7. information and communication technologies (icts) …rocare.org/aedi2010/13- information and...

7. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICTS) AND THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION: CASE OF THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF LESOTHO, ROMA

Monaheng Maximus Sefotho

AbstractWithin a short time, information and communication technologies (ICTs) have

become basic building blocks of modern societies. Schools and universities that use them seem to have a greater reputation than those that do not. Scholars (i.e. Toure, Tchombe, & Karsenti, 2008) argue that appropriate use of ICTs in education deepens the quality of teaching and learning. In Africa, learners are increasingly interested in ICTs. Yet in Lesotho, as in other some countries on the continent, internet connectivity and accessibility and use of ICTs are poor. The National University of Lesotho (NUL) is the only public institution with full internet connectivity. This paper presents the results of a study on perceptions of how ICTs use contributes to the quality of education at NUL. Respondents concurred that access to technology is necessary for all subject areas, including use of word processing and, for research, use of the internet. The majority of respondents expressed frustration regarding the limited accessibility and quality of ICTs, owing to the large student population and meagre resources. They explained how this leads to a frustrating learning environment and negatively impacts the quality of teaching and learning. In general there is an outcry for the improvement of ICTs facilities and services. It is recommended that the National University of Lesotho strive to satisfy the demands for ICT-assisted learning by mobilizing resources and building partnerships. A shift is required, from lecturer-centred to learner-centred learning.

Key words : ICTs, quality, education, resources and partnerships

RésuméEn peu de temps, les technologies de l’information et de la communication (TIC)

sont devenues les composantes de base des sociétés modernes. Les écoles et les universités qui les utilisent semblent avoir une réputation plus grande que ceux qui ne le font pas. Les spécialistes comme (par ex. Toure, Tchombe et Karsenti, 2008) soutiennent que l’utilisation appropriée des TICs dans l’enseignement améliore la qualité d’enseignement et d’apprentissage. En Afrique, les apprenants sont de plus en plus intéressés par les TICs. Au Lesotho, comme dans d’autres quelques pays sur le continent, la connexion Internet et l’accessibilité et l’utilisation des TICs sont faibles. L’Université nationale du Lesotho (NUL) est la seule institution publique avec une connexion d’Internet complète. Ce papier présente les résultats d’une étude sur les perceptions sur comment l’utilisation des TICs contribue à la qualité de l’enseignement à NUL. Les personnes interrogées ont été d’accord sur le fait que l’accès à la technologie est nécessaire pour tous les domaines, y compris

l’utilisation de traitement de texte et, pour la recherche, l’utilisation de l’Internet. La majorité des personnes interrogées a exprimé la frustration quant à l’accessibilité limitée et à la qualité des TICs, du fait du grand nombre d’étudiants et de ressources maigres. Ils ont expliqué comment cela mène à un environnement d’apprentissage irritant et a un effet négatif sur la qualité de l’enseignement et de l’apprentissage. En général il y a des bruits pour l’amélioration d’équipements en TICs et des services. Il est recommandé que l’Université nationale du Lesotho s’efforce de satisfaire les demandes d’apprentissage- assisté en TIC en mobilisant des ressources et en développant les partenariats. Un changement est exigé, de l’enseignement centré autour de l’enseignant à l’enseignement centré autour de l’apprenant.

Mots clés : TIC, qualité, éducation, ressources, partenariat.

Introduction of technology at the National University of Lesotho

The National University of Lesotho (NUL) is nestled in the Roma valley some 35 kilometres from Maseru, the capital city of Lesotho. The origin of the National University of Lesotho dates back to 1945, when a Catholic University College was founded at Roma by the Roman Catholic Hierarchy of Southern Africa. It underwent several changes and bore different names. Today, the National University of Lesotho is a growing institution geared to prepare citizens to meet Lesotho’s development challenges. The 2005 enrolment for full-time students at Roma stood at 5 767.

In general, national internet connectivity and use Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have been poor in Lesotho. The national ICTs policy (Government of Lesotho, 2005) stressed that educational institutions should play a major role in “improving teaching and learning mechanisms that would develop an ICTs literate society capable of producing local ICTs products and services.” The National University of Lesotho is currently the only public institution with full Internet connectivity. The introduction of technology dates back to 1969, when a photocopying machine was introduced, and for mathematics teaching, an Olivetti P101 programmable calculator, which Ambrose, nd) refers to as “the first machine to be installed in Lesotho to which one could apply the term desktop computer.”

Not long afterwards, the University acquired a Hewlett Packard 9830 desktop computer. A companion Hewlett Packard 9845B, ‘Kakapa’, was purchased in 1978, and this remained the mainstay for student records at Roma until a new system was installed in 1994 (Ambrose, nd). In December 1996, NUL was connected via 9.6 kilobytes per second analogue leased line to the University of the Orange Free State in Bloemfontein, South Africa (UniNet). There were still no private internet service providers (ISPs) in

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Information and communication technologies (ICTS) and the quality...

