introduced to the indi-

vidual through the ear. Pre-school children were thought to

have been influenced by music produced in the home as well

119

as that heard on the radio and phonograph. In school, the

teacher became the role model who was expected to sing with

a light and childlike tone, approximating the quality of

children's voices. A low, raucous vocal quality would in

all likelihood produce a most unmusical tone (3, pp. 4-5).

Singing Objectives

All written communication was examined to determine the

degree and the nature of the objectives that require sing-

ing. Tabulations were made not only for those directly

related to the development of vocal concepts but also for

those intended for use in the development of other areas,

musical or non-musical. In most music series, there is a

section in which the authors discuss the concepts of musical

development as they perceive them. Usually topical di-

visions delineate the material according to skills and/or

music elements. Other directions, more specific in nature,

are placed directly with the songs.

Silver Burdett Company.—Since singing was considered

to be "the musical expression possible for all children"

(17, p. iv), a highly developed singing program is observed

in the il/ew Musia Horizons series. Every effort was made to

insure the right of every child to a better understanding of

his/her voice. According to the authors,

Even as early as the first grade, careful attention to the child's use of the singing voice is of the utmost importance. Habits, either good or poor,

120

are bound to be formed there that will affect future singing (16, p. vi).

A comparison of the content analysis tabulations for

the three grades used in the study reveals that there was a

consistent growth in the amount of emphasis placed on the

development of a beautiful singing tone (see Table IV).

Higher frequencies for the third and fifth grades demon-

strate that children were expected to function at a more

conscious level vocally at these stages. Terminology found

in the instructional information was more direct and factual.

Mood expression was stressed in the third grade books as a

means of singing with proper tone color for text expression *

Directions for singing "lightly,""reverently," and "quietly"

were observed. Third graders were asked to sing "myste-

riously" or with a "happy" tone quality. References to

range development were strong for all three grades. Di-

rections for implementation are quite specific. Solo

singing or participation in small vocal groups was stressed,

particularly in the first and fifth grades, to help the chil-

dren gain vocal confidence for singing independently.

Singing habits, almost ignored in the first grade, were

given much more attention in grades three and five. A

steady growth is noted. Breathing habits, diction, and

phrasing were stressed more than the other aspects.

The series contains a continuing program of vocal de-

velopment under the title "Singing with a Lovely Tone."

Five major objectives form the basis of the program.

TABLE III

WORD FREQUENCIES OF SPECIFIED OBJECTIVES FOR VOCAL DEVELOPMENT IN SERIES PUBLISHED BY

SILVER BURDETT COMPANY - 1945 TO 1954

121

Stated Grades Total Objectives

One Three Objectives

One Three Five Tone Production 11 4 3 18 beautiful

# # 19 20 39

good 5 11 35 51 free of strain • • 9 3 12 vocal control 6 19 19 44 even quality 6 15 30 51 vocal color • ft 15 12 27 dynamic levels 5 9 24 38

mood expression 13 40 5 58 brightly • • ft ft ft ft ft ft mysteriously • ft 2 ft ft 2 quietly 2

ft ft 1 3 crisply * ft ft ft • • ft ft reverently 1 6 1 8 sturdily • •

ft ft ft ft lightly I 7 12 20 sad happy

# # 3 ft ft 3

humorously • . ft ft ft ft ft ft expressive of text 5 20 11 36 range development 18 29 26 73 awareness own voice • • • 2 8 10 match pitch/melody • • ft ft * ft

independ/confidence 20 9 18 47 Singing Habits

47

posture ft ft ft ft 3 3

breathing * • 10 16 26

diction 6 14 14 34 mouth space

• ft ft ft 1 1 phrasing • *. 7 16 23

Total 99 250 278 627

Part Singing ft ft 3 117 120

Sight Reading • ft. 20 92 112

Total • ft - ft, 23 209 232

122

I. Tone matching was a primary goal to be accomplished

in the early school years. However, if in later years, a

child still could not adequately match pitches, he/she was

to be worked with on a regular basis.

II. Voice compass was a major consideration at all

levels of instruction. Song selection and key choices were

made on the basis of grade appropriateness. Opportunity for

extending the compass of the voice was incorporated into the

teaching strategies designed to expand the upper range li-

mits of both boys and girls and to increase the lower range

limits of boys' voices (18, p. vi).

III. Tone quality was stressed from the onset of sing-

ing activities. In the primary grades, teachers were

instructed to develop a tone that was "clear, light, and of

pleasant quality" (16, p. vi). The concept of head tone

was to be cultivated thus allowing children to sing with en-

thusiasm and freedom, avoiding forcing or harshness.

Encouraging children to sing with a subdued tone was not

recommended (16, p. vi).

In the third and fifth books, teachers and students

are consistently reminded of the importance of securing and

maintaining a beautiful and expressive tone quality, free

of strain (see Table III). The authors observe, "voices

should have careful attention to provide a natural devel-

opment of the vocal instrument and to insure the use of

goodj free tone quality" (17, p. vi).

123

By the time a student reached the fifth grade, he/she

was expected to have developed enough vocal control that

the moods and meanings implied by song texts could be ex-

pressed with tone quality. In the opinion of the authors,

the textural differences that existed between boys' and

girls' voices created a need for some songs that could be

sung exclusively by the boys and others by the girls. Stu-

dents were encouraged to sing in a variety of situations:

in groups, separately (boys - girls), and individually. Al-

though certain principles of good singing were suggested in

the earlier grades, it was not until students entered the

fifth grade that technical matters such as dynamics were em-

phasized and brought to the pupil's conscious consideration

(see Table III). Stress was placed on the proper production

of the root vowels (18, p. vi).

IV. Song singing emphasized the application of the ba-

sic principles of good vocalization to the singing of many

types of songs. The authors observe,

All class-room singing should supplement the particular voice training recommended for the year, and habits of easy, free singing should be formed through the daily singing of songs. Otherwise the special voice work will not fulfill its purpose. Singing the songs with poor voice production will undo all that can be done in special study of tone quality (17, p. vi).

V. Song interpretation was an extension of song sing-

ing in that the degree of vocal proficiency had a direct

bearing on the end result. An effective interpretation was

124

dependent upon five components: freedom of singing, good

phrasing, the ability to use varying shades of tone-color,

the ability to maintain good quality throughout a phrase or

during a sustained tone, and the concept of text and musi-

cal expression (17, p. vi).

In addition to the above, expressive singing required

good enunciation, proper attack of tone, and good into-

nation. Radio singers were thought to set a poor example;

therefore, their style was not to be imitated (18, p. vi).

During part singing activities, teachers were cautioned

to "give constant attention to the quality of the voice" (18,

p. vii). Lower parts required special care due to the fact

that children might tend to sing with a heavy, throaty tone.

Furthermore, intonation could suffer if the tone were to be-

come too dark (18, p. vii).

The investigator was interested in determining the ex-

tent to which singing activities were expected to contribute

to learning in other areas, musical and extra-musical. In

order to be considered a contributing factor, singing—aside

from concepts of vocal development—had to be a part of the

concept formation process. Musical development was first

examined in light of this criterion (see Table IV). When

considering the total stated objectives observed in grade

one (N=123), singing was utilized only 13 per cent to aid

in teaching other music concepts. In grade three (N=422),

28 per cent of the objectives were devoted to helping

125

TABLE IV

PREDOMINANCE OF CLASSIFIED OBJECTIVES* IN SILVER BURDETT SERIES - 1945 TO 1954

Grade

Vocal Development

Elements of Music

Extra-Musical Ddiveloprnent Total

Objec-tives

Total %

Grade Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %

Total Objec-tives

Total %

One 106 86 16 13 1 1 123 100 Three 291 69 119 28 12 3 422 100 Five 521 80 402 19 7 1 649 100

*Coraplete Tabulation in Appendix D

the child form extra-vocal concepts. This figure for grade

five is 19 per cent. When compared to the figures recorded

for vocal development, the percentages turn out to be quite

small.

The attention given to extra-musical development was

even less. Only 1 per cent of the objectives were aimed

in this direction in the first and fifth grade books. Grade

three had a slightly higher figure—3 per cent. Personal

and social growth were the areas most emphasized (see Ap-

pendix D).

The editors of the New Music Eorizons did not give the

theoretical basis for the opinions expressed in the tea-

cher's manuals. However, teachers were urged to read Music

in American Schools by James Mursell, one of the authorsj in

order to understand the philosophical foundation of the

series (16, p. iv).

126

American Book Company.—The authors of The American

Singer music series based the whole approach to musical

understanding on the ability to read music at sight; how-

ever, singing was an important feature of the program. The

content analysis tabulation (see Table V) shows that most

of the goals related to vocal development stressed good

singing practices. Phrasing was a dominant feature for

all three grades although little is said about breath

management. Diction took on more importance in the grade

three texts as did "mood expression" and "good tone."

Specifics regarding "mood expression" are not provided. A

rather even distribution of objectives is noted for range

development, for instilling individual confidence, and for

learning to match pitch with the melodic .direction.

The instructional material was very general in nature

and was basically the same for all three grades. Regarding

the voice quality of children, use of the head voice was rec-

ommended at all times. In order to insure its use in the

lower register, a light tone was to be cultivated (1, p. 2;

2, p. 4; 3j p. 5). Good tone quality was considered to be

"based upon imagination, spontaneity, and light singing" (1,

p. 2). The authors describe a good tone quality as

. . . one which is even and unbroken whether the child sings high or low. . . . The quality of tone should not change, nor the way in which the tone is produced. The tones of the high register or head voice should be carried down into the middle voice, and the middle voice should carry down into the lower or chest voice. At no time

TABLE V

WORD FREQUENCIES OF SPECIFIED OBJECTIVES FOR VOCAL DEVELOPMENT IN SERIES PUBLISHED BY AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY - 1945 TO 1954

127

Stated Objectives

Grades

One Three Five

Total

Tone Production beautiful good free of strain vocal control even quality vocal color dynamic levels

mood expression brightly mysteriously quietly crisply reverently sturdily lightly sad happy humorously expressive of text

range development awareness own voice match pitch/melody independ/conf idence

Singing Habits posture breathing diction mouth space phrasing

3 1

3 5

5 3 3

3 9 1 15

17

2 20

3 8 3 8

3 15 1 15

1 1

12

13

3 8 6 8

3 14 2 16

1 1

32 1

12 • •

5 38

2 6 21 12 19

9 38 4 46

Total 56 95 96 247

Part Singing Sight Reading

Total

10

10

20 15

35

23 25

48

128

should there be an uneven break in any of the tones (3, p. 5).

Much emphasis was placed on proper phrasing. Strate-

gies for helping students develop an understanding of this

is discussed in detail later in this chapter. Text meaning

and proper breath management were closely linked with the

execution of the phrases in song (2, p. 5).

Expressive qualities were to be cultivated through the

exposure of song literature that would allow children to ex-

press themselves in a variety of ways. Contrary to some

theories of the period, the opinion was supported that chil-

dren are capable of responding to songs requiring quiet,

thoughtful mood expressions as well as to those of a

brighter, more humorous nature (1, p. 1; 2, p. 4; 3, p. 3).

Good enunciation was stressed not only for its contri-

bution to good singing but also for accentuating the rhyth-

mic elements in songs. Beattie and others observe,

Singing requires free lip movement with special attention to the consonants, which often accen-tuate the rhythm. The vocal sounds should be pure, and the initial and final consonants clearly articulated. The standards that hold for good speech hold for good singing (3, p. 4).

Unit plans are included in the teacher's guide for

books three and five. The major objectives stated for

singing are

To develop a good singing tone through the singing of rote songs with special emphasis on mood, tempo, and good enunciation.

To give each child the use of his singing ?-voice.

129

To develop the child's ability to sing cor-rectly alone and with the class (2, p. 15).

A slight difference of wording in book five is all that dis-

tinguishes it from book three. The goals are essentially

the same.

Children were expected to learn to sing in two-part

harmony in the fifth grade. Developing an awareness of the

other part was essential in order to blend the voices and to

create a unified sound (3, p. 8).

Singing activities were used to a slight degree in fur-

thering concept development (see Table VI). Of the musical

TABLE VI

PREDOMINANCE OF CLASSIFIED OBJECTIVES* IN AMERICAN BOOK CO. SERIES - 1945 TO 1954

Grade

Vocal Develof iments

Elements Music

of Extra-Musical Development Total

Objec-tives

Total Grade Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %

Total Objec-tives

Total

One Three Five

71 126 111

81 96 81

17 6 24

19 4 18

• *

• *

2

• m

• •

I

88 132 137

100 100 100

•Complete tabulation in Appendix D

aspects, rhythm was the element most emphasized, particu-

larly in grades one and five.

The text authors neither provided theoretical basis for

the learning theories supported nor referred to outside

sources. Many parallels were drawn between singing and

130

reading readiness, leading one to suspect that general edu-

cational theories had perhaps formed the basis for many of

the ideas expressed. This assumption appeared logical since

the main thrust of the series is clearly oriented toward

teaching children to sight read music.

Teaching Strategies

Teaching strategies were generally aligned with the

music objectives set forth in the teacher's manual of the

series. The content analysis was used to determine the

devices recommended for developing a good tone and for

tuning the voice. The opinions offered for out-of-tune

singing were also examined.

Silver Burdett Company.—The teaching strategies for

first grade children centered on securing and maintaining

the child's singing voice. The training program utilized

several devices, most of which were imagery oriented (see

Definitions, p. 8). Two objectives were paramount: singing

in tune and the development of a good tone quality. Five

aids were recommended.

I. Imitating contrasting calls—low, middle, and high

or big, middle, and small. Frequently these calls were re-

lated to something already familiar to the child, i.e., the

voices of the "Three Bears" (16, p. vi).

II. Short refrains of songs or animal calls were to be

sung by the teacher for the children to repeat (16, p. vi).

131

The refrains were most often made up of segments of the song

being taught, the melodic contour frequently outlining the

tonic chord as shown in Figure 4. Animal calls, mostly

The teacher may use the last two phrases of this song as tone games. Sing them in several keys. Always maintain a clear, pleasing tone.

3 n p Ooo- Ooo- Ooo-oo-oo

Figure 4.--Portion of song recommended for use in tone matching exercises (16, p. 59).

kittens and puppies, were not as widely observed.

Ill* Listening activities were stressed for helping

children identify melodic direction—where the tune "runs

up" or "down" (16, p. vi). Listening to vocal solo per-

formances of recording artists or by the teacher was

considered to be one of the most valuable aspects of the

music program (16, p. viii).

IV. Simple songs having many repetitions were believed

to be helpful on the basis that a child experiencing dif-

ficulty in matching pitches would be less likely to become

confused (16, p. vi).

V. Tone games, the most extensively used device (see

Category III-C; Appendix D)3 were employed in a variety of

ways: for matching tones, for securing a good tone, and

for extending the upper range. These exercises, twenty—nine

132

in all, are of varying degrees of complexity and are placed

intermitenfly: throughout the book. Most often, they are

segments of the song being learned. The directions pro-

vided with each exercise are explicit, frequently being

multi-purposed (see Figure 6). The tone games in Figure

5, selected on the basis of their exemplary qualities, show

the vocal range, the interval usage, the melodic structure,

and the teacher directions typical of these exercises. Note

the division of measures into smaller segments, making it

possible for the teacher to use each tone game in a variety

of ways—as a whole unit or in portions.

Using a coding device (see Appendix G), the range and

tessitura were computed for the tone games (see Table VII).

The highest tone in the range was G4 and lowest was D3. The

X for the high tones was 21, placing it at D#4 tonally. The

X for the low tones was 11.103, at a point slightly above 3

F (see Figure 5).

P n X X

Low Range High Range

Figure 5.—Tones that express the pitch means of high and low range limits of tone games.

In order to determine the tessitura, a tonal frequency

was made. Tessitura (see Definitions, p. 8) is calculated

by using the pitches between the two tones with the highest

133

Example A.

The tone games below are suggested for voice training as well as for tone matching.

1.

3E jfc J* J J =4=

Hel-lo!Hel-lo!Hel- lo! Can you see me?Here I am

/ V J J r 1 • •/

4 —Y + J— \ > I am o - ver here,

Example B.

Teacher and children sing these tone games with neutral syllables "nee," "fo," or "no."

I n # -JL

What shall I buy at the can-dy shop?

Mb r r * 0 * J~ ill Car-a-mel, pep-per-mint, oh!

Example C.

Sing these tone games in several keys, on various neutral syllables.

rr.irri ri) i J i. iPr p 0 wind!- 0 wind!- 0 wind that sings so loud a

,rj7ifY 1 ± song. - Kites sail in the sky.— Fly, fly a-way, kite!

Figure 6>.—Examples of tone games (16, pp. 5, 31, 57)

134

TABLE VII

FREQUENCIES OF PITCHES USED IN COMPUTING RANGE AND TESSITURA FOR TONE GAMES IN

SILVER BURDETT FIRST GRADE BOOK

Pitch Level Frequency

G4 F#4 F4 E4 D#4 D4_ C#4 C4 B3

5 25 14 57* "14 44 56

- +1SD

X A# 3 A3 G§3 G3_ F# 3 F3 E3 D#3 D3 C#3 C3

22 73§ 32 65 §* " 6

17 15 5 4

-1SD

05 00 >9.

Total 455

SPltches that form the true tessitura

•Pitches that form the logical tessitura

X=16.175

SD=3.378

+1SD=19.533

-1SD=12.797

135

frequency count in the melodic material being analyzed. The

true tessitura was found to be between G3 and A3 (see Table

VII); however, a high frequency count, (57), recorded for

4 D prompted the investigator to believe that a more realis-

S A

tic statement of tessitura is from G to D . Further

support for this opinion came from two additional facts.

First, of the eight tones in the interval formed by G3 to 4 _

D , six have high frequency numbers. Second, a X of 16.175, 3 3

a point between A# and B , was calculated, indicating that

most of the tones were clustered above the highest tone of

the true tessitura (see Figure 7).

L

£ -e-

True X Logical Tessitura Tessitura

Figure 7.—Tessitura of tone games

Approximately midpoint in the first grade book, the

emphasis of the exercises leans more in the direction of

tone quality. Neutral syllables incorporating the vowel

sounds are suggested for use with the melodic fragments

or, in many instances, with complete song melodies. The

kinds of directions provided are

The melody of this song is appropriate for voice training. Have the children vocalize it on the neutral syllables, "fa," "no," "do," etc. . . . After the class is familiar with this song, the last two phrases may be used for vocalizing on such syllables as "no," "fo," "fa,". . . (16, pp. 68-69).

136

Melodically, there was a proclivity toward movement along

chord tones as opposed to scale or step-wise progressions.

The examples observed in Figure 6 are accurate represen-

tations.

