7. air pollution control
TRANSCRIPT
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Air Pollution Control
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1.Mobile sources-line2.Stationary sources-point
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Mobile SourcesCleaner/Alternative Fuels/Handling
• Vaporization of gasoline should be reduced-techniques available• Low sulphur Diesel-India 50 ppm, USA 15 ppm
• Oxygen containing additives reduce air requirement e.g., ethanol, MTBE (Methyl
tertiary butyl ether, 110 octane rating, hazardous).– Methanol: (Less photochemically reactive VOC, but emits HCHO (eye irritant),
difficult to start in winters: Can be overcome by M85 (85% methanol, 15% gasoline)
– Ethanol: GASOHOL (10% ethanol & 90% Gasoline)
– CNG: Low HC, NOx high, inconvenient refueling, leakage hazard.
– LPG: Propane and Butane, NOx high
Two–Way and Three-Way Catalytic Converters
Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen
Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide
Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water
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Emissions in Internal Combustion Engines
Rich Mixture
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Two Way
Catalytic Converter
Two pollutants:COHC
Leaded gasoline spoils converters
A two-way catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:
Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially-burnt fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: 2CxHy + (2x+y/2)O2 → 2xCO2 + yH2O
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Three Way
Catalytic ConverterThree pollutants:COHC&NOx
Leaded gasoline spoils converters
A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks:
Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: 2NOx → xO2 + N2
Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water: 2CxHy + (2x+y/2)O2 → 2xCO2 + yH2O
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Three Way
Catalytic ConverterThree pollutants:COHC&NOx
Leaded gasoline spoils converters
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Catalytic Converters
usePlatinum/Palladium/Rhodiumcatalysts
Research work going on to reduce the costs- new catalysts development
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Stationary SourcesPre-combustion Control
– Switching to less sulphur and nitrogen fuels- R&D for the removal of sulphur
(Diesel:15ppm, Removal from coal etc.)
Combustion Control
– Improving the combustion process- Diesel with nano droplets of water
– New burners to reduce NOx
– Integrated gasification combined cycle - Gasification + gasturbine + steam
turbine route
Post-Combustion Control
– Particulate collection devices
– Flue gas desulphurization/other gases removal
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Control of Particulate Matter
Device Selection Depends on• Particle size• Concentration/loading• Corrosivity• Volumetric flow rate• Required collection efficiency• Cost
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PARTICULATE EMISSION CONTROL BY MECHANICAL SEPARATION
The basic mechanisms of removing particulate matter from gas stream :
1. gravitational settling
2. centrifugal impaction
3. inertial impaction
4. direct interception
5. diffusion
6. electrostatic precipitation
Equipment presently available, which make use of one or more of the above
mechanisms, fall into the following broad categories:
1) Gravitational settling chambers
2) Cyclone separators/multiclones
3) Fabric filters
4) Electrostatic precipitator
5) Wet collectors
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Gravitational Settling ChamberGravitational settling chamber is generally used to remove large, abrasive particles (usually >50 µm) from gas stream. It provides enlarged areas to minimize horizontal velocities and allow time for the vertical velocity to carry the particle to the
bottom. The usual velocity through settling chamber is between 0.5 to 2.5 m/s.
GAS INLET
GAS OUTLET
CHAMBER
DUST HOPPER
Advantage low pressure drop simplicity of design low maintenance costcan be used as pre-cleaner devicedry and continuous disposal of particles
Disadvantage larger space low efficiency larger sized particles separation only
Lvh
Hvt
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Design of Gravitational Settling ChamberIf we assume that Stokes law applies we can derive a formula for calculating the
minimum diameter of a particle collected at 100% theoretical efficiency in a chamber
of length L.
ht vL
vH
Where vt=terminal settling
velocity, m/s a
papt
dgv
18
2
Where, g=gravitational constant, m/s2; ρp=density of particle, kg/m3; ρa=density of
flue gas, kg/m3; dp=diameter of particle, m; µa=viscosity of air, kg/m s; H=height of
settling chamber, m; vh=horizontal flow velocity, m/s; and L=length of settling
chamber, m.