Musical inexperience, inattention to pitch, and physi-

cal immaturity were the reasons most often stated for a

child's inability to match pitches accurately (see III-B,

Word Frequency Tabulation, Appendix D). The recommen-

dations made for helping these children included having

them listen while forming the words with their lips, singing

rhythmic refrains, providing special seating arrangements,

and allowing friendly assistance from the better singers

(16, p. vi; 17, p. viii).

Tone games continued to be emphasized to a great degree

as a teaching device in the third grade. It was at this

stage that the student's conscious level regarding his/her

singing voice was being awakened. Although the authors

state that actual voice training was not attempted at this

point, the children were required to give some thought to

tone production (17, p. 12). Three strategems were noted

extensively. First, children were encouraged to interpret

the mood implied by the text. Typical references to the

above are

. . . It is important that the children understand^ feel, and express the meaning of the words they sing.

. . . When children have read the words for meaning,

137

ask how they should be sung—"Loudly or softly" Quickly or slowly? Sadly or happily?"

. . . The children . . . will show their feel-ing for the mood and spirit by the way they sing it [the song]. • • • • • • • • • • • a * * * *

. . . The children will readily appreciate the reverent mood of the song and the importance of singing it with a suitable tone color (17, pp. 1, 3, 38, 40).

Second, singing the melody on a neutral syllable, such

as "loo," until a good tone could be achieved was advocated.

The key to this suggestion was the transference of tone

quality established on the neutral vowel to the song lyrics

(17, p. 36).

Third, footnotes in the children's books offer sug-

gestions for correct tone quality. The use of imagery

becomes evident. Children were encouraged at one point to

"try to make your tones as light as a leaf floating in the

breeze (17, p. 12). Another instance was noted where they

were asked to "pretend you are a tiny canary singing his

high, clear song" (17, p. 62) and to "make your voices ring

like a bell" (17, p. 79). Ideas taken from the text of the

song generally formed the basis for these imagery directions.

In the fifth grade book, the editors state,

This is the time when youngsters are joining choirs and therefore are ready to think about how they use their voices. . . . stress is placed upon the proper production of the root vowels, and eight specific lessons are outlined for the devel-opment and better use of the voice (18, p. vi).

The eight lessons appear in the student text as well as

138

in the teacher's guide. The first lesson is devoted to

making a pure tone on the vowel "ah." The student is in-

structed to choose a favorite song, one that is in a

"moderate" key, and sing all the phrases on "ah" in a full,

natural voice. Once a good tone was established, the stu-

dent was to sing a descending scale beginning on ,

continuing to use the "ah" vowel (18, p. 16). (See page 110

for octave coding.) The logic behind starting the exercise

of a familiar song is that it is possible to establish a

comfortable tone which could then be transferred to the

scale. Success was more assured in this manner.

The second singing lesson is a continuation of the

first in that the voice compass on the vowel: "ah" is ex-

tended. Tonal exercises are provided (see Figure 8'). The

' f i f t h 111 1 U'l " a In- to ah-

Figure 8.—Exercises for Beautiful Singing—II (18. p. 32). '

2 2

tone E or D was recommended as the starting tone for the

exercise which was to be sung smoothly. The range was ex-

tended by raising the pitch a semitone each time the

exercise was performed. The authors observe, As long as we are using the medium part of the voice (from Middle C up to F on the fifth line), this will be easy and will sound well. Only those who can sing

139

easily, without altering the quality of their tones, should continue to the higher notes (18, p. 32).

Beautiful Singing—III emphasizes staccato and legato

singing. Half the exercise was to be sung in a detached

style which was then followed by a smooth line (see Figure

9). The aspirate "h" in conjunction with the "a" vowel,

Hi $ m i i Ha ha ha ha ha ha ah

i Ha ha ha ha ha ha

Figure 9.—Exercises for Beautiful Singing—III (18, p. 63).

referred to as a "hearty laugh," helped the student sing in

a detached manner without glottal involvement in his/her

singing. The study was to be practiced both ascending and

descending and the melodic line was not to exceed F 4 (18,

p. 63).

The development of an even tone quality was the ob-

jective of Lesson Four. Two new concepts are introduced

here. First, there begins to be some exploration of the

lower part of the register, altogether ignored previously

140

(see Figure 10). However, students were cautioned, "take

Jf/TT J JI

a fa-

Figure 10.—Exercises for Beautiful Singing—IV (18, p. 83).

#2 downward, but only as far as you can sing easily" (18,

p. 83). Second, mention is made of keeping the throat free

all the way up the scale. A diagram was provided to help

students understand that a feeling of openness is necessary

throughout the singing range (see Figure 11).

i 5

Figure 11.--Diagram to help children maintain an open throat while singing (18, p. 83).

Lesson Five is a study of the pure vowels, referred to

as the "Root Vowels." The physiological aspects involved

in vowel formation are discussed.

. . . surrounding the natural open sound of "ah" are two groups of vowels, one sung through the lips and called for that reason "labial," and the other sung through the teeth and called for that reason "dental" (18, p. 119).

Three aids for helping students understand the concept

w^fe providedt a- diagram Showiag the position of the

141

"dental" and "labial" vowels in relation to the open "ah"

(see Figure 12), familiar words containing the vowels to

dental labxal

ah

Figure 12.—The root vowels (18, p. 119)

be used as models, and a picture showing the correct lip and

teeth position for each vowel. The core region of the voice, 3 3

E to B , was considered best for attaining good results (18,

p. 119).

Vocal control through dynamics was the sixth vocal con-

cept emphasized. The pattern of the exercise was first sung

loud, forte, and then repeated softly, piano (see Figure

13) .

4

147)gU1*e 1 3 " — E x e r c i s e f o r Beautiful Singing—VI (18,

142

The final lessons in the series were devoted to devel-

oping smoothness and flexibility in the voice. Exercise

seven (see Figure 14) was to be practiced both in a staccato

I'fiU n n ah-

P

Figure 14.—Exercise for Beautiful Singing—VII (18, p. 181) •

style and in a legato style on the vowel nah«n Inventing

the melodic pattern was suggested as well as the use of

other vowels. Dynamics and rhythmic qualities were to be

carefully considered (18, p. 181). Exercise eight was de-

signed to develop flexibility in the upper range (see Figure

15). Students were not to practice above F 5 and to "stop

I s 1 ah-

p. 212 Figure 15.—Exercise for Beautiful Singing—VIII (18, 2l) m

singing as soon as the tones feel too tightn (18, p. 212),

At all levels of instruction, the teacher was expected

to demonstrate a quality appropriate for imitation by the

children (see III-A, Word Frequency Tabulation, Appendix D).

143

In the event a teacher did not possess this ability, it was

suggested that a group of children could be taught the song

who would then present it to the class (17, p. vi).

Th® American Book Company. —Sh& Am&.wi.s.ct.vi S'i.n.g.ei*. offers

little assistance to the teacher for the development of a

good tone quality in children's voices. The few comments

observed (see III-A, Word Frequency Tabulation, Appendix D)

are very general in nature and, except for slight wording

alterations, are identical for all three grades. The au-

thors seemed to assume that anyone accepting the responsi-

bility for instructing music would have had the necessary

training and technical background for guiding experiences

in all areas.

Singing with a head tone was considered essential; how-

ever, encouragement toward a heal'ty, virile tone was

advised. Constantly admonishing children to sing softly or

with a suppressed tone was thought most likely to result

in a devitalized, breathy quality. Singing in a manner con-

sistent with natural expression was advocated for children

(3, p. 5). Use of the piano as an accompanying instrument

was viewed favorably only as long as it was soft enough for

children to be heard above it without having to shout (1,

p. 2; 2, p. 6; 3, p. 5).

One of the strongest sections in the first grade book

was the message to the teacher for working with the

144

out-of-tune singer. Three possible causes were stated:

physical handicaps, a lack of musical background, and a lack

of vocal co-ordination. Physical handicaps were not re-

stricted to laryngeal and/or aural disfunction. Malnu-

trition, nervous disorders, enlarged tonsils, or any type

of physical difficulty were considered inhibiting factors.

According to the authors, the lack of prior musical ex-

perience was detrimental; however, they believed that a

child could quickly overcome this handicap with exposure to

singing in school. A child1s failure to produce the pitch

he/she heard was attributed to the inability to co-ordinate

the ear and the voice (1, p. 3).

Proper grouping of these children for music classes

was essential to their development. A strong correlation

is drawn between the procedures used for teaching children

to match pitches and for teaching them to read, reasserting

one of the strongest objectives of the series—the ability

to sight read music. The authors observe,

In music as in other subjects, the teacher must recognize various levels of ability. In teaching the children to read, the.teacher gives considerable attention to the individual child. There may be several reading groups in one room, depending upon the varying degrees of ability. It is possible under such conditions to meet the needs of the individual children.

In music it is also necessary to provide mu-sical experience which meets individual needs. Children should be grouped according to their varying abilities to sing. It may be desirable to divide the class into three or four different groups, in order that the teacher may work more efficiently within the short music period (1, p. 3).

145

Placing children in the top group depended upon their

ability to sing a song accurately alone or in a group.

Strategically, they were of more benefit to the rest of the

class if they were seated toward the back of the room so

that their voices could be heard, thus aiding and strength-

ening the entire group (1, p. 3).

The children in Group II differed in that they were

not yet strong enough singers to perform a complete melody

mistake-free while singing independently. Their best seat-

ing position was immediately in front of Group I.

A third grouping was recommended for children who were

only able to sing short motives or who were unable to match

a single pitch. Aids suggested for assisting these children

included having the child match single tones sung by the

teacher or another child, imitating sirens for developing

flexibility, starting on a tone comfortable for the child

and working gradually upward and/or downward, using other

imitative devices such as whistles, bird calls, and ringing

bells, and play-echoing musical games employing the child's

name or musical question-anwser situations (1, p. 3)..

In the third and fifth grade books, children who could

not yet match pitches are referred to as "retarded singers."

Inexperience was thought to be the main problem causing in-

adequate control of the vocal mechanism. Singing short

phrases on a neutral syllable, "loo" or "too", with the tea-

cher or with fellow students was advocated (2, p. 6;3, p.5-6).

146

Strong emphasis was placed upon the development of an

understanding of breath management as related to phrases.

The songs are printed in such a manner that each staff of

music represents one phrase. Activities that involved phy-

sical movement making arcs in the air, walking, drawing on

the board were considered helpful to the child in learning

how to measure the duration of time needed to sing a com-

plete phrase. Changing the quality of each phrase, either

through a musical variation or an activity> was another me-

thod whereby children could gain phrasing insight (3, p. 4).

The interpretation of the song was expected to greatly

enhance the quality of the performance. Although sight

reading was a major goal of the series, rote singing and

careful attention to the correct attitude toward singing was

not ever to be abandoned. The teacher was expected to set

the proper example through his/her own artistic rendition of

the song material (1, p. 1; 2,p. 6; 3, p. 4).

Era B - The Period 1955 to 1964

Three series published during this decade were analyzed.

Two series were published by Silver Burdett: Music for Liv-

ing (1956) and Making Music Your Own (1964). The American

Book Company published Music for Young Americans (1959).

Vocal Characteristics

Text authors of the series published in this time span

devoted less space to describing the actual characteristics

147

of the child voice (see I-A, Word Frequency Tabulation, Ap-

pendix D). There was a strong tendency toward developing

a program in which singing was placed on an equal basis with

other music activities.

Silver Burdett Company.—The authors of the Music for

Living series viewed singing as a personal and natural act.

Success was dependent upon confidence and enjoyment, atti-

tude and the "will to sing," more than upon a method of

vocal production (20, p. x; 21, p. xiii). Two conditions

were considered essential for nurturing the "will to sing:"

1) There must be songs that in themselves invite singing because of the appeal of their music and their words. 2) There must be situations that invite singing (2, p. x).

The alleged range capabilities for both the third and

fifth grade students was "from B or B flat below Middle C

to the E on the fourth space on the treble staff" (20, p.

x; 21, p. xiii). The preferred vocal range of younger chil-

dren was not given; however, teachers were reminded that

they "tend to sing on a rather low pitch-level . . . " (19,

p. 146).

The later publication, Making Music lour Own, devoted

no space to the discussion of the characteristics of the

child voice. This might be partially due to a drastically

changed book format for the teacher's editions.

American Book Company.—The attitude expressed in

Music for Young Americans is that a lightness of quality is

148

the distinguishing feature of children's voices. This fact

in no way implied that children should not be encouraged

to sing in a variety of dynamic levels (3, p. 2). The

teacher's voice quality, radio, television, and recordings

were considered to be the most influential forces on the

voice. Radio and television were not necessarily viewed

with favor as good model sources because of chilren's in-

clination toward listening to very little music of intrinsic

value (6, p. 5).

Singing Objectives

The educational objectives that were approached

through singing increased considerably during this period.

Some of the conceptual outcomes were directly related to

the vocal instrument whereas others were not. There is a

distinct dichotomy between the two publishers.

Silver Burdett Company.—The content analysis results

for the two music series published by Silver Burdett reveal

a sharp decline in the stated objectives related to the

actual development of the child voice. A comparison of the

figures observed in Table IV to those reported in Tables

VIII and IX show that the number of observations for both

publications are considerably lower in Era B. The figure

reported for the New Music Horizons' (Era A) was N=627 for

all three grades. Music for Living has an N of 151., re-

presenting only 24 per cent as many singing objectives. The

149

numbers for Making Music Your Own were slightly better with

an N of 182 or 29 per cent as many objectives as noted in

the earlier publication. These large differences are

due in part to the major thrusts of the textbooks.

A primary goal of the Musie fov Living series was "to

help children grow up as persons" (19, p. 149). The whole

plan of the books reflects this premise. The authors list

"ten ways of growing up," showing how music can benefit in

the process. The authors comment,

One may think of a young child's musical growth as starting with free, happy, unforced participation. He sings, responds rhythmically, listens, uses some simple instruments. No doubt there will be some crudeness in what he does. . . . For the time-being none of this matters so long as he has enthusiasm and confidence and is not dis-couraged or made to feel inadequate. For growth comes from within and depends upon the aroused will.

Little by little his responses take on more de-finite shape. . . . When he sings, he becomes able to bring out more and more of the details of a song. . . . For the child grows into the ability to control his voice, to sing tunes adequately. . . (20, p. vii).

Free, happy singing experiences and the development

of a strong feeling of the relationship of the lyrics arid

the melody were of import (19, pp. 145-146). Part singing

and sight reading, observed to a degree in the third grade,

became strong objectives in the fifth grade (see Table

VIII). Singing harmony in two and three parts was a way

of providing a new, intriguing, enriching experience (21,

p. xii). Music reading development was deemed to be a

matter of "noticing." Children were to be guided in a

TABLE VIII

WORD FREQUENCIES OF SPECIFIED OBJECTIVES FOR VOCAL DEVELOPMENT IN SERIES PUBLISHED BY SILVER BURDETT (MFL*) - 1955 TO 1964

150

Stated Objectives

Grades

One Three Five Total

Tone Production beautiful good free of strain vocal control even quality vocal color dynamic levels

mood expression brightly mysteriously quietly crisply reverently sturdily lightly sad happy humorously expressive of text

range development awareness own voice match pitch/melody independ/confidence

Singing Habits posture breathing diction mouth space phrasing

3 7 1

3 6

6

9 6 1

4 m

.*>

38

11 4 • •

3 3 6 3

2 3

4 5

23 10 1 6 10 10 3

2 6

1 7

15

44

Total 30 65 5G 145

Part Singing Sight Reading

6 17

82 70

88 87

Total 23 152 .175

*Music for Living

151

manner that would increase the use of eye-experiences,thus

enabling them to more adequately understand what they were

hearing, singing, and playing. Basically, the process in-

volved gradually connecting eye-symbols with ear-experiences

and muscle-experiences (20, p. ix; 21, p. viii).

Word frequency totals recorded in Table VIII cause one

to believe that third graders were given more attention in

their vocal training. Actually, the objectives for fifth

grade demonstrate a wider range of experiences. A strong

thrust toward helping children gain a feeling of independent

confidence pushed the numbers for grade three higher.

Notably missing are directions for helping children

understand or develop good singing practices. Furthermore,

an inconsistency is noted throughout the grades in that a

concept, i.e., dynamic levels, may be taught at one stage

and totally ignored at others. Range development, vocal

freedom, and mood expression are the only items with re-

corded frequencies for all three grades.

Making Music lour Own was "designed to stimulate chil-

dren s interest in music and to help them make discoveries

about its basic concepts" (14, p. vi). Five elements are

stressed rhythm, melody, form, harmony, and expressive

qualities. Suggestions for singing activities in the growth

charts are most often found under the element, "Expressive

Qualities," and are very general in nature as the following

example demonstrates.

152

. . . Being aware of the relationship of song lyrics to expressive singing . , . .'Being aware of mood in music. . . (22, p. 226).

Directions to teachers with the individual songs are

more specific. Children are directly encouraged to use the

singing voice "to dramatize the calls. . . . to dramatize

the humor in the song . . . . " (22, pp. 36-37). Several

occasions were noted where teachers were counseled to

Help children to project the words and ideas of each song they sing by using dynamic, tempo, and tone qualities that are appropriate for each song. Encourage children to dramatize the story with their singing voices (22, p. 41).

Communicative ideas, printed in the student editions, were

used as a means of directly introducing dynamics and tempo

markings.

The emphasis placed on part singing and sight reading

in the fifth grade was obvious due to the numerous refer-

ences made to songs considered appropriate for these

activities (see Table IX). More than 50 per cent of the

songs in the books are part songs. As in Music fov Living3

the development of independent singing was a very strong

objective when compared to other concepts. References to

mood expression and text expressiveness are noticed more

than in Music fov Living. However, the mood qualities are

not suggested with the songs. The degree of attention

given to singing for each of the grades is about equal but

not necessarily in the same areas. The fact that the series

does not share the same authors may account for the problem.

TABLE IX

WORD FREQUENCIES OF SPECIFIED OBJECTIVES FOR VOCAL DEVELOPMENT IN SERIES PUBLISHED BY SILVER BURDETT (MMYO*) - 1955 TO 1964

153

Stated Objectives

Grades

One Three Five Total

Tone Production beautiful good free of straini vocal control even quality vocal color dynamic levels

mood expression brightly mysteriously quietly crisply reverently sturdily lightly sad happy humorously expressive of text

range development awareness own voice match pitch/melody independ/confidence

Singing Habits posture breathing diction mouth space phrasing

3 • •

10 • •

3 1

21

21

8 14 8

1 26

13

12

6 4 • •

11 14 33 • •

6 4

41

59

Total 62 55 65 182

Part Singing Sight Reading

20 40 52

60 52

Total 20 92 112

*Making Music Your Own

154

The incidence of using singing as a springboard for con-

ceptual development in other areas was vastly increased. In

the first grade book of Music for Living3 the authors state

their point of view.

. . . THE MOST VITAL THING A TEACHER CAN DO FOR A CHILD IS TO HELP HIM GROW UP PROPERLY . . . to grow up mentally, socially, emotionally, spiri-tually. . . to grow up into a good, a useful, a well-adjusted person (19, p. 143).

The above ideas are borne out in the books (see Table

X). Of the 97 objectives observed, 67 were related to so-

cial and personal development. Only 31 per cent of the

teaching strategies stressed vocal development. Many are

frequently oriented toward the psychological and physical

growth patterns of the young child. Musical experiences

are related to these objectives, for example,

Because the words of this song are full of re-petitions, it is an easy one to adapt. One nice plan is to offer children an opportunity to gain self-confidence by singing an answer to some easy question (19, p. 29).

TABLE X

PREDOMINANCE OF CLASSIFIED OBJECTIVES0 IN SILVER BURDETT (MFL*) - 1955 TO 1964

Grade

Vocal Development

Elements of Music

Extra-Musical Development Total

Objec-tives

Total I Grade

Freq. % Freq. , % . Freq. . % . .

Total Objec-tives

Total I

One 30 31 0 00 67 69 97 100 Three 133 21 463 75 26 4 622 100 Five . 224 35 402 63 13 ; . .2 • . 639 100

*Music for Living "Complete tabulation in Appendix D

155

Social and personal development continued in the third

grade but was not noted in the fifth grade series (see II-C,

Word Frequency Tabulation, Appendix D). There is a marked

increase in the degree of importance placed on the acqui-

sition of a better understanding of the elements of music

through singing activities—74 per cent in the third grade

and 63 per cent in the fifth grade (see II-B, Appendix D).

Four aspects were emphasized: rhythm, melody, tonality

sensitivity, and phrase recognition. Awareness of cultural

differences in music was highly stressed—more than any of

the above. Very high tabulations are recorded in grades

three and five.

In Making Musio Youx> Own3 the numbers recorded are more

evenly distributed (see Table XI) There was still. ;&).!;ten-

TABLE XI

PREDOMINANCE OF CLASSIFIED OBJECTIVES0 IN SILVER BURDETT (MMYO*) - 1955 TO 1964

Grade

Vocal Develop] ment

Elements of Music

Extra-Musical Development Total

Objec-tives

Total %

Grade Freq. % Freq. % . Freq. %

Total Objec-tives

Total %

One Three Five

95 92

159

37 45 69

151 108 69

59 54 30

11 1 3

4 1 1

257 201 231

100 100 100

*Making Music Your Own °Complete tabulation—Appendix D

dency to accentuate the music elements more than vocal

development; however, the differences are not as

156

great as in Music for Living (see II-B, Word Frequency

Tabulation, Appendix D). There is now a more even distri-

bution among the elements with slightly more emphasis on

the melodic and rhythmic elements. A drastic difference is

noticed in the amount of attention given to cultural musical

awareness.

The American Book Company.—Musio for Young Americans

offers a comprehensive, balanced program in which the child

"explores" music by experiencing a variety of activities.

The goals outlined are much stronger than those in The

American Singer (see Tables V and XII). The number of ob-

jectives increased dramatically, going from a figure of 126

to 908—an increase of 780 indicating 7.19 times more empha-

sis placed on teaching children how to use their voices.

Concentration at the first grade level centered upon

helping the child gain better control of the vocal me-

chanism and upon learning how to recognize the mood of a

song (5, pp. 168-169). A good tone—free of strain, un-

forced, possessing an evenness in quality throughout the

range was the ultimate goal in all grades (5, p. 2). An

understanding of the expressive markings was mandatory for

an artistic, musical performance. The ability to alter

tone color or vocal quality as determined by song text

was initiated to a small degree in the first grade books

(see Table XII). By the fifth grade, this aspect was

greatly expanded to include many moods and tone colors.

TABLE XII

WORD FREQUENCIES OF SPECIFIED OBJECTIVES FOR VOCAL DEVELOPMENT IN SERIES PUBLISHED BY AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY - 1954 TO 1965

157

Stated Objectives

Tone Production beautiful good free of strain vocal control even quality vocal color dynamic levels

mood expression brightly mysteriously quietly crisply reverently sturdily lightly sad happy humorously expressive of text

range development awareness own voice match pitch/melody independ/confidence interpretation

Singing Habits posture breathing diction mouth space phrasing

Grades

One

4 4 • *

3 3 3

13 11 4 6

Three

5 4 5 5 • •

9

13 18 5 • •

24 m *

3 • •

16 • *

11 • *

16 • »

6 • «

35

9 31 14 • «

32

Five

14 4 4

27 16 84 24 1 5 16 2 5 7

38 3

14 2 12 2

117 107

3 19 4 • *

12

Total

19 12 13 5 3 39 19 110 53 10 11 40 2 11 7

54 9

33 2 32 2 9

• *

153 107

12 59 18 # m

. .44

Total 85 261 542 888

Part Singing Sight Reading

38 30

201 110

239 143

158

Certain expressive qualities received more attention

than the others. Directions to sing "quietly," "lightly,"

with a "happy" tone, and "expressive of the text" were

noted frequently, particularly in the third and fifth grade

books. Song interpretation, ignored in grades one and

three, was recorded 109 times for grade five. Aspects of

vocal control——even quality, vocal color, and dynamics—

were enlarged upon with each succeeding grade.

The concept of breathing as related to singing was the

first good singing practice to be mentioned; however, in

grade three, children were receiving much more instructional

information on how to improve the quality of their tone by

correctly employing proper breathing, enunciation, and

phrasing techniques in their singing.

The high frequency recorded for independence/confidence

was the result of regularly occurring activities requiring

children to sing alone or in small groups. This was an

especially strong goal in the fifth grade.

As in the Silver Burdett publications, there was an in-

crease in the emphasis placed on the acquisition of a better

understanding of the music elements through singing. How-

ever , the percentage of objectives related to vocal develop-

ment was considerably higher than those pertaining to other

areas (See Table XIII). The four elements that received

the most attention were: rhythm, melody, cultural musical

awareness, and phrase recognition (see III-B, Word Frequency

TABLE XIII

PREDOMINANCE OF CLASSIFIED OBJECTIVES IN AMERICAN BOOK CO. SERIES - 1955 TO 1964

159

Grade

Vocal Develop ment

Elements of Music

Extra-Musical Development Total

Objec-tives

Total %

Grade Freq. % Freq. % . Freq. %

Total Objec-tives

Total %

One Three Five

90 337 906

55 64 79

50 183 234

30 35 20

24 7 3

15 1 1

164 527

1143

100 100 100

Tabulation, Appendix D). Personal development and creati-

vity were the extra-musical areas promoted,but only to a

slight degree.

T£a:ching Strategies

The means for helping children learn to sing were not

overly abundant during Era B. The suggestions noted in

the series published by American Book Company remained some-

what consistent in number to those reported in Era A. This,

however, was not the case with Silver Burdett's publications.

Silver Burdett Company.•—The authors of Music fov Liv-*

ing were concerned with the development of a good attitude

toward vocal involvement. A joy for singing was considered

more important than "any alleged 'proper' use of the voice"

(19, p. 146). The suggestions made for contributing to the

child s knowledge about the voice as an instrument were few.

When compared with Era A, the number is significantly lower.

160

The number of teaching strategies tabulated for Era A was

384 whereas the number for Era B is 115. In addition, the

suggestions are very general in nature.

In all three grades, song material was emphasized as

a means for generating interest in singing. Rhythmic and

dramatic activities offered added appeal for enthusiastic

participation (19, p. 146; 20, p. x; 21, p. xiii). The

acquisition of range and vocal control were considered the

result of natural growth processes and were not to be

pushed (20, p. viii).

The cultivation of appropriate tone quality was thought

to be greatly enhanced through the use of series recordings.

Imitative devices animals, the wind, sirens, and whistles—

were advocated as vocal and tuning aids in the first grade.

There was evidence that the association of physical move-

ment to melodic direction was encouraged as a means of

assistance to children (see III-A, Word Frequency Tabulation,

Appendix D).

An informal classroom environment was considered more

conducive to helping the child feel comfortable about sing-

ing. Special seating arrangements and the classification of

the students as singers or non-singers was considered inad-

visable (20, p. xi; 21, p. xii).

In Making Music Youv Own, there were only 58 statements

evaluated as objectives related to the development of tone

quality. Matching the vocal color to the mood of the song

161

was the stratagem most often noted. The following are ex-

amples of the kinds of directions observed in student

editions of the series:

• • pretend you are a cowboy and use your voice to quiet the dogies. . .

Show with your voice the feeling of the gentle' wind. . . .

Use your singing voice to dramatize the humor in* this song (15, p. 19; 22, p. 36).

Statements to the teachers followed the same format:

To help children sing expressively, stimulate their imagination through the words and ideas of a song. . . . Help children project the words and ideas of each song they sing by using dynamics, tem-pos, and tone quality appropriate for each song (15 p. 146; 22, pp. 51, 164).

Teachers were encouraged to incorporate interpretative movie-

ment into the learning situation. It was asserted that ad-

ditional musical insight could be gained in this manner (15,

p. 48).

Strategies for tuning, observed mostly in the first

grade teacher's manual, relied largely upon the use of co-

ordinated physical movement-—primarily hand or arm—with

melodic direction (See III-C, Word Frequency Tabulation,

Appendix D). Careful attention to the beginning pitches of

songs and of phrases was regarded as essential for consis-

tent in-tune singing (15, p. 113). Possible causes for

out-of-tune singing were not discussed in either of the

series published by Silver Burdett during this decade.

162

American Book Company.--In Music fov Young Americans,

singing was considered to be but one of the ways in which

the child explores music. The song material was projected

as one of the most important aspects in music education.

Among the criteria for evaluation were the text, its meaning

and word imagery, the mood implied by text and music, and

the expressive qualities related to tone quality (4, p.

170).

Class discussions about the song texts were recom-

mended. The; authors state,

If you have provided a happy field for exploration, you may expect to hear from the children, in their own words or movements, that songs. . . . may be loud oi soft or somewhere in—between. . . may begin high or low . . . . can tell how you feel: happy, sad, funny, gay, spooky, and the like (7, p. 169).

The child's concept of the mood and the imagery im-

plied by the text and melody of a song was paramount to

correct expressive qualities. Children were to be led be-

yond mere imitation, instilling in them the knowledge that

there could be several interpretative possibilities for each

song (4, p. 172). Older children should be challenged to

interpret the expressive markings. Instructions to sing

quietly," "reverently," "gaily," or "humorously" offer a

variety of emotional qualities to be recognized (5, p. 2),

The teacher's voice quality and recordings were deemed

very influential in shaping the voices of young children

(see III-A, Word Frequency Tabulation, Appendix D). A

163

singing quality that closely resembled the speaking voice

was considered more appropriate than a high, unnatural tone.

Teachers were encouraged to practice singing in order to

gain better control of their own instrument and to extend

the range in both directions. Series recordings offered as

a possible solution for those who were vocally insecure were

not to be considered as a suitable substitute (4, pp. 172,

176).

Musical inexperience and the failure to notice all the

details of a melody—its direction and shape--were thought

to be the root Of the problems experienced by "uncertain"

or "inaccurate" singers (see III-B, Word Frequency Tabu-

lation, Appeindix D). These children were classified into

one of three categories. First, there are children who

chant or repeat the words of a song with attention now and

then to vocal inflection. A sense of pitch discrimination

and melodic direction must be developed. Listening to the

singing of his/her classmates and listening to records were

proposed remedies. Second, there are children who use a

singing tone but do not sing the melody accurately. Ex-

perience in observing melodic direction and vocal experi-

mentation was considered beneficial. Finally, there are

children who have by nature unusually low voices. These

children need to know that their singing is as acceptable

as that of other students (4, p. 173).

164

Since not all children respond in the same manner,

several devices were considered essential. Having the

children sing one short phrase or a few tones of a song

was thought to be perhaps easier for some than singing a

single, sustained tone. Fifty-five song fragments, ranging

from "one-tone calls" to "three-tone calls," were provided

in the teacher's manual (see Figure 16 for examples).

One-Tone Calls

Ten Little Pennies, page 4 Tugboats, page .24

i ^ yjh p 7> | *•» p= °ne i Too',tIO\ One lYf-He

Two-Tone Calls

Sing All Along My Way, page 1 Golden Streets, page 21

<' i

all 0 \ l

W4A £jal<l - £ i \ streets

Three-Tone Calls

Color Game, page 7 Snowfall, page 46

i

(Wess tuVfldr 'A e©uU tfA 'i n i; j

6hou) h fkll-iVu

(4, pp^g174-175)7T°ne C a l l S t 0 b e u s e d in tuning the voice

All of the calls were taken directly from the song litera-

ture (page numbers were given with each one); consequently,

165

exercises could all be easily transferred to song singing

experiences.

Matching a sustained tone on a vowel sound" was offered

as a helpful means in tuning voices. Listening to the tone

before responding to it vocally was an important step in

the process. "Catchy" tunes containing musical variety—

definite ups and downs—were suggested as were tone calls

and "echo" games. Use of melody instruments—piano, bells,

and other instrumerrts-:-were also recommended. Above all

the child was never to be made to feel "different." The

authors comment,

Helping the child "find" his singing voice would be a relatively simple matter were it not for the fact that we must constantly be con-cerned^ about a more important aspect of the situation, namely, the psychological effect on the child. There are many ways of helping him to understand his problem—without having him feel that he is being set apart or left out. With this idea in mind, it is suggested that these children be not seated separately but, instead, that each one be surrounded with ac-curate singers. When it is necessary for them to listen, some of the better singers may be asked to listen too so that the inaccurate singers are not in a position of being seg— regated as a group. Many occasions can be utilized or contrived for them to hear the song as it should sound (4, pp. 173-174).

Era C - The Period 1965 to 1975

Two music series were analyzed for this decade, one for

each publishing company used in the study. The book for-

mats are altered considerably. Music objectives, student

involvement, and related activities are clearly delineated

166

for each song. Certain characteristics are observed in

both series yet each maintains its own unique distinc-

tiveness.

Vocal Characteristics

The space devoted to this topic was sparse. The few

remarks observed were generally with a song. A concise

statement of opinion was not stated in either of the music

series.

Silver Burdett Company.—Each teacher's edition of the

Silver Burdett Musie has an introduction in which the au-

thors discuss the philosophic foundation of the series, the

objectives, the organization of the books, the song ma-

terial , and the ways to use the books to their best

advantage. The introductory section for books one through

four is identical. Only a small portion of this same ma-

terial in the fifth grade book is different.

There was no discussion of the child voice in the intro-

ductory remarks. The few statements observed were located

with specific song material. Only ten such comments were

noted for all three grades. The vocal quality was spoken of

in terms of being soft in quality but capable of producing

a variety of sounds. Recordings, television, and movies

were considered to be influences affecting vocal quality

(see I-C, Word Frequency Tabultaion, Appendix D). In the

list of objectives, singing is listed as one of the ways

167

children produce music. Along with singing were playing,

composing, conducting, and moving. Producing is defined

as "a major means of experiencing musical sounds and how

they work" (12, p. viii). The authors explain:

Music relies heavily on production activities to bring children and music together. Production activities are both means and ends. As ends, they need no discussion, for they have found an honored place in the music education curriculum for many years. As means, the production activ-ities are powerful tools to aid in heightening musical perception, intensifying musical re-action, and encouraging musical creativity (12, p. viii).

American Book Company. — In New. Dimensions in Music}

the child voice is described as an expressive instrument

which is clear and light in quality (see I-A, Word Fre-

quency Tabulationj Appendix D). Singing is set forth as

a normal expression which children use from their early years. Not all are equally en-dowed, but with the exception of those with hearing difficulties or vocal defects, most children can sing—and quite well (9, p. vi).

The theory was advanced that most children are capable of

learning to sing well, with enthusiasm, and a fine degree

of artistic sensitivity. Problems arising in a child's vo-

cal development were attributed to the unconscious imitation

of singing on television programs or on carelessly chosen

children's recordings, leading to a heavy, forced quality of

tone. Other elements named as possible inhibitors to vocal

progress were attitudes in the home and the pressure of peer

groups (0, p. vi). The teacher and good recordings were

168

regarded as perhaps the most positive influences in the

cultivation of correct concepts of tone quality (see I-C,

Word Frequency Tabulation, Appendix D).

Singing Objectives

The objectives that require singing are quite diverse

in the two textbook series. Whereas the activities of one

series use singing as a means to an end, the other has an

outlined program of vocal development.

Silver Burdett Company .—The principle goal of Silver

Buvdett Musio is to "increase each child's ability to partici-

pate in the aesthetic experience of music" (11, p. ix).

Seven behaviors are developed for accomplishing the goal:

perceiving, reacting, producing, conceptualizing, analyzing,

evaluating, and valuing. Objectives that involve singing

fall into the third behavior—producing.

The analysis results for this series could be mislead-

ing due to the fact that a large number of tallies were

recorded for "Tone Production" (see Table XIV). These sums

are the result of counting the number of times that "sing-

ing" was part of a lesson or behavioral objective. These

figures are not indicative of actual conceptual development.

They are often merely instances where singing was part of

the performance behavior recommended for attaining musical

knowledge. A comparison of Table XIV with Table III, VIII,

and IX show singing objectives to be greatly reduced.

169

TABLE XIV

WORD FREQUENCIES OF SPECIFIED OBJECTIVES FOR VOCAL DEVELOPMENT IN SERIES PUBLISHED BY

SILVER BURDETT COMPANY - 1965 TO 1975

Stated Objectives

Grades

One Three Total

Five

Tone Production beautiful good free of strain vocal control even quality vocal color dynamic levels

mood expression brightly mysteriously quietly crisply reverently sturdily lightly sad happy humorously expressive of text

range development awareness own voice match pitch/melody independ/conf idence

Singing Habits posture breathing diction mouth space phrasing

71

9 • •

11 15

83 13

29 20

6 9 • •

1 1 18

167

18 • «

42 35

15 • •

1 1

18

Total 115 170 15 300

Part Singing Sight Reading

3 6

15 8 26 6

170

Expectations of children's vocal ability included being

able to sing with enough vocal control that appropriate tone

color, dynamic levels, and text expressiveness could be

achieved. Specifics on how these goals can be attained are

not provided. Any discussion of mood expression was totally

neglected. Diction was the only good vocal practice dis-

cussed or encouraged and that was to a very slight degree in

the first grade. Interestingly enough, the acquisition of

independence/confidence became an important objective in

grade three. Experimentation with various vocal sounds was

recommended in all three grades. Instructional information

designed to nurture growth in part singing and sight reading

is noticeably lacking.

Most often, the end result of a lesson was observed in

the "Evaluation"—-after the song had been performed. Fol-

lowing is a typical statement outlining expectations:

EVALUATION: Judging the appropriateness of loud and soft for songs of different character. . . . In songs, words can influence the choices of mu-sically expressive qualities and the musical sounds, in turn, influence the meaning of the words (8, p. 30).