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Solving for dp gives an equation that predicts the largest-size particle that
can be removed with 100% efficiency from a settling chamber of given
dimension.
ap
ha
p gLHvd
18
1. Horizontal trays are used to reduce H2. 10-30 mm spacing3. Cleaning mechanism required for trays
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TRAY ARRANGEMENTS
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Cyclone Separators
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The magnitude of the centrifugal force generated depends on particle mass, velocity and radius
2i
c pv
F MR
MECHANISM
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Advantage Relatively inexpensive
Simple to design and maintain
Requires less floor area
Low to moderate pressure drop No moving parts
Continuous disposal of solid particulates
Disadvantage Low collection efficiency for particles below 5-10 µm size
Requires much head room
Abrasion problem
Sensitive to variable dust loading and flow rates
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Specific types include
a. Large-diameter cyclones
b. Vane-axial centrifugal separator
Small-diameter multi-cyclones
c. Bottom entry cyclone separator
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DESIGN OF CYCLONESShepherd and Lapple (1939,1940)
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Cyclones - A small-diameter vane- axial centrifugal separator (Multiclone)
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Multiclone unit
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gpie
cgpc vN
Bd
29
Where Bc=inlet width, vi=gas inlet velocity and Ne=effective number of turns a gas
makes in traversing the cyclone (5 to 10 in most cases).
Lapple (1951) correlated collection efficiency in terms of the cut size dpc which is the
size of those particle that are collected with 50% efficiency. Particle larger than dpc will
have collection efficiency greater than 50% while the smaller particle will be collected with
lesser efficiency. The cut size is given by:
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2
2
2 e
ccig
DBHvK
P
P g
Where, K=a constant, which averages 13 and ranges from 7.5 to 18.4
= pressure drop, Hc, Bc and De=cyclone dimensions, vi=inlet gas velocity and =gas density
Pressure drop The pressure drop may be estimated according to the following equation,
Pressure drop rangeLow efficiency cyclone = 5-10 cm of H2O Medium efficiency cyclone = 8-10 cm of H2OHigh efficiency cyclones = 10-15 cm of H2O
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SERIES COMBINATION OF CYCLONES
1. Bigger sized2. Smaller sized
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REMOVAL MECHANISM OF PARTICULATES
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FABRIC FILTER/BAGHOUSE
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Why Bag/Baghouse Filter ?
Very high efficiency down to submicron particlesFilter press- chemical process industries
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A baghouse (BH, B/H) or fabric filter (FF) is an air pollution control device that removes particulates out of air or gas released from commercial processes or combustion devices.
Power plants, steel mills, pharmaceutical producers, food manufacturers, chemical producers and other industrial companies often use baghouses to control emission of air pollutants.
Baghouses came into widespread use in the late 1970s after the invention of high-temperature fabrics (for use in the filter media) capable of withstanding temperatures over 180 oC.
Functioning baghouses typically have a particulate collection efficiency of 99.5%+ or better, even when particle size is submicron.
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•Inertial collection - Dust particles strike the fibers placed perpendicular to the gas-flow direction.
•Interception - Particles that do not cross the fluid streamlines come in contact with fibers because of the fiber size.
•Submicrometre particles are diffused, increasing the probability of contact between the particles and collecting surfaces.
•Electrostatic forces - The presence of an electrostatic charge on the particles and the filter can increase dust capture. Charged fabrics are in market for this purpose.
A combination of these mechanisms results in formation of the dust cake on the filter, which eventually increases the resistance to gas flow. The filter must be cleaned then periodically.
MECHANISM OF DUST COLLECTION
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Maximum temperature at bag house
Inlet for continuous duty
Chemical Resistance
Fabric Summary of published data
(0C)
Recommended
maximum (0C)
Acid Alkali
Cotton 70-90 80 poor Fair
Dynel 65-80 80 Good Good
Wool 80-110 105 Good Poor
Nylon 90-140 105 Good Poor
Orlon 90-175 135 Good Fair
Dacron 120-175 135 Excellent Good
Glass 260-370 290 Excellent Excellent
Summary of data on the common filter media used in industrial baghouses
Dynel: A copolymer of acrylonitrile and vinyl chloride (flame resistant). It is an acrylic resin. Dynel was originally produced by Union Carbide Corporation.