By the fifth grade, children were expected to have the

knowledge to evaluate the tone color of voices heard on

recordings. The development of this concept is through the

use of ethnic songs. Music of the American. Indians is es-

pecially emphasized, highlighting the tone colors which are

distinct characteristics of their culture.

171

Objectives for musical development in other areas far

surpassed those expressed for vocal development (see Table

XV). Rhythmic and melodic elements received the most

TABLE XV

PREDOMINANCE OF CLASSIFIED OBJECTIVES IN SILVER BURDETT SERIES - 1965 TO 1975

Grade

Vocal Development

Elements of Music

Extra-Musical Development Total

Objec-tives

Total % Grade

Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %

Total Objec-tives

Total %

One 127 35 217 61 15 4 359 100 Three 198 29 457 68 18 3 673 100 Five 28 38 45 62 0 0 73 100

attention. The development of these two concepts was

stressed in all three books, but in grade three, the empha-

sis was especially strong. Social and personal growth

through singing was of consequence in the third grade—the

same grade in which independence in singing was encouraged.

American Book Company.—In each book of New Dimensions

in Music3 an introductory statement to the teacher clearly

outlines the objectives of the series as a whole and for

each individual grade. A chart of specific behavioral

learnings is provided in each book. To further aid the

teacher, concept formations—Music Learnings—are listed

with each song. With the exception of grade five, there

is an increase in the objectives designed to enlarge

172

upon the conceptual understanding of the voice. Table XVI

reflects these stated goals.

The vocal objectives outlined in the first grade book,

Beginning Musie, stress instilling a desire to sing. The

authors state,

Correctness of pitch and purity of tone, desir-able to be sure, are not as important as wanting to sing, as taking part in the activity. . . . Be alert to moods, activities or situations which you can seize and use to advantage (8, p. vii).

Mood perception and expressive qualities were regarded

as important developmental tasks (8, p. 20, 9, pp. 28,34).

Directives toward interpretation of text meaning through

appropriate tone quality and the encouragement of a smooth,

flowing, legato tone were frequently encountered (8, pp. 13,

38, 39; 9, pp. 70, 74). In the fifth grade teacher's man-

ual, instructions requiring judgmental values on the part

of the students are observed. For example, directions to

"sing very smoothly . . . in a light, floating tone" (10,

p. 26) or to "sing in a legato manner with emphasis on good

tone quality and expressiveness" (10, p. 74) require some

prior conceptual development on the part of the student.

Good singing habits were introduced in the first grade

through the promotion of accurate phrasing, correct diction,

and breathing habits. Diction was emphasized in the third

grade. High frequencies were recorded for breath management

and phrasing in the fifth grade, two very compatible con-

cepts.

TABLE XVI

WORD FREQUENCIES OF SPECIFIED OBJECTIVES FOR VOCAL DEVELOPMENT IN SERIES PUBLISHED BY

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY - 1965 TO 1975

173

Stated Grades Total Objectives

One Three Total Objectives

One Three Five

Tone Production 24 18 19 61 beautiful # • 9 6 15 good 2 17 11 30 free of strain

*. * 5 • • 5 vocal control • * 3 2 3 even quality 14 18 35 67 vocal control • « 11 40 51

' dynamic leve1s 25 18 43 86 mood expression 18 68 36 122 brightly • • 11 5 16 mysteriously • « • • • » • •

quietly 6 3 3 12 crisply 3 9 1 13 reverently • • 2 « • 2 sturdily 2 11 6 19 lightly 9 35 5 49 sad 2 * * • • 2 happy 3 16 3 22 humorously • • 17 • • 17 expressive of text 4 45 21 70 interpretation 8 27 17 52 legato/smooth/flow • • 35 35

range development * • 3 3 awareness own voice 3 5 8 match pitch/melody 3 • • 3 independ/conf idence 2 11 13

Singing Habits posture * • 3 6 9 breathing 3 13 54 70 diction 8 36 18 62 mouth space • • m m • * • •

phrasing 18 24 75 . . 117

Total 157 419 460 1036

Part Singing • • 57 85 142 Sight Reading • • 61 53 1 1 4

174

Learning to sight read music is a strong objective in

the third grade books; however, the authors' attitude toward

the skill is quite practical. They regarded music reading

as

. . . a desirable skill which should be neither neglected nor overemphasized. Objectively viewed, the notation of music is simply a storage and re-trival system for pitches, their duration, and other symbols which indicate the expressive in-tent of the composer. . . . As a retrival system, the imperative to read music "at first sight" be-comes of less concern as music for the vocal students may be decoded in numerous ways—through assistance by teachers or other musicians, by rote, or through use of recordings (9, p. viii).

The opportunity to sing part songs--primarily round—

was noted in the third grade books. This skill was enlarged

to three part songs, some of which are written in octavo

style preparatory to more advanced choral experience.

In all three grades, concept formation in other musical

areas was often approached through singing (see Table XVII).

TABLE XVII

PREDOMINANCE OF CLASSIFIED OBJECTIVES* IN AMERICAN BOOK CO. SERIES - 1965 TO 1975

Grade

Vocal Development

Elements of Music

Extra-Musical Development Total

Objec-tives

Total % Grade

Freq. % Freq. . % . Freq. %

Total Objec-tives

Total %

One 167 28 314 53 115 19 596 100 Three 571 54 456 43 27 3 1054 100 Five 639 56 498 43 8 1 . 1145 100

*Complete tabulation in Appendix D

175

It was, however, only in the first grade that the objectives

for singing were not equal to those for the elements of mu-

sic. The percentage ratios for grades three and five are

quite close.

Social and personal growth were considered important

aspects in the first grade. The major thrust is aimed at

helping the child feel comfortable in a musical environment.

Activities are structured in a manner that the child is able

to gain self-confidence, to function intellectually, and to

improve physical co-ordination. The relationships of music

to life situations early in the school years was considered

a viable means for implanting the idea that music is an in-

tegral part of an individual's life (8, pp. iv-v).

With but one exception, high frequencies are noted for

all the elements of music; however, they are not all equally

emphasized at all three instructional levels. As usual,

rhythm and melody are stressed to a greater degree. The

numbers observed for form, texture, harmonic development,

and tonal sensitivity are larger in this series than in any

other analyzed.

The music of other cultures is of particular importance

in the third and fifth grade books, helping children develop

an awareness of musical differences between the music of

their own country and that of others. Special units high-

light the music of Africa, the Orient, the Middle East, and

India. The children are also made cognizant of the unique

176

features of the music of the American Indians. Excellent

background information, including pictures, helps the chil-

dren to relate to the music. Unusual scale formations are

also included with the music.

Teaching Strategies

The number and kinds of teaching strategies observed

in the two series are quite varied. In New Dimensions in

Music 3 the teaching suggestions are outlined in the intro-

ductory section, giving the teacher a concise developmental

procedure for that book. In Silver Burdett Music, the aids

are found only with the individual song material. One is

not as certain of the potential level of development for

each grade nor, indeed, for the complete program.

Silver Burdett Company.—All but six of the teaching

strategies located in the series published by Silver Burdett

were found in the first and third grade teacher's manuals.

Imagery and imitative devices embody the bulk of the sug-

gested aids.

There was a strong recommendation toward the use of

recorded material as a method of providing children with

a role model to imitate (see III-A, Word Frequency Tabu-

lation, Appendix D). The authors explain,

When played on a stereo phonograph, the Pick-a-Track recordings enable the teacher to highlight either the voices or the song accom-paniments. When the voices are highlighted, the children can (1) focus on vocal quality

177

and style, (2) learn parts quickly, (3) perfect the pronunciation of foreign and English lyr-ics . . . . Sometimes a song has been recorded as a listening experience only. This occurs when children can readily grasp and understand the musical intent but because of limited vocal skill are unable to reproduce the correct sound and vocal style (11, p. xiv).

Following is a typical statement in the explanatory messages

to the children: "In this next recording, you will hear a

man singing the solo parts and children singing the chorus

parts. Sing with the children" (11, p. 13). As in the

other books analyzed, text has a great influence on the

musical expressive qualities and the tone color of the

voice (11, p. 30).

Vocal experimentation was encouraged to help children

discover the flexibility of the voice and its range capa-

bilities (12, p. 132). Directions with one song instructed

children to "use your voice to make different tone colors.

Find words that imitate sounds in this poem. When you say

the poem, make your voice imitate the sounds1' (12, p. 92).

Teacher directions recommended having the children create

their own tone colors after which they were to hear a re-

corded version.

The third grade book has a section devoted to tone

color. Imitative devices——television personalities, space

rocketss automobile horns, animals, birds—and other fami-

liar objects are suggested for children to try out. Words,

such as "thud, jingle, squish, slush, chip, crunch, and

178

crackle" (12, p. 91) are also provided to help children de-

velop the Imaginative powers necessary for applying correct

tone color to a song based on text implications.

The association of physical movement to melodic di-

rection was basically the only teaching strategy given for

helping the child tune the voice. Moving the hand in the

direction indicated by the melody was frequently suggested.

This aid is particularly valuable because the associative

movement not only helps the child learn vocal control of

pitch,but it also allows the teacher to visually observe

the children who may need help.

The pictorial examples provided in the books cannot be

overlooked. They are one of the series'; strongest elements

in that visual images are provided to help the children

grasp the abstract concepts of music. Photographs of chil-

dren positioned on ladders with their bodies in the same

kinds of lines—up, down, or across—help teach melodic

direction. Arrows on backgrounds colored and shaped like

traffic signs are also utilized (11, pp. 14-15). Line

graphics are provided in the third grade books to help

visually convey melodic direction (12, pp. 51, 59). In

all three grades, concepts related to the elements of

music are conveyed through photography.

American Book Company.—Many of the strategies outlined

for use in the first grade teacher's edition were designed

179

to help the child develop a better understanding of melodic

direction. Having the child show melodic direction with

hand motions was a frequent suggestion. The concept of

"high" and "low" was particularly emphasized (see III-c,

Word Frequency Tabulation, Appendix D). Tone games, musical

roll call, and play echo songs were recommended for promot-

ing an awareness of repetition in music and for instilling

individual confidence through solo performance (9, p. 34).

Vocal "musical learnings" regarded as appropriate for

the very young child included the cultivation of an aware-

ness of varying mood content of songs, of a comprehension of

the different effects created by contrasting performance

styles, i.e., singing in a light, detached manner as opposed

to smooth, legato singing (8, pp. 20, 65, 66).

The suggested procedures for third and fifth grade stu-

dents were more directly related to vocal training. Chil-

dren are encouraged to differentiate between the speaking

voice and the singing voice by first talking and then sing-

ing a selected sentence. A normal speaking tone is used

initially. To promote a projected tone, the same sentence

is spoken and sung to an imaginary individual in the cor-

ridor. Through this procedure, the children should feel the

physical and psychological changes in the vocal production

and breath support (9, p. vi; 10, p. vi).

Reading the text of a song was regarded as a good way

to promote recognition of phrase structure. Once the

180

children had established phrase patterns, they were to sing

each complete phrase without the interruption of a breath.

The authors stated that students ought to be taught "to

realize that the ability to 'sing and phrase' on a breath is

an important aspect of artistic singing" (9, p. vi).

Vocal exercises were prescribed for improving concept

formation regarding the importance of singing on the vowels.

The authors point out, ". . .we speak and sing on vowels .

. . as we enunciate consonants before and/or after vowels,

words are defined" (10, p. vi). Exercises using one of the

five vowels, "ah," "ee," "i," "oh," and "oo," for scale

tonal patterns were considered beneficial. Using the same

vowel throughout a pattern and repeating the pattern on

several degrees of the scale were deemed necessary for prop-

erv progress. At a later point, consonants—"lah," "tah,"

"nah,"—were to be added to the vocalizes, helping students

become aware of the tongue positions while producing the

consonants. The exercises were to be sung in a variety of

ways, such as, legato and staccato, loud and soft, and with

variations in volume to demonstrate the various manners or

styles of singing. The opinion was expressed that the con-

sistent use of exercises not only helps to improve tone

qualityjbut a child's sensitivity to artistic singing can be

enhanced (10, p. vi).

Three types of singing examples were considered appro-

priate for children to imitate. The first of these was

181

the teacher's voice if the tone quality was light, pleasing,

and well supported by the breath. Emphasis on phrasing and

stylistic elements of a song was also a strong requirement.

Letting children imitate other children who sang well—-indi-

viduals or groups—was the second example source. Finally,

the use of recordings was strongly endorsed. Through the

use of recordings, children not only hear a good tone qual-

ity , they can also develop a better understanding of various

vocal qualities, of the clarity and vitality of singing, and

of the ways in which the voice changes color in order to

express meaning of the text (10, p. vi). Of these three

sources, recordings were the most highly recommended (see

III-A, Appendix D).

Self-evaluation of singing is suggested. Taped per-

formances enable students to evaluate and criticize their

own performance. These kinds of experiences can lead stu-

dents to make their own critical judgments in music (10,

p. vi).

Following are typical directions for helping children

"sing with improved tone quality" and "realize that smooth-

flowing phrasing affects a musical interpretation" (10,

p. 18).

When the mechanics of the song are well known, concentrate on singing in a smooth-flowing style. Suggest a good upright singing position, encourage deep breathing and breath control. Sing toward the phrase ending. Pronounce vowels and con-sonants carefully and distinctly, reminding stu-dents that the singing voice is sustained on

182

the vowel, but words are pronounced with con-sonants. Encourage them always to listen to their singing. Allow them to evaluate their performance (10, p. 19).

Developing the breath capacity to sing long, sustained

phrases received a lot of attention in the fifth grade. Re-

cordings of songs played by violins and violas were used as

examples for the children to emulate. Deep breathing sup-

ported by the diaphragm was to be encouraged. Breathing

exercises were recommended on a regular basis, particularly

the one where the breath is sustained on a hissing sound for

several extended counts. The suggestion to "sing toward the

end of the phrase" was regarded as helpful in conserving the

breath rather than expelling it at the onset of the phrase

(10, p. 48).

Summary of the Content Analysis

The content analysis of twenty-one teacher's editions,

grades one, three, and five, of designated music series

published circa 1945 to 1975 reveals the following.

1. The authors of series published during Era A—1945

to 1954 provide the most thorough description of the vocal

qualities one might expect to hear in a child's voice.

There was a general agreement that the voices of children

are light and clear in quality, sometimes being shrilly

colorless, and thin. The use of the head voice is stressed

thus avoiding chest voice or any resemblamce thereof. The

authors of series published during Era B—1954 to 1965 and

183

Era C—1965 to 1975—devoted little or no attention to this

detail.

2. Of the seven series examined, the Silver Burdett

New Music Horizons has the most extensive program of vocal

development. The vocalises, many of which continue to be

used in contemporary voice studios, are explicit in their

purpose. The developmental process is initiated in the

first grade and is gradually developed throughout the se-

ries. Interestingly enough, the analysis of other series

published by Silver Burdett disclosed that the directions

provided for teachers related to vocal concepts were much

weaker. Music for Living and Making Music Your Own are

about equal in strength, both exhibiting a decline in vocal

objectives. The Silver Burdett Music has the least amount

of information in this area. Few strategies for the culti-

vation of tone quality or for training the voice were noted.

The emphasis in The American Singer is placed upon

sight reading. While vocal development is not totally neg-

lected, the authors treat the ability to sing and hold a

true pitch as mandatory for sight reading. In comparing

this series with the early Silver Burdett publication, one

notes that the objectives are quite limited by contrast.

Contrary to the Silver Burdett publications, the

American Book Company series show a steady increase in the

stated objectives directly related to helping children de-

velop a better understanding of their vocal capabilities.

184

The objectives explore a wide range of mood expressions,

dynamic levels, and interpretative qualities requiring a

certain amount of vocal control on the part of the children.

3. The use of singing activities as a means for ac-

quiring skills in other music elements increases throughout

the timeline. It was, however, only in the Silver Burdett

series of Eras B and C that an imbalance is observed. The

reader should keep in mind that the objectives referred to

herein are only those that actually involve the singing pro-

cess. No attempt was made on the part of the investigator

to draw a comparison of all the objectives observed for each

music element.

The music elements receiving the most emphasis were

rhythm and melody. In later series, form, texture, harmony,

and tonality were given more attention. Knowledge of the

music of other cultures was promoted through singing in the

later series, especially in Music for Living and New

Dimensions in Music.

Of the extra-musical activities, personal and social

development were furthered through singing experiences.

This feature was noticed more in the first grade books

than in those for third and fifth grades.

4. The teacher's voice quality is the most appropriate

role model for children to imitate while learning to sing.

Instructions to teachers regarding their vocal quality were

quite specific. A light, clear, unforced tone was deemed

185

necessary. Presenting the song material in the correct key

was emphasized. Teachers unable to comply with these re-

quirements were instructed to either use good student

singers or recordings to present the song material. The use

of recordings was highly recommended as an additional teach-

ing device, giving children the opportunity to hear various

singing styles, tone qualities, vocal color variations,

and interpretative qualities.

5. Strategies for tuning the voice are most prevalent

in the first grade books. The devices rely largely on the

imitation of animals, birds, whistles, and sirens to assist

children in discovering the flexible qualities of the voice.

Pitch levels are related to objects, for example, a high

tone might be compared with a small object. Tone games are

especially important in the New Musi-o Hovizons. Melodic

excerpts are printed below the song being studied. Use of

physical movement to demonstrate an understanding of melodic

direction is noticed extensively, ranging from use of the

entire body to use of hand signals. The practice of special

seating arrangements according to singing ability was

dropped in the series published post 1955. The causes most

often given for out-of-tune singing included musical in-

experience, inattention to pitch, confusing musical sit-

uations, psychological blocks, and physical abnormalities.

6. The theoretical basis for the rationale stated

in the music series was not provided by any of the authors

186

at any point in the timeline. References to "research in

education were noted, on occasion} however, documentation

was not provided.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Beattie, John W. and others, The American Singer: Book One, Dallas, The American Book Co., 1944. ~~

2. T h e American Singer: Guide lo Book Three, Dallas, The American Book Co., 1944. '

The American Singer: Guide jto Book Five, Dallas, The American Book Co. , 1944.

4. Berg, Richard and others, Music for Young Americans! Grade One Teacher's Edition, Dallas, The American Book Co., 1959.

5* > Music for Young Americans: Grade Three Teacher's Edition, Dallas, The Ameri-can Book Co., 1959.

6* — . > Music for Young Americans: Grade Five Teacher1s Edition, Dallas. The American Book Co., 1959.

7. Carney, Thomas F., Content Analysis: A Technique for Systematic Inference from Communications, WirmiDee-. Canada, The University of Manitoba Press, 1972.

8. Choate, Robert A. and others, New Dimensions in Music: Beginning Music, Dallas, The American Book Co. 1970. '

9* = •» New Dimensions in Music: Expressing Music, Dallas, The American Book Co., 1970. *

* ——......—- New Dimensions in Music : Experiencing Music, Dallas, The American Book Co., 1970. *

11. Crook, Elizabeth, Bennett Reimer, and David S. Walker, Silver Burdett MuSlc: Grade One, Teacher's Edi-tion, Dallas, Silver Burdett Co., 1974.

12. Silver Burdett Music: Grade Three. Teacher's EdT-tion, Dallas, Silver Burdett Co., 1974.

187

188

13. Silver Burdett Music: Grade Five. Teacher's Erii-tion, Silver Burdett Co., 1974.

14. Landeck, Beatrice and others, Making Music Your Own: First Grade Teacher's Edition, Dallas."silver Burdett Co., 1964.

15.

17,

20.

21.

> Making Music Your Own: Third Grade Teacher's Edition. Dallas. Silver Burdett Co., 1964.

16. McConathy, John Osbourne and others, New Music Hori-zons: Experiences in Music for First Grade Children, New York, Silver Burdett Co., 1949.

, New Music Horizons: Teacher's Book Three, New York, Silver Burdett Co., 1946.

;— New Music Horizons: Teacher's Book Five, New York. Silver Burdett Co., 1946.

19. Mursell, James L. and others, Music for Living: Music Through the Day, Teacher's Edition, Dallas, Silver Burdett Co., 1956.

, Music for Living: Music Now and Long Ago, Teacher's Edition, Dallas," Silver Burdett Co., 1956.

-> Music for Living: Music 111 0 u r Country, Teacher 's Edition, Dallas, Silver Burdett Co., 1956.

22. Youngberg, Harold C., Making Music Your Own: Grade .^ v e Teacher 1s Edition, Dallas, Silver Burdett Co., 1964.

CHAPTER VI

DATA PRODUCED BY THE MUSICAL ANALYSIS

The song material of an elementary music series is a

strong indicator of the kind of vocal abilities children

are expected to possess in order to derive pleasurable ex-

periences from singing. Through the analysis of a song

sample taken from the series used in the study, three

musical aspects were investigated: the range of the songs,

the tessitura of the songs, and the kinds and frequency of

intervals found in the melodic structure of the songs.

Data Related to Song Ranges

The data related to the range of the songs were

examined in three ways. First, the tonal frequencies that

most often expressed the high and low range limits were de-

termined. Second, means and standard deviations were

calculated for both the high and the low range pitch levels.

Third, means and standard deviations were computed for the

intervals formed by the upper and lower high and low tonal

extremes of the song ranges. All three of these procedures

were applied to the song samples taken from the first,

third, and fifth grade books of each series. To maintain

uniformity, the results are reported according to publish-

ing company in the same manner as the content analysis.

189

190

Song Ranges: Silver Burdett Co.

Songs from four series published by Silver Burdett

Company were included in the calculations of range: New

Music Horizons (ca. 1944), Musio for Living (1956), Making

Musia lour Own (1964), and Silver Burdett Musio (1974). Two

of the series were published during the second decade of the

timeline, Era B--1955 to 1964. In order to preserve a bal-

anced statistical design, 40 songs were sampled for the

combined grades, 20 from each series.

Tonal frequency: high range.—The pitch levels that

expressed the limits of high range in the song content of

Silver Burdett music series changed considerably during

the thirty-year timeline. In Era A, 1945-1954, the first

grade songs most frequently have an upper range tone of

TMi4 i 4 4 4 D# ; however, D , E , and F are in very close proximity to

4

the D# (see Figure 17). Thirty-three of the 40 songs are

represented by these four pitch levels. The highest tones 4 4 o

observed are F# and G whereas the lowest tones are A and

3

A# . Era B publications, 1954-1965, show a sharp contrast.

Twenty-two songs display as the highest tone, indicating

a downward trend. The second most frequent tone is C4.

The remaining 11 songs have high ranges that extend from

3 4

G to F . Era C, 1965-1975, upper range limits for first

grade songs are consistent with Era B except that more songs 4

have C upper limits.

191

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The high range pitch levels of the third grade songs

are more consistent; however, the downward trend observed

in the first grade books is noticeable at this stage. The

upper tonal frequency distribution is shared by five tones:

C4, D4, D#4, E4, and F 4 (see Figure 18). D 4 and E4 are

almost equal having a frequency of 6 whereas D#4 has 7.

Both Eras B and C have an almost identical pattern. The

only difference noted is the extension into lower pitch

regions. The tones C , D , and D#4 were most often observed.

The fifth grade books of Era A show the same tendencies

as those observed in grade one, except that the pattern is

one semitone higher (see Figure 19). The peak is observed

at E4. The tones D4, D#4, and F were equally distributed.

In Era B, 50 percent of the song melodies do not exceed D4.

Seven songs are limited to C4 with 6 others to D4, leaving

7 songs with high ranges that are calculated to be between 3 4

B and F . The total spectrum of high range tones is much

broader for Era C, extending from G3 to F#4. However, the

clustering around D4 and E4 is still prevalent.

Tonal frequency: low range.—With two exceptions, the

melodic material of first grade, Era A songs does not go

lower than D 3 (see Figure 20). Thirteen or 32.5 per cent

of the songs recorded this pitch. A fairly even distri-

bution is observed between D#3 and G3 for the other songs.

During Era B, the C3 frequency approaches the same level as

193

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D , pulling the range limits slightly lower. More than one

third of the songs were tallied throughout a tonal spectrum

ranging from D#3 to B 3 with E 3, F 3, and G 3 occurring the

most. The trend down to C is slightly stronger during the

third decade, Era C. The high usage of is consistent

with the other two eras. The lowest tone, A#3, recorded

for first graders is noted in the third decade.

In the third grade New Music. Horizonsj Era A, an even

distribution of low range pitch levels is observed, having

five prominent tones: C 3, D 3, D#3, E3, and F 3 (see Figure

21) • A major portion—nearly 50 per cent—of the melodic

material in the grade three Music for Living and Making

Music lour Own, Era B, "does::not exceed lower limits of C 3,

representing a distinct change from Era A. The use of D 3

continues to be rather prevalent, displaying a frequency of

9 or 22.5 per cent. An interesting occurrence is noted in

Silver Burdett Music3 grade three, with the shift in em-

phasis back to D . The positions of C 3 and D 3 are reversed.

With this exception and the fact that two songs record A 2

lower limits, the two decades are almost identical in na-

ture. The use of A as a lower song perimeter extends the

low range pitch usage by a minor third when compared to

Era A and by a major second when compared to Era B.

The low range tonal frequencies of Era A, fifth grade

songs extend from C 3 through A 3 (see Figure 22). The tones

most often used are D 3, C 3, F 3, and C#3 in that order. The

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same kind of pattern observed in the third grade books

emerges. In Era B, C exhibits the highest low range tone

frequency with D 3 being almost equal. However, in Era C, D 3

far surpasses C 3 in strength. The remainder of the dis-

tribution is uniform. The range level is considerably lower

in Era C, extending from G 2 to G3.

Means and standard deviations of pitch levels. Using

the tonal fiequencies recorded for the high and low song

ranges, means (X) and standard deviations (SD) were calcu-

lated. The + and -lSDs are included in the discussion to

enable the reader to perceive the larger dimensions of the

results. A large block of pitches—68 per cent—fall be-

tween the +1.SD and the -1SD. Consequently, if a shift

occurs in the Xs and SDs, the trends are more discernable.

The results are reported in terms of pitch levels. For in-

formation regarding the numerical values used for determin-

ing pitch levels, see Appendix I. The downward trend

to lower pitch levels previously reported is also observed

here.

In the Silver Burdett series, the high range Xs for

each grade in each era or decade lie in close relationship

to each other (see Figures 23/24, 25). In New Music

Horizons, the X hovers around D#4 with a +1SD between E4-F4

and a -1SD on either side of C#4, indicating that 68 per

cent of the high range tones fall between B 3 and F4.

200

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Legend:

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deviationsGfor' 1st grad^songs?^ m e a n S ^

201

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Legend:

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Figure 24.—Pitch levels of range means and standard deviations for 3rd grade songs.

202

F4

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Figure 25. Pitch levels of range means and standard deviations for 5th grade songs.

203

The Xs for Music fov Living 3 Making Music Youv 0wn3 and

Silver Burdett Music3 all of which are somewhat lower, fall

at points between C#4-D4. The one exception to this is the

first grade Silver Burdett Music3 which has a X of C4-C#4.

It should be noted that the high range Xs for grades one and

three are lower than those of the fifth grade, being closer

to C# than D . The SDs for these books are not as consis-

tent as their Xs; however, with the exception of the fifth

grade Silver Burdett Musia3 the +1SD is near D#4. The +1SD

for grade five is E -F . The -lSDs for grade one, Eras B

3 4

and C, are B -C . Consequently, the majority of the upper

tones observed in the books Music for Living and Making Mu-

sic Your Own fell between B3-C4 and D#4-E4. The fifth

grade -lSDs are C4-C#4 for Era B and B3-C4 for Era C, which

means that in Music for Living and Making Music Your Own3

the high range tone usage was more limited—C4 to D#4—than

the one observed in the Silver Burdett Music—B3 to E4.

The low range Xs for New Music Horizons3 grades one,

three, and five, are located at points on either side of D#3

(see Figures 23, 24, and 25). The +lSDs are between E3—F3

and the -lSDs are closest to CM3, placing 68 per cent of

the low pitch range for this series between C#3 and F3. The

grade one, Era B, text has a X of D3-D#3 with a +1SD of F3-

F#3 and a -1SD of C3-C#3. The Xs, the +lSDs, and the -lSDs

for the third and fifth grade, Era B, texts are the same,

C# -D , D#3-E3, and B^-C3 respectively.

204

In the Silver Burdett Music, Era C, the Xs for grades

one and three are between C# —D3 whereas for grade five, the

X lies between B -C . The +1SD for all three grades is D#3-

3

E with a -1SD in the interval B 2-C 3 in grades one and three

and m the interval A# 2-B 2 for grade five. Generally speak-

ing, the majority of the low pitches lie in the region

M 2 to E 3.

Range interval means and standard deviation.--The com-

putation results of tonal frequencies gave no indication of

the intervals formed by the melodic extremes. Consequently,

a system was devised so that these data could be obtained.

Using the semitone as a unit of measure (see Figure 2, Chap-

ter IV), the distance between the lowest and highest tones

was calculated for each song after which a frequency dis-

tribution of range intervals was made. For each era, means

and standard deviations were determined for each grade in a

series (see Figures 26, 27, and 28).

The firtit grade books for New Music Horizons, Era A,

and Silver Burdett Music, Era C, show the range interval X

to be between a M7 and a P8ve. Music for Living and Making

Music lour Own, published by Silver Burdett in Era B, dis-

play a slightly lower X, a m7 to M7. The +lSDs for all

grade one books cluster around the M9. The -1SD for Eras A

and C is a m6-M6 interval and a P5-m6 is noted for Era B.

Figure 26 clearly shows that a majority of the range

205

MIOth

mlOth-

M9th-

m9th-

P8ve-

M7th-

m7th

* M6th-

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Era A Era B Era C Silver Burdett Co.

Era A Era B Era C American Book Co.

Legend: -X

+1SD

-1SD

Figure 26. Means and standard deviations of range intervals of 1st grade songs.

intervals in the grade one songs taken from the Era A and

Era C series were basically the same. The song sample from

Era B series revealed a slightly larger variety of interval

usage for this grade.

The X and +1SD for the third grade books in all

three eras are basically the same. The X reflects an in-

terval of a M7 to a P8ve. The +1SD lies between a M9 and

a mlO. The -1SD for Era A and Era C is located near the m6-

M6. A slightly higher -1SD is observed for Era C, a M6-m7.

206

MlOth-

mlOth

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m9th

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M7th-

m7th-

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Era A Era B Era C Silver Burdett Co.

Era A Era B Era C American Book Co.

Legend:

,+lSD

•X

'-1SD

Figure 27.—Means and standard deviaions of range intervals of 3rd grade songs.

The fifth grade interval Xs and SDs fall within the

same boundaries; however, some are higher into the interval

space than others (see Figure 28). The Xs lie between a

P8ve and a m9 whereas the +lSDs are between a mlO and M10

and the -lSDs fall between the M6—m7 interval.

S°nS Ranges: American Book Company

Data related to the range of songs in the publications

by the American Book Company came from three music series:

207

MlOth-

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Legend: -X

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Figure 28.—Means and standard deviations of range intervals of 5th grade songs.

The American Singer (ca. 1945), Music for Young Americans

(1959), and New Dimensions in Music (1970). There is one

publication for each era or decade in the timeline.

jiange ; tonal frequency. -—The frequency distri-

bution of high tones in the first grade American Singer

(see Figure 29) was evenly spread from C 4 and F4. D 4 was the

tone most often observed and becomes much more pronounced

in Mus%c for Young Americans. Twenty-three (23) or 57.5 per

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cent of the song population had melodies that did not ex-

ceed that tone. The high range tones of the other 17

songs extend from A3 to F4. In New Dvmens'Lons in Musi-Oj C 4

4

and D are equally employed. Once again, more than half the

song population is absorbed by these two tonal limits, leav-

ing only 12 songs whose melodies peak on pitch levels

between G#3 and E4.

The high range tones observed in the Era A grade three

songs are higher by a semitone (see Figure 30). Extending

from C#4 to F#4, three pitches—D4, E 4, and F 4—have the

highest frequency. In Era B, D 4 is slightly stronger than

in Era A with C 4 and E 4 almost equal in usage. The lowest

high range tone is A •—a major third lower than the C#4 of

Era A. The same unique pattern that emerged in Era C, first

grade, is present in the third grade books. The tones C 4

4

and D were equal. The scope of tones is extended down to

G 3 and goes up through E4.

The most balanced high range tonal frequencies are

noted in the fifth grade publications (see Figure 31). Al-

though D 4 continues to remain the strongest, D#4, E4, and 4

F , Era A, show considerable strength. The lowest tone re-

corded for this grade is F#^ in Era C and the highest is

F#3, Era A.

Tonal frequenciesi low range.—The scope of low range

tones observed in Era A, first grade song material starts

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with C 3 and continues through G 3 with D#3 and F3 being

equally employed (see Figure 32). D 3 is also fairly strong.

Clearly in Eras B and C, the lowest tone in many songs is 3

D . The song material not already accounted for is evenly

distributed, having low range tones that start with either

C 3 and go through G3, Era B, or B 2 through G3, Era C.

The frequency distribution for songs in the third and

fifth grade books is very much alike (see Figures 33 and

34). The most dominant tone in Eras A and B, 1945 through

3 1965, is D . Although there is a shift to C 3 in Era C,

3

1965-1975, D remains a favorite. The rate of use for the

other tones is rather uniform in number.

Pitch level means and standard deviations.-—The high

range pitch level X for the song population from The

American Singer, grades one and five is D4-D#4(see Figures

23, 24, and 25). A slightly higher X, D#4-E4, is noted

for grade three. The +1SD"s for all three grades are within

the same pitch region, E4-F4 and C#4-D4. However, they ex-

hibit slight variations within the interval.

The descending pattern observed in the Silver Burdett

publications between eras is also evidenced here. The Era

B, 1955-1964, Xs are lower. The X pitch level for grades

one and three of Music for Young. Americans is between C#4-D4

and for grade five, it is D4-D#4. The three +lSDs are in

the same D#4~E4 range; however, the -lSDs for grades one

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and five are C4-C#4, one semitone higher than the -1SD,

3 4 B -C , noted for grade three.

The trend downward advances in New Dimensions in Music*

The Xs of grades one and three are now located on points be-

tween C4-C*4, whereas the grade five X is within the region

of C# -D4. The +1SD of grades one and three is D4-D#4. The

-lSDs are B^-C , grade one, and A#3-B3, grade three. A

larger SD for grade five increases the pitch level range.

The +1SD is between E4-F4 and the -1SD intercepts B3-C4.

The low range pitch Xs in The Amev^iean Singev 9 Era A,

are in close proximity to grades three and five, and

above D# , grade one. The +lSDs for all three grades are

3 3 in the E -F region. The -lSDs are at the D3-D#3 level,

grade one, or the C3-C#3 level, grades three and five.

Music for Young Americans, Era B, Xs lie in the pitch

3 3

region C# -D# . The +lSDs are between E3-F3 for grades one

and five or between D#3-E3 for grade three. The -lSDs are

identical falling in the C3-C#3 vicinity.

Generally speaking, the pitch regions that occurred the

most often in the song sample of The American Singer ex-

tends from to F 4 for high range and from C 3 to F#3 for

low range. Music for Young Americans has a pitch spectrum

that starts with B and goes through E4, high range, and

with C#3 through F 3, low range. The high pitch range for

New Dimensions in Music lies between B 3 and F4. The lower

range tones for this series is from A#2 to F3.

217

Means and standard deviations of range intervals.--The

Xs for grade one, Eras A and C—1945 to 1954 and 1965 to

1975 respectively, fall within the range of a m7 to M7 (see

Figure 26). The interval indicated by the Era B, 1955 to

1964, X is slightly larger, being a M7-P8ve. The +1SD for

all three eras lies in the region between a m9 and a M9.

The -1SD for Eras A and C is located within the interval

m6-M6 whereas for Era B, it falls in the area of the M6-m7.

Consequently, more than half the songs from the books pub-

lished by American Book Company in Eras A and C have a range

interval that is less than a major sixth or larger than a

minor ninth. The Era B books reflect range intervals from

a major sixth-minor seventh to a minor ninth.

A greater diversity of Xs and SDs is reflected in the

grade three books (see Figure 27). The Era A X lies above

the P8ve with a +1SD above the M9 interval and a -1SD that

falls slightly below the m7. The Era B X is almost midpoint

of the M7-P8ve interval. The +1SD intercepts the m9-M9 and

—1SD is slightly above the M6. The position of the X

for Era C series is closely aligned with the M7, being only

slightly above it. A larger SD pushes the +1SD into the

area of the M9-ml0 region and the -1SD falls below the M6.

Consequently, the publications of Era C incorporate a wider

variety of song range intervals.

The fifth grade Xs are all located between the M7-P8ve

(see Figure 28). Similar SDs are noted for the Era A and

218

Era B series. The +1SD is at a point above the M9. The

-1SD falls below the m7. The +1SD for Era C is slightly

above the mlO and the —1SD is below the M6. One can in-

terpret from the data that in Eras A and B, 1945 through

1964, these series had a more limited range interval than

the one published in Era C, 1965 through 1975.

Summary

The frequency distribution of the high and low tones

of songs revealed that the song material in the earlier

Era A series, 1945-1954, was higher than that observed in

the two later series. The tones, D4, D#4, E4, and F4, were

used extensively. The series of Era B, 1954-1965, and Era

C, 1965-1975, lowered the high pitch levels to C4, D4, and 4

D# . The low range pitch levels of Era A were more widely

distributed starting with going through G^. In Eras B

and C, the two tones with the highest frequencies were

C3 and D3.