Orlon: Acrylic fiber, Du Pont 1941
Dacron: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
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GAS FEEDING ARRANGEMENTS
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DIFFERENT FILTER BAG CLEANING ARRANGEMENTS
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1. Mechanical Shaker Baghouses
2. Reverse Air (R/A) Baghouses
3. Pulse Jet Baghouses
Types of Baghouses
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Mechanical Shaker Baghouse
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Mechanical Shaker Baghouse
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Advantages Disadvantages
Have high collection efficiency for respirable dust Have low air-to-cloth ratio (1.5 to 2 ft/min)
Can use strong woven bags, which can withstand intensified cleaning cycle to reduce residual dust buildup
Cannot be used in high temperatures
Simple to operate Require large amounts of space
Have low pressure drop for equivalent collection efficiencies Need large number of filter bags
Consist of many moving parts and require frequent maintenance
Personnel must enter baghouse to replace bags, creating potential for exposure to toxic dust
Can result in reduced cleaning efficiency if even a slight positive pressure exists outside bags
Mechanical Shaker Baghouses
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Reverse Air Baghouses
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Reverse Air Baghouses
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Have high collection efficiency for respirable dust
Have low air-to-cloth ratio (1 to 2 ft/min)
Are preferred for high temperatures due to gentle cleaning action
Require frequent cleaning because of gentle cleaning action
Have low pressure drop for equivalent collection efficiencies
Have no effective way to remove residual dust buildup
Cleaning air must be filtered
Require personnel to enter baghouse to replace bags which creates potential for toxic dust exposure
Advantages DisadvantagesReverse Air Baghouses
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Pulse Jet (Reversed Jet) Baghouses
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Pulse Jet (Reversed Jet) Baghouses
0.1 s air pulseDigital sequencing
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Have high collection efficiency for respirable dust Require use of dry compressed air
Can have high air-to-cloth ratio (6 to 10 ft/min)
May not be used readily in high temperatures unless special fabrics are used
Have increased efficiency and minimal residual dust buildup due to aggressive cleaning action
Cannot be used if high moisture content or humidity levels are present in the exhaust gases
Can clean continuouslyCan use strong woven bagsHave lower bag wearHave small size and fewer bags because of high air-to-cloth ratioSome designs allow bag changing without entering baghouseHave low pressure drop for equivalent collection efficiencies
Advantages Disadvantages
Pulse Jet (Reversed Jet) Baghouses
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DESIGN OF FABRIC FILTER
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Pressure drop and air-to-cloth ratio are the major design parameters in bag-house design.
Higher pressure drops implies that more energy is required to pull the gas through the system.
Air-to-cloth ratio, also referred to as the face velocity, is the volumetric flow of gas received by a bag-house divided by the total area of the filtering cloth.
The air-to-cloth ratio is typically between 1.5 to 14 ft/min depending on the dust and type of baghouse cloth.
• The air-to-cloth ratio determines the unit size and thus the capital cost of installation.
Higher air-to-cloth ratio mean less fabric, therefore less capital cost. However, higher ratio can lead to high pressure drop thus requiring higher energy. Also, more frequent bag cleanings may be required, thus increasing the downtime.
Pressure drop is limited to 10-20 cm of water depending upon the bag material
Suppliers quote actual values based on experiments/installations
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ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS (ESP)
Fredrick Cottrell – early twentieth century for recovery of process materials.
Presently gas/air cleaning is prime objective.
Mechanism involves a high voltage (30 kV or more) DC field creating corona making the particles charged and subsequent attraction on an electrode and dislodging.
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Electrostatic Precipitator
Electrode 50000-70000 v
DC
Clean air and gases out
Charged particle attracted to earthed
platesCorona discharge
Dust return to process or dumped
Dust laden air and gases in
Movement of dust and air/gas in a ESP
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Advantages DisadvantagesHigh collection efficiency, 99.99%
High initial cost
Low maintenance and operating costs
More space requirement
Handles large volume of high temperature gas, 200-450 oC
Possible explosion hazardPersonnel safety
Negligible treatment time Production of poisonous gas
Easy cleaning Not suitable for combustible particles
Negligible pressure drops Ozone formation may take place
Advantages and Disadvantages of ESP
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REQUIREMENT OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION PROCESS
Source of high voltage (DC)
Discharge and collecting electrodes
A means for disposal of collected material
Cleaning system
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STEPS IN ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION Generation of high voltage 30-100 kV
Generation of electric charges
Transfer of electric charge to a dust particle
Movement of the charge dust particle in an electric field to the collection
electrodes
Adhesion of the charged dust particles to the surface of the collection
electrode
Dislodging of dust layer from collection electrode
Collection of dust layer in a hopper
Removal of the dust from the hopper
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TYPES OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
A. SINGLE STAGE PRECIPITATORS
B. TWO STAGE PRECIPITATORS
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SINGLE STAGE PRECIPITATORS
Plate-Wire Precipitators
In a plate-wire ESP, gas flows between parallel plates of sheet metal and high-
voltage electrodes.
These electrodes are long wires weighted and hanging between the plates or are
supported there by mast-like structures (rigid frames).
Within each flow path, gas flow must pass each wire in sequence as flows through
the unit.
Plate-wire ESPs are used in a wide variety of industrial applications, including
coal-fired boilers, cement kilns, solid waste incinerators, paper mill recovery
boilers, petroleum refining catalytic cracking units, sinter plants, basic oxygen
furnaces, open hearth furnaces, electric arc furnaces, coke oven batteries, and
glass furnaces.
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Schematic of plate-wire electrostatic precipitator
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Plate-Wire electrostatic precipitator
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Tubular Precipitators The original ESPs were tubular like the smokestacks they were placed
on, with the high-voltage electrode running along the axis of the tube.
Tubular precipitators have typical applications in sulfuric acid plants,
coke oven by-product gas cleaning (tar removal) and iron & steel
sinter plants.
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Tubular Electrostatic Precipitator
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Tubular Electrostatic Precipitator
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Close Look at Tubular Electrostatic Precipitator
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TWO-STAGE PRECIPITATORS
The previously described precipitators are all parallel in nature, i.e., the
discharge and collecting electrodes are side by side.
Two-stage precipitators are considered to be separate and distinct types of
devices compared to large, high-gas-volume, single-stage ESPs.
The two-stage precipitator invented by Penney is a series device with the
discharge electrode, or ionizer, preceding the collector electrodes.
Advantages of this configuration include more time for particle charging, less
propensity for back corona, and economical construction for small sizes.
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Two stage electrostatic precipitator
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Wet Precipitators Any of the precipitator configurations discussed above may be operated
with wet walls instead of dry.
Inlet gas is saturated with water
The water flow may be applied intermittently or continuously to wash
the collected particles into a sump for disposal.
The advantage of the wet wall precipitator is that it has no problems with
rapping re-entrainment or with back coronas.
The disadvantage is the increased complexity of the wash and the fact
that the collected slurry must be handled more carefully than a dry
product, adding to the expense of disposal.
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Collection efficiency mathematically expressed as
QAV cpmexp1
=Fractional collection efficiency Ac =Area of the collection electrode Vpm =Particle migration velocity Q =Volumetric flow rate of gas
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MIGRATION VELOCITY
The velocity of charged particle suspended in a gas under the influence of an
electric field is known as migration velocity. The particle migration velocity
is the most important parameter and is function of a large number of
operation quantities such as- Electric field strength, particle size, gas
viscosity, properties of the dust .
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Dust Migration Velocity (m/s)
Zinc Oxide 0.02-0.03
Sulfuric Acid 0.08-0.16
Metal Oxides 0.02-0.03
Calcium Carbonate 0.04-0.05
Smoke Fume pit coal furnace 0.02-0.11
Fly ash from lignite furnace 0.18-0.25
Smelter dust 0.07-0.09
Blast furnace dust 0.05-0.07
Effective migration velocity (m/s) for various type of dusts
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Consumer-oriented electrostatic air cleaners
Particulate matter
Generation of 1. NOX
2. Ozone
First introduced in1954 by Raytheon