The X pitch levels confirmed the downward trends. The

Era A high Xs are in the area of D to D$4 to E4 whereas

those recorded for both Eras B and C are lower. The same

kind of pattern is noted in the low range Xs.

Although the range pitch levels were lowered, the

interval formed by these pitch levels was not altered. In

first grade books, the range interval is between a

minor seventh and an octave. The intervals of the third

219

and fifth grade books are larger, ranging from between a

major seventh to a minor ninth.

Data Related to Tessitura

Two procedures were applied to the data related to

tessitura (see Definitions, Chapter I). First, a frequency

distribution was made of the tones that most often expressed

the high and low tessitura limits. Second, means and

standard deviations were calculated for the high pitch levels

and for the low pitch levels. The song sample utilized in

the range computations was the population employed for

tessitura. More information regarding the procedures may be

found in Chapter IV.

Song Tessitura: Silver Burdett Company

A total of 360 songs were analyzed from the series

published by Silver Burdett. This figure represents 50 per

cent of the song population.

Tonal frequency: high tessitura.—The tone with the

highest frequency in the first grade New Music Horizons,

Era A (1945-1954), is C 4 (see Figure 35). Two other tones, 3 3

A and B , together were equal in usage to C4. The third

ranked tones are A#3 and D4. A referral to Figure 17 re-

veals that D 4 was a popular high range tone in the same

series. The high tessitura for grade one in Musia for

Living and Making Music lour Own, Era B (1955-1964), is

220

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lowered by a minor third, dropping from C 4 to A°. Each of

3 3 4

the tones G , A# , and C had a frequency of 5. In Silver

Burdett Music, Era C (1965-1975), the tessitura high ranges

are more evenly distributed with three tones—G 3, A3, and _4 C —being more prominent than the others.

3 4 In the third grade books, A and C are equally em-

3 3 3 ployed, while G , A# , and B rank second (see Figure 36). The same tendencies are noticed for the Era B and Era C

3 *3 4 series; however, G is now equal to A and G , Era B, and

3 B gains strength in Era C.

In the Era A fifth grade books, the frequencies re-

3 3 corded for A# and B were equal (see Figure 37). In Era B,

3 *3 the emphasis shifts to A but then goes back to B during

Era C. The song population not absorbed by these tones is

distributed over a range of pitches starting with D 3 and

ending with D 4. The most notable of these are G 3, C 4,

and D 4.

Tonal frequency: low tessitura.—Authors of Era A

first grade books selected songs with a low tessitura range O o

that most often centered around G or A (see Figure 38).

During the second era, the tones F 3 and G 3 are the most

prominent. There is an even wider distribution in Era C

with the addition of D 3. One other tone should be men-3

tioned—E —which remains consistent in use throughout

the timeline.

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There is a marked similarity in the third grade series O

(see Figure 39). Four tones are used extensively: E—Eras

A and B; F3—Eras A, B, and C; F#3—Era B; and G3--Eras A

3 *3 and C. Other pitches noteworthy are D —Era B and A — E r a

A.

The fifth grade series somewhat parallel the third

grade series. The highest ranked tones of Era A are E3, F3,

3 3 3 G , and A . The tone A has the second highest frequency

count for the combined eras. The range is lowered by a

whole tone during Era B through the use of D3, E3, F3, and

3 G . The patterm remains steady during Era C with the tonal

3 3 3 concentration on E , F , and G (see Figure 40).

Means and standard deviations of tessitura.—The Xs

and SDs computed for the tessitura pitch levels of the

Silver Burdett series revealed little change between grades

of the individual series or among the publications (see

Figures 41, 42, and 43). The only variation noted in the

high Xs was for the Era A series, which has a X pitch level

3 3 " • _ of A# to B' whereas the Era B and C series have a X of

3 3

A to A# , one semitone lower. The +lSDs are in the area

of B to C or C3 to C#3. The -lSDs fall between the pitch

levels of D 3 to D#3 and E3 to F3.

The low X for Era A is F#3 to G3. A X of F3 to G3

is observed for the other two eras. The +lSDs for the

low tessitura Xs lie between the tones G3 to G#3 or A3 to

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Legend:

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Figure 41.—Pitch levels of tessitura means and standard deviations for 1st grade songs.

o 3

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Era A Era B Era C American Book Co.

Figure 42. Pitch levels of tessitura means and standard deviations for 3rd grade songs.

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Song Tessitura: American Book Co.

The songs from three music series published by the

American Book Company provided the balance of the song

material used in the musical analysis. The total popu-

lation consisted of 720 songs. Three hundred sixty are

from the American Book Company series.

231

Tonal frequency; high tessitura.—The patterns ob-

served in the Silver Burdett series are also prevalent in

the American Book Company publications. In the first grade

book of The American Singer, Era A (1945-1954), C 4 had a

frequency count of 19, representing almost 50 per cent of

the song population (see Figure 44). A#3 and D 4 were ap-

proximately equal in strength. In Music for Young Ameri-

cans , Era B (1955-1964), the emphasis is shared by A3 and

4

C with the rest of the songs rather evenly distributed be-

tween G and D4. The New Dimensions in Music, Era C (1965-

1975), highest frequency tones are A3 and B3, lowering the

pitch level somewhat; however, C 4 continues to occur.

B and C 4 are the two high tones most often noted in

third grade songs during Era A (see Figure 45). The entire

tonal region is broader than that observed in the first

grade books, starting with D 3 and ending with D4. The tones 3 3

A and A# are the only other pitches with much accumulated count. In Era B, four tones are the most prominent: G3,

3 3 4

A , B , and C . The distribution for these pitch., levels

is closely aligned. With the exception of A3, the frequency

distribution for Era C is also uniform in number.

There are six high frequency pitch levels in the fifth

grade books of the American Book Company series (see Figure

46). These tones are A 3—Eras A, B, and C; A# 3—Era A; B 3

Eras A and B; C Eras A, B, and C; and D 4—Era B. The

tonal region for Era B is the widest.

232

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The data for the low tone tessitura disclose an

interesting pattern (see Figures 47, 48, and 49). The only

pitch level that exceeds 10 is G 3, Eras A and C, grades one

and five. Otherwise, the distribution is quite homogeneous.

The only other tone that approaches the G 3 if F 3 in the

third grade series.

Means and standard deviations of pitch level.—The

American Singer, Era A, has a high tessitura pitch level

— 3 4

X of B to C for grades one and five (see Figure 41). The

third grade X is A#3 to B 3. The +lSDs are at the C# 4 to D 4

level and the -lSDs are on either side of A,:{. The Xs for

Musia for Young Americans, Era B, are noted at points be-3 3 S *3

tween A# to B or Between A to B (see Figure 42), The

+1SD for all three grades is C 3 to Cif3 whereas the -lSDs

are located in the pitch region G 3 to A3. New Dimensions

in Music, Era C, Xs for all three of the grades are A 3 to

A# (see Figure 43). The +lSDs lie in two areas: B 3 to

C 4 or C 4 to C#4. The -lSDs intercept G 3 to C#3, grades one

and three, and F#3 to G3, grade five.

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lies between G 3 and G#3 (see Figures 47, 48, and 49). For

Era B, it is Fft3 to G 3. The +lSDs range from A 3 to B 3 and

the -lSDs are E 3 to F#3. The Era B and C series Xs are F 3

3

to F# , the grade five Era C book being the only exception

to this. The +lSDs for the same series are noted at G 3 to

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3

A# . The overlap of —lSDs and +lSDs is also observed for

these series. The first grade Era B publication is the

only series in the timeline that exhibits a clear dis-

tinction between the two tonal regions. In the Era C

grade one publication, the SDs are at the same point.

Summary

The music series published by both Silver Burdett and

The American Book Company exhibit the same tendencies re-

garding tessitura. The Era A, 1945—1954, series generally

have a higher tessitura than the Era B, 1955-1965, and Era

C, 1965-1975, publications. The high frequency tone for

Era A was C whereas the tone for Eras B and C was either 3 3

G or A which lowers the tessitura level by either a minor

third or a perfect fourth. The low tessitura pitches most

often observed were E3, F3, and G3. Grades three and five

of both companies had a more even distribution of pitches

throughout the pitch region than the first grade books.

The downward trend noted between Eras is evident in

the Ys and SDs. The greatest distance is between the Era A

and Era B publications. There is a noticeable overlap of

the high tessitura -lSDs and the low tessitura +lSDs which

places mid-point tones into both pitch level regions.

Data Related to Song Intervals

The third aspect investigated in the musical analysis

was the intervallic structure of the songs in the music

240

series. Once the kinds and frequencies of the song inter-

vals in the melodic material of the song sample had been

determined, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted

for each of the 17 intervals. (For information regarding

the statistical procedures, see Chapter IV). Each interval

was tested for differences among grades, among eras, and

between companies. Furthermore, differences among main

effects as well as the interactions among and within the

main effects were tested. The raw data results of the

ANOVAs are reported in Table XXVII, Appendix I. Four areas

of significance are noted: among grades, between companies,

among eras, and between grade and company for interval five,

the major third (M3)

Significance of Intervals Among Grades

The close alignment of the grade level Xs for each

interval indicates that there was little difference in the

kinds of intervals utilized in the song materials between

grades (see Table XVIII). Only three intervals reached

significance levels.

The minor second (m2) is significant at the .01 level

of confidence. This interval occurs more frequently in

the fifth grade series than in either the first or third

grade books. The Xs for the two companies do not show

significant differences for this interval (see Table XIX).

It is possible that text authors restricted the use of the

TABLE XVIII

A COMPARISON OF INTERVAL USAGE BY THREE GRADES FROM 1945 TO 1975

241

Grade; Means Interval 1 Interval 1

One Three Five

Prime 24.279 24.930 23.945 m2 11.194 11.771 14.114** M2 31.315 31.934 33.318 m3 13.112 12.690 12.049 M3 6.883 7.633 6.353 P4 7.577 § 6.366 6.498 t .209 .213 .069 P5 3.188 2.510 1.816** m6 .349 .408 .479 M6 .993 .919 .723 m7 .123 .171 .229 M7 .008 .063 .019 P8ve .750** .362 .368 m9 .015 .015 0.000 M9 0.000 .015 .019 mlO 0.000 0.000 0.000 M10 0.000 0.000 0.000 M10 0.000

*P< .05 **P< .05

SApproaches PX .05

m2 in the song materials intended for young children on

the basis that the small distance created by the interval

might be difficult for children to sing in tune.

The perfect fifth (P5) is also significant at the .01

level of confidence. The use of this interval gradually

decreases until a noticeable difference is observed be-

tween the Xs of grades one and five. The grade Xs for

each era were examined and although no significance is

reported for era, the decline in use of the P5 occurs

242

primarily in Eras B and C. No significant difference is

observed for company.

The octave (P8ve) is significant at the .05 level of

confidence, occurring more often in the first grade music

series. An examination of the Xs discloses that in all

three eras, the songs of the first grade books published

by both companies had more P8ves than the third and fifth

grade books by approximately 50 per cent. The P8ve is

many times used to help children develop a better under-

standing of the concept "high" and "low." This might

account in part for its wide utilization in the first grade

books of series.

The perfect fourth (P4) approaches significance (see

Table XXXI,- Appendix I). The P4 was also observed more

frequently in the song material of first grade books

being eqrually distributed between companies and among eras.

Significance of Intervals Between Companies

Generally speaking, Silver Burdett Company and The

American Book Company show little separation in the

intervallie content of the songs in elementary music series

published 1945 to 1975. Out of the seventeen intervals

tested, only two are significant (see Table XIX).

The major third (M3) and the major sixth (M6), both

significant at the .05 level of confidence were more widely

incorporated in the songs of the series published by the

TABLE XIX

A COMPARISON OF INTERVAL USAGE BY TWO COMPANIES FOR GRADES ONE, THREE, AND FIVE FROM 1945 TO 1975

243

Interval

Prime m2 M2 m3 M3 P4 t P5 m6 M6 ml M7 P8ve m9 M9 mlO MIO

Company Means

Silver Burdett Co.

25.117 12.522 32.047 12.741 6.517 6.768 .133

2 .288 .480 .720 .209 .024 .404 .010 .018

0.000 0.000

American Book Co.

23.652 12.197 32.330 12.493 7.396* 6.859 .194

2.722 .345

1.036* .140 .036 .583 .010 .004

0.000 0.000

*P < .05

American Book Company. A first order interaction between

company and grade for the M3 is discussed later.

Significarice of Intervals Among Eras

More variance is observed between eras than was evi-

denced for either of the other main effects. Six intervals

are significantly different (see Table XX). The prime,

P .01, was used significantly less in the Era A music se-

ries. The m2, also P .01, had a higher frequency in these

publications than in those of Eras B and C. A significance

244

TABLE XX

A COMPARISON OF INTERVAL USAGE DURING THREE ERAS FROM 1945 TO 1975

Era Means Interval Interval

Era A Era B Era C 1945-1954 1955-1964 1965-1975

Prime 20.944** 25.305 26.906 m2 14.390** 10.798 11.890 M2 32.281 32.463 31.823 m3 13.144 12.179 12.528 M3 7.174 7.321 6.374 P4 6.985 6.889 6.567 t .262 .102 .127 P5 2.552 2.654 2.308 m6 .425 .538 .274 M6 .957 1.059 .619* m7 .285 .163 .074* M7 .090* 0.000 0.000 P8ve .493 .513 .475 m9 0.000 0.000 0.030 M9 .015 .015 .004 mlO 0.000 0.000 0.000 M10 0.000 0.000 0.000

**P< .01 *P< .05

has already been reported for the m2 for grade. The ex-

pected interaction between grade and company did not occur,

The major sixth, reported above, again proves signi-

ficant at the .05 level. A comparison of the Xs reveals

that the M6 was not as popular in the song melodies of

Era C series as it was in those of previous decades. The

same kind of pattern is noted for the m7.

An interesting observation is made for the major

seventh (M7). This interval, significant in the Era A

245

publications, was not utilized in any of the song population

for Eras B or C. The interval, however, was used in all

three grades by both companies during Era A (see m7, Tables

XVIII and XIX).

Interaction Among Main Effects

The interaction between grade and company proved

significant for one interval—the major third (M3). The

Xs show that the variance between these two main effects

occurs in the third grade books published by the American

Book Company, indicating that more M3 intervals were found

in the songs of third grade series put out by this company

(see Table XXI).

TABLE XXI

A COMPARISON OF INTERVAL USAGE FOR THE INTERACTION BETWEEN GRADE AND COMPANY

FOR THE MAJOR THIRD

Grade Company : Means

Grade Company

Grade Silver Burdett Co. American Book Co.

One 6.688 7.078 Three 6.074 9.010* Five 6.789 5.917

Summary

The analysis of the intervallic structure of the song

sample of music series published by Silver Burdett Company

246

and the American Book Company reveals that the two companies

are consistent. Only two intervals—the M3 and M6—are

significantly different, both being employed more in the

song literature of American Book Company series than in

that published by Silver Burdett. More difference in

interval usage is observed among grades and among eras. The

data indicate that there is a greater use of the m2 and the

P5 in the fifth grade books. The P8ve is more prevalent in

first grade song material. The P4 demonstrates strength in

the first grade books but does not attain significance.

The greatest variance is noted among eras. Five inter-

vals are significantly different. The prime, m2, and M7

frequencies are greater in the Era A, 1945-1954, song

material whereas the M6 and m7 occurred more in the Era C

melodies.

There is only one main effect interaction. The M3

is used more extensively in the third grade books of the

series published by American Book Company.

Findings of the Musical Analysis Related to Other Research

Several research studies, reviewed in the related

literature, were devoted to learning more about the vocal

capabilities of children. In most instances, the primary

goal of these projects was to collect data that would be

of assistance in estimating the characteristic vocal ranges

of children. Several interesting results emerged from

247

these studies to which the findings of the musical analysis

of this study are related.

First, Adcock (1), Kirkpatrick (3), and Wilson (6)

found that children prefer to sing in their lower range.

Adcock and Wilson felt that the song ranges in music series

current with their research, 1962 to 1966, were too high for

children to sing comfortably at all grade levels. The only

series common to their studies and the present one is the

Silver Burdett Making Music lour Own.

The results of this study reveal that the song ranges

in the elementary music series have been lowered to a slight

degree since the research conducted by Adcock and Wilson.

Whereas the books of circa 1962-1966 most often displayed a

3 4

range of D to D , the books of the 1970's have ranges that

extend from either or to the same pitch level an

octave higher. The two tones are almost equal in strength.

These patterns are consistent for all three grades of the

Silver Burdett series and for grades one and three of Ameri-

can Book Company publications. The fifth grade books of the

latter company have song ranges that frequently go up to D#4

4

and E , extending the upper range by a whole tone. A lack

of difference noted in the books indicates that young chil-

dren , who for the most part have undeveloped voices, are

expected to sing successfully in the same range as the older

students. In this respect, the books have demonstrated lit-

tle or no change since the Adcock and Wilson reports.

248

A musical aspect that may be of equal importance with

the range of a song is its tessitura, the pitch region in

which most of the melodic tones lie. A song is said to

have a high tessitura if the tones lie consistently in the

upper region of a singer's vocal range. Conversely, if the

tones remain in the lower region, then the song is said to

have a low tessitura. Each individual has a range in which

he/she can most comfortably sing. When the tessitura of a

song goes and remains out of that range, then considerable

vocal ability is required to maintain the pitch level with

a good tone quality.

Tessitura limits have not been established for chil-

dren. However, if one considers the physical nature of the

larynx and the fact that it is in a developmental stage

like the rest of the child's body, then the young child

should not be expected to sing for long periods of time

in the upper regions of his/her vocal range. The tessituras

in the Era A books are quite high, generally G3 to C4. Al-

though they are lower for the Era B and the Era C series,

they remain quite high for young children, either G 3 to A3

3 3

of F to G . According to Kirkpatrick (3), the preferred

range of children is G below middle C to the B above. Con-

sequently, first grade children are being required to sing

for sustained periods of time in a part of their vocal range

that is not comfortable. Out—of—tune singing is likely

to be a result.

249

Second, Kirkpatrick believed the keys of A, B, C, Db,

and Eb to be the ones most appropriate for children's pre-

ferred range. Smith (4) recommended C to F or D to G ranges

with gradual ascent into higher keys. The tonalities of

the 720 songs in the sample were examined. One third, 240,

of this number is made up of first grade song content. The

keys used most consistently were the keys of C, D, F, and G.

The other keys listed above were observed much less exten-

sively (see Appendix F).

Third, Boardman (2), Wassum, Wilson, and Zimmerman (7)

discovered that a positive correlation exists between growth

and range development. Voices develop at different rates in

3-11 grades. Smith reported that upper range training was

not successful with younger children. However, Boardman

attributes the inability to sing high as perhaps due to a

lack of experience. Both she and Wassum found that young

children might be able to sing a wider range than previously

thought. They recommended the addition of some songs with

wider ranges to the elementary music series,.

The music texts published circa 1945 offered more op-

portunities for the development of the upper range limits

of children. Not only were the songs generally higher,

vocal exercises meant to go as high as F 4 were advocated

in the Silver Burdett fifth grade books. The series of the

second and third decades continue to utilize F4, though

it is with less frequency. Furthermore., activities for

250

range development declined considerably between Era A and

Eras B and C (see Appendix D).

The interval Xs and SDs show that most songs in the

elementary music series have a range of a M7 or a P8ve

in the first and third grades. The fifth grade song in-

terval is greater, being in the range of a P8ve to a m9.

The largest interval observed with any regularity was an

8ve plus a P4. Of course, one must consider the tonality

of these songs before any real conclusions can be drawn as

to whether or not actual range development could result

through their use.

Fourth, Zimmerman reported that wider intervals are

easier to perceive than the small. The age of the child

is a major determining factor, an older child being more

accurate in ability to sing the smaller intervals.

The musical analysis of interval usage shows that

there appears to have been some consideration given to

the the age of a child in selecting songs for elementary

music series. The m2 and the P5 are used significantly

more in the fifth grade books and the P8ve is noticed more

in the first grade books. However, in comparing the total

interval usage results among grades, one discovers that

the smaller intervals are utilized much more extensively

than the larger ones in all three grades.

Fifth, Wassum and Wilson expressed the need of more

information about vocal techniques as applied to the child

251

voice for elementary teachers. Particulars about the

psychology of learning in that area were also considered

important.

The elementary music series analyzed for this study

do not include information about vocal techniques as ap-

plied to the child voice. The series that most nearly meets

this criterion is the Silver Burdett New Musio RovLzons.

It is apparent that vocal development of the child voice

was a conscious goal of that series. Strategies for "beau-

tiful singing," initiated with tone games in the first grade

were gradually expanded to include vocalizes and pure vowel

concepts in the fifth grade. The American Book Company's

series, New Dimensions in Musto, has some suggested vocal

exercises for voice development; however, teaching strate-

gies for implementing the ideas are not provided. Growth

and sequence charts that appear in the series are also ex-

tremely vague regarding the vocal developmental process.

Stated goals, most often in terms of expressive qualities,

are largely dependent upon the child's imagination and

ability to express the text meaning in a musical way.

Summa.ry

Textbook authors appear to have considered research

findings in their selection of series materials. The re-

sults of this study indicate that some credence may have

been given to study results in the areas of song range

252

and of interval usage. However, whether or not these

changes were consciously made as a direct result of

research can neither be confirmed nor denied because docu-

mentation for the developmental processes outlined in the

series is not provided at any point throughout the entire

thirty-year period of the timeline.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Adcock, Eva J., "A Comparative Analysis of Vocal Range in the Middle School General Music Curriculum," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Music, The Florida State University, 1971.

2. Boardman, Eunice Louise, "An Investigation of the Ef-fects of Pre-School Training on the Development of Vocal Accuracy in Young Children," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Education, Uni-versity of Illinois, 1964.

3. Kirkpatrick, William C., Jr., "Relationships Between the Singing Ability of Prekindergarten Children and Their Home Environment," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Education, University of Southern California, 1962.

4. Smith, Robert B., "A Study of the Effects of Large-Group Vocal Training on the Singing Ability of Nursery School Children," unpublished doctoral disser-tation, Department of Music, University of Illinois, 1961.

5. Wassum, Sylvesta, "Elementary School Children's Vocal Range," Journal of Research in Music Education, XXVII (Winter, 1979), 214-226.

6. Wilson, Dorothy S., "A Study of the Child Voice from Six to Twelve," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Univer-sity of Oregon, 1970.

7. Zimmerman, Marilyn P., Musical Characteristics of Chil-dren, 1902 Association Drive, Reston, Va.,"Music Educators National Conference, 1971.

253

CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The purpose of this study was to investigate the kinds

of instructions provided for teachers by authors and pub-

lishers of elementary music series that may be used in the

development of children's voices. Specifically, the study

was designed to investigate the recommended methodology re-

lated to the development of vocal concepts in children, to

investigate musical aspects that could be indicators of

expected vocal ability, and to relate the findings of this

study to the results of other research that give insight

into the vocal capabilities of children.

The initial component of the study was the selection

of the content material. Four criteria were established

to assist in the book selection.

1. The publication date of the series had to fall

within the time span circa 1945 to 1975.

2. The publishers of the books in the study had to

have publishing records of long standing and had to pub-

lish during the timeline of the study.

3. The series had to have at least six books, one

for each grade, designed to present a sequential

254

255

music program to children in an elementary school music

class.

4. The content material, found in the teacher's

edition/manual only of grades one, three, and five, dealt

with concepts, theoretical or practical, related to sing-

ing.

Only two companies met the requirements of the four

criteria. Therefore, the books for grades one, three, and

five of the series published by the Silver Burdett Company

and the American Book Company during the period circa 1945

to 1975 were subjected to a content analysis and to a

musical analysis. A total of seven series was utilized

in the study. For organizational purposes, the thirty year

timeline was divided into decades: Era A—-1945 to 1954,

Era B—1955 to 1964, and Era C—1965 to 1975.

Content analysis requires the transformation of the

qualitative material into elements rendering it susceptible

to quantification. Content units which were large enough

to be accurately judged but not so large as to cause con-

fusion were selected. The content unit for the study was

based on the location of material in the teacher's manual.

Categories that suited both the questions and the

subject matter were developed as the basis for the objective

analysis of the selected content material. Each category

contained an exhaustive list of terms that clearly set out

what sort of "thing" would go into it and how that "thing"

256

was to be recognized. Three categories based on major

aspects of vocal development as discussed by music educators

were established. Subsequently, an information sheet was

developed to collect the data. A preliminary coding trial

was unsuccessful due to inadequate definitions of the cate-

gories and to incomplete sub-categories. After revising the

coding sheets, a second trial tabulation was successful.

Statements in which the words appeared were judged as to

whether they were positive (+), neutral (o), or negative

(-). The established categories are as follows:

Category I-Vocal Characteristics contains terminology

used by text authors in discussing the typical tone quali-

ties, capabilities, and limitations of the child voice.

Four sub-categories were required: Tone Quality, Physical

Characteristics, Influences, and Theoretical Basis/Opinion.

Category II-Singing Objectives has terms that reflect

the attitudes of teachers in selecting activities that in-

volve singing. Four sub-categories were established: Vocal

Development, Musical Development/Other Areas, Extramusical

Development, and Theoretical Basis/Opinion.

Category Ill-Teaching Strategies examines the tactics

recommended for helping children develop an understanding of

the singing process. Three sub-categories were necessary:

Devices/Tone Quality, Untuned Singers/Theories, and Devices/

Tuning.

257

A rater's instruction sheet was written to regulate and

assist in the analysis of the content material. The in-

structions included: a statement of the purpose of the

study, a brief description of the research design, a defi-

nition of the categories, a statement outlining the

rater's responsibilities, and explicit) instructions for

the analysis of the content material.

Two validity measurements were applied to test the

research tool. First, a type of logical validity was es-

tablished. The second validity check was by the jury

method. Three music educators were asked to judge the

relevent parts of the information sheets.

Reliability of the study was determined in two ways.

First, an inter-rater reliability was established. Two

music educators agreed to work with the investigator. All

of the content material used in the study was coded by

these two coders as well as the investigator. Correlation

coefficients were calculated for each era in the timeline

to determine the inter-rater reliability of the Investigator

versus Coder A, the Investigator versus Coder B, and Coder A

versus Coder B. High inter-rater reliability coefficients,

primarily in the .90 range, were obtained. Second, after a

six-month delay, a sample of the content material was re-

coded by the investigator to determine intra-rater coder

reliability. With but two exceptions, the coefficients ob-

tained were also in the .90 range.

258

A musical analysis of 720 randomly selected songs

yielded data that were related to the song ranges, tessi-

turas, and interval usage. Frequency distributions of

the high and the low tonal regions of range and of tessi-

tura are displayed by grades, by company, and by era.

Means and standard deviations of the high and low pitch

levels were also computed for each book. A frequency dis-

tribution of the intervals formed by the high and low range

tones was used to calculate a mean and standard deviation

for the range interval for each grade by company and by era.

Interval frequencies were determined for each of the

songs in the sample. To compensate for varying song length,

percentages were used to show the frequency relationship of

one interval to each of the other intervals found in a

song. Seventeen analyses of variance, one for each possible

interval, were conducted to test for differences among

grades, between companies, and among eras.

The results of this study were related to other re-

search findings that pertain to vocal capabilities and range

preferences of children. An effort was made to determine

whether textbook authors give credence to the reports of

research.

Findings

The content analysis of elementary music series over

a thirty-year period gave insight into the kinds of

259

instructions provided to teachers for the development of

vocal concepts in children.

Music series published during Era A, 1945 to 1954,

provided the most information about the child voice. The

quality is described as being light and clear, sometimes

having tendencies to be shrill, thin, and colorless. The

ultimate goal is to help children discover their head tone

which is the most desirable quality to cultivate.

Physical characteristics were rarely mentioned. The

early series had a few comments on this subject; however,

the discussions were always in very general terms. The

physiological aspects of the vocal mechanism and its

functions were not ever discussed.

New Music Horizons, published by Silver Burdett during

Era A, has the most complete program of vocal development.

The program is initiated in the first grade through the use

of "Tone Games" which help the child tune the voice, extend

the range, and develop concepts of tone quality. These

"Tone Games" are expanded through the third grade. In the

fifth grade, more advanced concepts are introduced. Eight

"Beautiful Singing" lessons, designed to develop flexi-

bility and pure vowel concepts as related to singing, are

placed strategically throughout the book. Concise di-

rections are provided with each lesson. Diagrams, pictures,

and other teaching aids are also included with the materials

in the books..

260

The Silver Burdett publications for Eras B and C —

Music for Living3 Making Music Your Own, and Silver

Burdett Music are notably lacking in objectives and/or

directions for assisting children in understanding their

voices. Although the authors of Silver Burdett Music cate-

gorize the voice as a performing medium, directions for

cultivating a good tone are not supplied as they are for

the recorder, the guitar, and other classroom instruments

which have detailed information for helping children enjoy

successful experiences.

The series published by American Book Company demon-

strate an opposite pattern. Compared to the early Silver

Burdett publication, The American Singer is very weak. The

later series, however, demonstrate much growth in the amount

of directions aimed toward vocal concepts. New Dimensions in

Music is especially strong in its message to the teacher.

Suggested strategies for tone cultivation are provided in the

introductory remarks to the teacher. Furthermore, more de-

tailed instructions are provided with the songs. Although

the suggested vocalizes are not written out as they are in

Ilew Music Horizons, this series is the only other one that

contains information that is remotely detailed. Many stated

objectives are directed toward helping children discover the

expressive qualities of the voice. A wide spectrum of moods,

most often generated by the text, are explored. Voice color

appropriate for interpretating the text was emphasized.

261

The strategies advocated for the cultivation of tone

quality were quite varied. Tone calls, vocalises on neutral

vowels, and multiple imitative devices were recommended.

The teacher's vocal ability was of some consequence in as

much as his/her voice quality was considered to be the most

appropriate role model for children to imitate. Series re-

cordings were also endorsed but only as an alternative. If

the teacher's vocal quality was not one that could, or should

be imitated, then groups of children could be used as a model.

Teachers were encouraged to practice to develop their own

instrument so that the song material could be presented in

ranges appropriate for the child. Outside influences such

as radio and television were generally regarded as detri-

mental rather than helpful.

Children unable to match pitch were referred to at

various times as "retarded" or "uncertain" singers. Five

causes were stated for out-of-tune singing: musical inex-

perience, inattention to pitch, confusing musical situations,

psychological blocks, and physical abnormalities. Special

seating arrangements, popular in early series, became out-

dated. Later series advised teachers to make no distinction

between these children and the good singers.

Strategies for tuning the voice were more obvious in

the first grade books. The imitation of familiar objects

such as animals, birds, whistles, and sirens was considered

helpful to children who are in the process of discovering the

262

the flexible qualities of the voice. Musical roll call and

other musical games as well as the association of physical

movement to pitch levels was advocated. Concepts of "high"

and "low" were furthered through association. In Silver

Burdett Music, photograpjay is used extensively to promote

the directional flow of melody.

Objectives pertaining to singing in parts was noticed

more in fifth grade books; however, preparation for this

skill is initiated much earlier. The series that exhibited

the strongest thrust in this direction was the American Book

Company series, Musia for Young Americans. Generally, all

the series contained a large variety of two- and three-part

songs of varying difficulty. Directions are provided for

making the experience enjoyable and successful for children.

The most important vocal feature of part singing is the

ability to blend, controlling the voice so that a unified

sound is heard. The authors of series by American Book Com-

pany stressed this skill but in the Silver Burdett books,

the subject is rarely mentioned.

The opportunity for range development was more pre-

valent in the earlier publications. The song ranges were

much higher and vocal exercises, designed to explore all

areas of vocal register, were provided. Content analysis

tabulations for objectives related to range development

dropped drastically in the last two decades. Furthermore,

the songs do not offer opportunity for range expansion.

263

The promotion of conceptual development in other areas

through singing was greatly increased in Eras B and C. This

trait is particularly noticeable in Music for Living 3 Making

Music Your Own, and Silver Burdett Music. Although the

American Book Company series also reflect this tendency, the

authors maintain a balance between vocal and music element

objectives. Percentage ratios show that the stated goals

centered on developing the voice were equal to or greater

than those for other conceptual growth.

The mufoic elements, rhythm and melody, were the two most

often stressed. It is only in New Dimensions in Music that

a balance is observed between the above elements and the

others. In later series, cultural awareness is awakened

through the comparison of music of different cultures.

Objectives in non-musical areas that required singing

were usually in the realm of social and/or personal growth.

Creativity was nurtured through dramatization of the song

texts while singing.

Communications to the teachers related to the vocal

development of the child voice were found in two sections

of the teacher's edition. A general outline of the vocal

program was usually found in the introductory statements

to the teacher. The location of this section varied from

series to series. Teaching strategies and other infor-

mation of a more specific nature were located with the song

being taught. It is here that specific concepts or "musical

264

learnings" are stated. Information regarding vocal techni-

ques as applied to the child voice nor the psychology of

learning in this area are provided for the teachers.

The theoretical basis for opinions expressed by authors

is not given. On occasion, a reference is made to "general

education;" however, the specifics are not given. Conse-

quently, one cannot be sure that real credence has been

given to research in music education.

The musical analysis of a song sample taken from the

music series revealed certain aspects that could be indi-

cators of expected vocal ability in children.

The melodic range of songs in the Era A series was

quite high going to F4. Lower ranges were noted in the

Era B and Era £ publications, generally being in the vici-

nity of C 4 and/or D4. m all three eras, the average

interval formed by the range extremes was between a major

seventh and an octave for grades one and three. The inter-

val was slightly larger in the fifth grade. Even though

the song ranges were lower, the range interval did not

change significantly.

The tessitura pitch levels follow a pattern similar

to that noted for range. Era A song tessituras are higher, 4

D , than those observed in the later series, A3. The aver-

age pitch level for high tessitura was between A#3 and G3.

For low tessitura, it was between F#3 and G3. An overlap

was observed between the high and low pitch regions.

265

The analysis of the intervallic structure of the song

sample revealed that the two publishing companies were

quite consistent. Slight differences occurred in the

American Book Company series in their use of the major third

and major sixth. Significant differences noted among grades

were in the .first and fifth grades. The minor second and

perfect fifth were used more extensively in the fifth grade

books. First grade songs made greater use of the octave.

Eras displayed the greatest degree of variance. Five in-

tervals were significantly different. The prime, minor

second, and major seventh were more prevalent in Era A songs

whereas the major sixth and minor seventh was noted in the

melodic mat€;rial of Era C songs. The main effect inter-

action between grade and company revealed that the major

third was stronger in the third grade books published by

the American Book Company.

The survey of key signatures in the song sample shows

that the keys of C, F, D, and G are used more extensively

than other major tonalities. Minor tonality was observed

with much less frequency, particularly in the Era A series.

Other scale forms—modal, pentatonic, atonal, and Eastern:—

are noted more in New Dimensions in Music. The series of

Eras B and C explored more tonal regions.

The results of this study when related to previous re-

search findings gave some insight into the effect that study

conclusions have had on the compiling of elementary series.

266

Research has indicated that young children prefer to

sing in their lower range. Although the song ranges are

lower in the publications of the 1960's and the 1970's,

one cannot be certain that it was due to the influence of

research. Text book authors do not state their rationale

for the theories advocated.

Of the seven tonalities considered most appropriate

for young singers, only four—C, D, F, and G—occur with

regularity. One key, B, was not observed. The other

keys A, Bb, and Eb—were rather infrequently noted.

The tessituras of the songs in the first grade books

were found to be too high for young children to comfortably

sing. The undeveloped larynx cannot sustain pitches in

these regions for long periods of time without becoming

fatigued.

The kinds of intervals in the song material was found

to be suitable for grade levels according to research re-

ports. Use of the minor second was more prevalent in fifth

grade books than in those for the first grade.

Conclusions

The child voice is an expressive instrument worthy

of development to the same degree as any other music skill

explored in the elementary music classroom. Children can

be led to sing well, with enthusiasm, and with a fine de-

gree of artistic sensitivity. If the development of the

267

child voice has been a conscious goal in the elementary

music series, it has not been made manifest.

Great diversity is noted in the stated objectives that

require singing, ranging from well developed programs de-

signed to cultivate the voice to programs in which the voice

is simply to be used as a performance medium. The philoso-

phic foundation of the series greatly influences the kinds

and number of stated objectives.

For some years, researchers have been concerned with

discovering more about the child's singing capabilities.

Results of this work are regularly reported in educational

journals. If the authors of music series give credence to

the findings of these projects, they do not let it be known.

The songs in the elementary music texts are not always

in tonalities that will ensure a child's success and enjoy-

ment in singing activities. This is particularly true of

the song literature contained in the first grade books.

Furthermore, little range development can be accomplished

because the material does not lend itself well to this

aspect.

Music series do not yet contain adequate information

about the physical characteristics of the vocal mechanism.

Also missing are step-by-step vocal developmental procedures

that can be used by teachers who may not be fully acquainted

with the implications involved in teaching a young child the

use of his/her voice.

268

Recommendations

The findings of this study have provided the investiga-

tor with a number of recommendations for furthering the

development of vocal concepts in children. Music textbook

reform, teacher preparation, and research are of special

concern.

Extensions recommended by the study to publishers

include

1. provision in the elementary music series of techni-

cal information and the developmental procedures as related

to the child voice »

2. provision in the elementary music series of strate-

gies specifically designed to tune the child voice;

3. provision in the elementary music series of strate-

gies specifically designed to cultivate the tone quality of

the child voice;

4. the use of a vocal consultant on the staff engaged

to design and compile elementary music series;

5. the placing of songs in the first grade series that

have lower tessitura ranges \

6. the placing of songs in the elementary music series

that provide opportunity for developing and extending the

upper range $

7. the placing of songs in the elementary music series

that are more varied in tonality with stronger emphasis in

the use of minor, pentatonic, atonal, and ethnic scales;

269

8. the placing of songs in the elementary music series

that explore a wider range of key signatures; and

9» the maintenance of continuity in the music series

published by a company through the retention of consultants

and/or authors from one publication to the next

Extensions recommended by the study for teacher pre-

paration include

1. the inclusion of private or class vocal instruction

for all future teachers, music majors or non-majors, who are

preparing to teach young children; and

2. an internship for college students where they can

work with young children in singing activities under the

supervision of a master teacher.

Extensions recommended by the study to researchers

include

1. research that would help determine the singing

tessitura of children at various stages of development;

2. experimental research that would provide more data

regarding the vocal characteristics of the child voice at

various stages of development;

3. research that could provide music educators with

more information on the special problems of the untuned

singer;

4. further research in the content of elementary music

series, such as the following; the procedures related to

the development of rhythmic, melodic, textural, or harmonic

270

concepts; the use of instruments in the classroom, particu-

larly the ways in which instruments have been and are

currently used to assist in conceptual development; the use

of listening activities in the music classroom, especially

the ways in which recordings have been or are currently

presented to children as role models to assist in the sing-

ing process; and the use of physical movement as a response

to music, particularly the ways these responses are expected

to aid children in gaining a better understanding of music

concepts ; and

5. experimental research that would provide infor-

mation on the effect of prolonged periods of singing songs

with high tessituras on the ability to sing in tune.

APPENDICES

271

APPENDIX A

ELEMENTARY MUSIC SERIES USED IN THE STUDY

272

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APPENDIX B

MATERIALS DESIGNED FOR THE CONTENT ANALYSIS

275

RATER'S INSTRUCTIONS

276

RATER'S INSTRUCTIONS

Through the investigation of selected literature, this

study will identify the methodology recommended for the de-

velopment of vocal concepts in elementary aged children

within a defined time period. The research method being

utilized to obtain the data is called content analysis and

consists of the analysis of predetermined words found in the

selected material.

Please analyze the material contained in selected ele-

mentary music series in reference to the predetermined words

found on the Information Sheet. Tabulate the frequency with

which these words are used in the text. For the sake of

clarity, each category is defined:

Characteristics of Tone Quality: terminology used by

music educators to describe characteristics of tone quality

possible with children.

Physical Characteristics: terminology that refers to

range capabilities; variables such as tone coloration; speech/

singing growth patterns, and mutation.

Influences: terminology reflecting the extraneous ele-

ments which are expressed as influential in the vocal devel-

opment of a child.

Theoretical Basis/Opinion: terminology that refers to

the stated rationale that were influential in forming the

277

278

opinions expressed by textbook authors regarding the vocal

characteristics of children.

Vocal Development: terminology that refers to the de-

sired results as stated by music educators for developing

the child voice through the use of printed instructional

material.

Musical Development/Other Areas: terminology that refers

to stated goals in otfher areas of musical development that

are expected to be achieved through singing.

Extramusical Development: terminology that is frequently

used to designate go .ls in other subject areas that are ex-

pected to be furthered through singing activities.

Theoretical Basis: terminology that refers to the stated

rationale that was influential in forming the opinions ex-

pressed by textbook authors regarding the objectives that are

related to singing activities.

The following procedure is to be used:

1. Read the instructions carefully.

2. Study the words found on the Information Sheet until

they are familiar.

3. When ready, begin the analysis of the sample material

and fill in the Information Sheet. Compare the results with

the model tabulation of the material.

4. Begin the analysis of the selected music series:

a. Fill in the information at the top of the Infor-

mation Sheet.

279

b. Begin to read the content material. Keep the

Information Sheet ready for reference and recording.

c. When a predetermined word is found in the text,

refer to the Information Sheet and locate the category in

which it is listed. Words marked with an asterisk (*) may

be found in more than one category. Be sure that the word

is tallied in the appropriate space.

d. Once the category has been established for a

word, then the sub-category or categories should be consulted.

The sub-categories determine the context in which the word

must be used. Research/Education/Psychology can be used in

more than one category. Check the sentence in which the

word appears for evidence of context, e.g. Research in

education has identified a reading readiness stage of devel-

opment which can benefit music educators in determining a

readiness for sight singing activities.

If this procedure does not give conclusive evidence,

then refer to the paragraph. Do not go beyond the paragraph

in which the word is found to determine its context.

e. Tally the presence of the word under the appro-

priate category on the Information Sheet in the proper column

or reject it as failing to meet the prescribed condition that

it must be appropriate to the category.

Statements that are positive in nature, e.g. "The

child should sing using the head register," should be tallied

in the column with a cross (+).

280

Statements that are neutral, e.g. "Use of the chest

voice is undesirable; however, this part of the child voice

can be utilized if the chest tones are not taken into the

upper register," should be tallied in the column with a circle

(o).

Statements that are negative in nature, e.g. "The

child ought never to be allowed to sing with a heavy tone

quality," should be tallied in the column with a minus (-).

f. Continue this procedure for the specified content

material.

g. On the completion of the analysis, total the

tallies made for each category in each column. Place the

scores in the space provided on the Information Sheet.

h. Proceed to the next book.

INFORMATION SHEETS

281

INFORMATION SHEET

Series Title

Book Title

Grade Level

Authors

PUBLICATION: Era Date

LOCATION OF MATERIAL IN BOOK: Preface

Publisher

Appendix

Throughout

Front of Book

Back of Book

Special Section

I. VOCAL CHARACTERISTICS

A. Tone Quality + o -

natural

head tone

clear

light

delicate

flutelike

soft

fine

ethereal

sweet

thin

colorless

chest tone

heavy

dark

thick

hearty

boisterous

harsh

28:

283:

A. Tone Quality continued + o —

[expressive of text]

Miscellaneous

B. Physical Characteristics

5 speak/sing/dev/corr

6 ability/sing/intervals

small

large

ascending

descending

3 range

limited

extensive

4 abil/sing/scale/deriv

major

minor

chromatic

pentatonic

modes

1 expressive instru

2 timbre variations

7 mutation level

grade five

grade six

Miscellaneous

C. Influences

Teacher*

Radio

Television

Movies

Concerts

Parent/Adult

284

C. Influences continued + o —

Recordings

Social Functions

Miscelaneous

D. Theory/Basis/Opinion

Research*

Music Ec.*

Ed/Psy*

Foreign Infl*

Orff*

Kodaly*

Dalcroze*

Miscellaneous

A. CONTENT TOTALS +

o

B. CONTENT TOTALS +

o

Net

C. CONTENT TOTALS +__

o

Net

D. CONTENT TOTALS +

o

Net Net

2rB5

II. SINGING OBJECTIVES

A. Vocal Development + o — -

Tone Production

beautiful

good

free of strain

vocal control

even quality

vocal color

dynamic levels

mood expression

brightly

mysteriously

quietly

crisply

reverently

sturdily

lightly

sad

happy

humorously

[expressive of textl

range development

awareness own voice

match pitch/melody dir

independ/confidence

Miscellaneous (list)

Singing Habits

posture

breathing

diction

mouth space

phrasing

28©

A. Vocal Development continued + o —

Part Sing/Dev

two part

three part

four part

Sight Reading

Miscellaneous (list)

B. Mus/Dev/Other Areas

Music Elements

rhythm

melody

form

texture

[harmon/sense/dev]

[tonality/feeling]

[phrasing]

Cultural/Mus/Aware

Miscellaneous (list)

D. Theory/Basis/Opinion

Research*

Music Ed.*

Ed/Psy*

Foreign Infl*

Orff*

Kodaly*

Dalcroze*

Miscellaneous

A. CONTENT TOTALS +

o

B. CONTENT TOTALS C, +

o

CONTENT TOTALS

+ ____

o

Net Net Net

287

D. CONTENT TOTALS +

o

Net

III. TEACHING STRATE GIE S

A. Devices/Tone Quality + o -

Imagery *

child

teacher*

record/mat

group/children

animals *

wind *

siren*

whistles*

think/hear/sing

tone/mood/song

high*

[sm/things]*

[animals*]

low*

[lg/things]*

misc.

Vocalizes/Neu/Vowel

contrived

song melody

[Tape Voices]

Miscellaneous

288

B. Untuned Sing/Theory + o -

Musical Inexperience

Social Inexperience

Inattention/Pitch

Physical Immatur

Psycholog/Blocks

Confus/Mus/Situa

Physical Abnorm

Miscellaneous

C. Devices/Tuning

Sing

Chant

Imagery */Imitat ive

wind*

siren*

whistles*

high*

[sm/things]*

[animals*]

low*

[lg/things*]

Adjust key to child

Games

play echo

mus/roll call

tone

other (list)

Vocal Restraints

mel. range

intervals*

small*

large*

289

C. Devices/Tuning continued + o -

scales*

pentatonic*

major*

minor*

other (list)

Tonality/Key Feel

Play Inst/Match Pitch

Assoc/Phys/Mvt

with mel/dir

cond/pitch/dir

hand signals

other (list)

Special Seating

gr/w/good sing

gr/w/like sing

in front of room

in back of room

Use Tape Record

Miscellaneous (list)

A. CONTENT TOTALS B. CONTENT TOTALS C. CONTENT TOTALS + + +

o o o

Net Net Net

APPENDIX C

ELEMENTARY MUSIC SERIES USED FOR ESTABLISHING INTRA-RATER

RELIABILITY

290

SERIES USED FOR ESTABLISHING INTRA-RATER RELIABILITY

291

Era Series Title Authors Publishers

1945 - 1954 The American Singer John W. American Beatie and Book Co. others

1955 - 1964 Music for Young Americans

Richard C. Berg and others

American Book Co.

1965 - 1975 flew Dimensions in Music

Robert A. Choate and others

American Book Co.

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STATISTICAL DESIGN FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

323

PARTITION OF SOURCES OF VARIATION

Source df

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R X C X E X G

324

APPENDIX F

KEY SIGNATURES USED IN THE SONG SAMPLE

325

TABLE XXV

KEY SIGNATURES USED IN THE SONG SAMPLE 1945 TO 1954

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G F

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Grade

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18

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326

TABLE XXVI

KEY SIGNATURES USED IN THE SONG SAMPLE 1945 TO 1965

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327

TABLE XXVII

KEY SIGNATURES USED IN THE SONG SAMPLE 1965 TO 1975

Silver Burdett Co. American Book Co. 1 ct W c Grade Grade l—1

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•Eastern scales N=40 songs per series

328

APPENDIX G

NOTE CODING USED FOR COMPUTING RANGE AND TESSITURA

329

NOTE CODING USED FOR COMPUTING RANGE AND TESSITURA

Note Code

G 4 25

F#4 24

F 4 23

E 4 22

D#4 21

D 4 20

C#4 19

C 4 18

B 3 17

A#3 16

A 3 15

G#3 14

G 3 13

F#3 12

F 3 11

E 3 10

D#3 9

D 3 8

C#3 7

C 3 6

B 2 5

A#2 4

A 2 3

G#2 2

G 2 1

3 3 0

APPENDIX- H

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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339

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340

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341

Gould, A. Oren and Edith J. Savage, Teaching Children to Sing, Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1972.

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______ Making Music Your Own, Third Grade, Dallas, Silver Burdett Co., 1964.

___, Making Music Your Own, First Grade Teacher's Edition, Dallas, Silver Burdett Co., 1964.

, Making Music Your Own, Third Grade Teacher1s Edition, Dallas, Silver Burdett Co., 1964.

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, New Music Horizons, Fifth Book, New York, Silver Burdett Co., 1946.

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345

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Articles

Andrews, Frances M., "Issues and Problems in Music Edu-cation," Music Educators Journal, XLIX (September-October, 1962), 39-41; 197-112.

Britton, Allen P., "Music Education: An American Spe-cialty," Music Educators Journal, XLVIII (June-July, 1963), 27-29, 55-56, 58, 60, 63.

Clark, Frances Elliott and others, "Fifty Years of Music Education in America^" Music Educators Journal, XXXVI (April-May, 1950), 23-26.

Crist, Christine, Joe Dunn, and Robert Revicki, "Song as a Measure of Man," Music Educators Journal, LXII (May, 1976), 26-35.

Dorman, Phyllis E., "A Review of Research on Observational Systems in the Analysis of Music Teaching," Council for Research in Music Education Bulletin, XXVII (Winter, 1979), 35-44.

Hattwick, Melvin S., "The Role of Pitch Level and Pitch Range in the Singing of Preschool, First Grade, and Second Grade Children," Child Development, IV (December, 1933), 281-291.

Hood, Marguerite V., "Our Changing School Music Program," Music Educators Journal, XLVIII (February-March, 1962), 49-50; 74-76).

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346

, "A Study of the Development of Children's Ability to Sing," The Journal of Educational Psychology," XXV (October, 1934), 481-503.

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Landis, Beth, "A Look at Textbooks for Education in Music," Music Educators Journal, LXIII (April-May, 1963), 38-84).

McConathy, Osbourne, "Big Ideas form Saint Louis," Music Educators Journal, VI (September, 1919), 5-8.

Monroe, Will S., "Tone Perception and Music Interest of Young Children," The Pedagogical Seminary, X (March, 1903), 142-146.

Neil, Ronald J., "Fifty Years of Music Texts," Educational Music Magazine, VIII (November-December, 1951), 38, 48-50).

Pond, Donald, "The Young Child's Playful World of Sound," Music Educators Journal, LXVI (March, 1980), 39-41.

Ross, William E., "The Importance of Good Technique in Sing-ing," Music Educators Journal, XLVIII (September-October, 1961), 91-92, 94-95.

Sallstrom, Gunvor, "Singing Exercises that Develop and Liberate the Child's Voice," assisted by Jan Sallstrom, The NATS Bulletin, XXIX (February-March, 1973), 22-24).

Simmons, Otis D., "A Conceptual Approach to Singing," The NATS Bulletin, XXVI (October, 1969), 15, 17+.

Smith, Hermen F., "Fifty. Years of Music Education in America," Music Educators Journal, XXXVI (June-July, 1950), 34-37).

Wassum, Sylvesta, "Elementary School Children's Vocal Range," Journal of Research in Music Education, XXVII (Winter, 1979), 214-216.

Weld, Harry P., "The Mechanism of the Voice and Its Hy-giene," The Pedagogical Seminary, XVIII (June, 1910), 143-159.

347

Encyclopedia Articles

Brook, Barry S., "Style and Content Analysis in Music: The Simplified 'Plaine and Easie Code1," The Analysis of Communication Content, edited by George Gerbner and others, New York, John Wiley & Songs, Inc., 1969.

Britton, Allen P., "Music in Early American Public Edu-cation: A Historical Critique," Basic Concepts in Music Education, edited by Nelson B. Henry, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1958.

Unpublished Materials

Adcock, Eva J., "A Comparative Analysis of Vocal Range in the Middle School General Music Curriculum," un-published doctoral dissertation, School of Music, The Florida State University, 1971.

Blair, Genevieve L. "Value Analysis of Verbal Content of Songs in Certain Elementary Music Textbooks," un-published doctoral dissertation, Department of Education, East Texas State University, 1967.

Boardman, Eunice Louise, "An Investigation of the Effects of Pre-School Training of the Development of Vocal Ac-curacy in Young Children," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Education, University of Illinois, 1964

Dominy, Elizabeth E., "Music Textbooks in Elementary Edu-cation: The Appropriateness of Current Textbook Material in Elementary School Music in Relation to the Aims and Purposes of Modern Elementary Education," unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York Univer-sity, 1958.

Downing, Eldon R., "An Analysis of the Objectives and Meth-ods of Principal Nineteenth Century Elementary Vocal Instruction Books," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Fine and Applied Arts, Boston University, 1966.

Froehlich, Hildegard C., "An Investigation of the Relation-ship of Selected Observational Variables to the Teaching of Singing," unpublished doctoral disser-tion, School of Music, The University of Texas at Austin, 1976.

348

Goodwin, Allen W. , "School Music Textbooks Published in Graded Series: An Introductory Historical Review," unpublished research paper, School of Music, North Texas State University, 1976.

Hattwick, Melvin S., "A Genetic Study of Differential Pitch Sensitivity," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Music, Iowa State University, 1934.

Hooper, Maureen Dorothea, "Major Concerns of Music Edu-cation: Content Analysis of the Music Educators Journal, 1957-1967," unpublished doctoral disser-tation, School of Education, The University of Southern California, 1969.

James, Janice L., "The Music of Afro-American Elementary Music Series Books: An Investigation of Changing Textbook Content, 1864 to 1970," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi, 1976.

John, Robert W. , "A History of School Vocal Instruction Books in the United states," unpublished doctoral dis-sertation, School of Music, Indiana University, 1953.

Moore, Marvelene Clarisa, "Multicultural Music Education: An Analysis of Afro-American and Native American Folk Songs in Selected Elementary Music Textbooks of the Periods 1928-1955 and 1965-1975," unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Music, The University of Michi-gan, 1977.

Peabody, Ida Isobel, "Music by Recognized Composers in Ele-mentary School Music Textbooks Published in the United States, 1870 Through 1959," unpublished doctoral dis-sertation, School of Music, Indiana University, 1963.

Petzold, Robert C., "Auditory Perception of Musical Sounds by Children in the First Six Grades," Co-operative Re-search Project No. 1051, Washington, D. C., Office of Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966.

Roberts, Alfred Lesta, "Analysis of Vocabulary and Rhythm Patterns in Songs from Selected Elementary School Books, unpublished doctoral dissertation, College of Education, University of Wyoming, 1963.

Savage, Edith Jones, "The Development of Instruction in Mu-sic Reading in Public Schools of the United States," unpublished doctoral thesis, School of Education, Uni-versity of Missouri, 1960.

3i9

Smith, Robert B., "A Study of the Effect of Large-Group Vocal Training on the Singing Ability of Nursery School Children," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Music, University of Illinois, 1961.

Watson, Paul, "A Computer Program Designed to Determine Range and Intervallic Characteristics of Melody," unpublished research project, Department of Computer Science, East Texas State University, 1981.

Wilson, Dorothy S., "A Study of the Child Voice from Six to Twelve," unpublished doctoral dissertation, De-partment of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Oregon, 1970.