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Lesotho as of early 1999. However, the University Information Strategic Plan 1998-2000 (NUL) existed and refers to the university’s functional areas of teaching and learning and research under the heading ‘academic computing’ and ‘administrative computing’ refers to the application of ICTs in the functional areas of administration and management. The application of ICTs for the function of academic information is under the heading ‘library computing.’ The stated objective of the plan was as follows:

To develop and enhance … the utilisation of information and communication technologies in support of education, research and community services …. Specifically, the university’s management and administration functions will be enhanced to ensure that their internal efficiency and effectiveness are comparable to that of similar universities in southern Africa.

Currently, there are seven common-purpose computer laboratories on campus. It is stipulated in the NUL Information Strategy Plan (1998-2000) that the University will support staff through programmes that offer improvement of their basic ICTs skills as well as the skills required for applying ICTs in their teaching and research. The nature and extent to which ICTs are used in education depends on the synergy between management and teaching professionals. NUL, therefore, has to anticipate new developments, such as ICTs and prepare teachers and other professionals for their future roles.

ICTs and the quality of education Quality in education occurs when students are learning and schools and

universities create values for those they serve and those who serve them. According to Clemet (2003), “quality refers to the idea of disposition, nature and characteristics – in other words, it must tell us about the goodness of something. But we must first know which characteristics to evaluate and in relation to what these characteristics are to be assessed. In other words, quality is a relative and an empty term until it is given content.”

In the EFA Global Monitoring Report (2005) discussions on quality distinguish between “educational outcomes and the processes leading to them,” and go on to say:

People who seek particular, defined outcomes may rate quality in those terms, ranking educational institutions according to the extent to which their graduates meet ‘absolute’ criteria concerning, for example, academic achievement, sporting prowess, musical success, or pupil behaviour and values. The standard of comparison would be in some sense fixed, and separate from the values, wishes and opinions of the learners themselves.

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The quote succinctly brings to the fore outcome-based quality and subjective quality determined by how individuals or groups define quality for themselves. Who should determine quality and what model of quality should be adopted? Quality as related to the ability to utilise resources such as ICTs concerns administrators, those who impart knowledge and those who learn.

Within a relatively short time, information and communication technologies have become building blocks of modern societies. Many countries now regard understanding and mastering ICTs as part of the core of education, alongside reading, writing and numeracy (UNESCO, 2002). Broadly speaking, educators, policy makers and researchers seem to agree on the potential of ICTs to have a significant and positive impact on education. The debate, however, is the role ICTs should play in educational reform and how best to ensure that their potential is fulfilled at all educational levels, including at university level. Institutions need to, as part of shaping this process, define the quality of education within their own contexts.

It is for this reason that research was undertaken at the National University of Lesotho to understand how teachers and learners perceive ICTs use in relation to the quality of education. The objective of the paper is to relate the results of the research process and, based on those results framed in relevant learning theories, make recommendations on the pedagogical integration of ICTs at university level in Africa. The questions that guided the research process follow.

Research questions

1. Are lecturers at NUL using ICT in teaching?2. Do learners at NUL use ICT to assist them in learning?3. Are ICT contributing to the quality of education at NUL?4. Is the ICT infrastructure sufficient to cater for the quality of education

at NUL?

ICTs in teaching and learning

Teaching and learning are best thought of not as separate and independent activities, but rather as two sides of the same coin, interconnected and interrelated (UNESCO). It is generally assumed that lecturers have a deep understanding of the subjects they teach, manage the subject matter well, use appropriate instructional methods, and apply various classroom assessment strategies.

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Teaching experience is invaluable. Whenever possible, it is important that lecturers experience firsthand, as learners, the instructional approaches they in turn will be using with their own students. They may also attend workshops and courses, with classroom follow-up, participate in study groups, visit or watch videotapes of high-performing classes, observe demonstration lessons, or receive classroom coaching. There can be in-house training and mentoring by senior lecturers. Lecturers depend on knowledge and skills to facilitate student success. New knowledge and skills are developed both through research and use of ICTs in teaching. The pedagogical use of ICTs is expected to increase lecturer productivity and mentoring and coaching skills. Use of ICTs can also facilitate improved student assessment.

Training and professional development will need to focus upon these competencies as lecturers’ technical confidence and competence with ICTs grows and as they continue to seek ways to improve their teaching.

Changing mindsets, shifting paradigms

The ability to decide why, when, and where to use ICTs to contribute to teaching objectives, and how to choose from among a range of ICTs tools should form part of teachers’ repertoire. This seems to be the case with younger teachers, but many with more time in the teaching profession show reluctance to use ICTs. There has to be a change in professional development and practice with recognition of the need for learning all life long. Lecturers need support to design lessons to incorporate larger, more complex, problem-solving projects using ICTs tools and resources.

There is need for a paradigm shift in education, with consideration for a constructivist approach to learning. Curricula need to focus less on “things to know” and more on “strategies for learning.” Instead of lecturers teaching from centre stage, students should become more active, proactive, independent and interdependent learners. The teacher should serve as a guide and not the source of information. Students should be encouraged to work on projects, enabling them to follow through more deeply and meaningfully on ideas that arise in the course of their search for knowledge.

It is this shift that will make the use of ICTs meaningful in education. And the pedagogical use of ICTs by teachers and learners will help the shift to happen, in the mind and in practice. This same idea is articulated in UNESCO (2002) documents as follows: “The integration of ICTs … represents the necessary component, condition, and catalyst for the modernization of education, which will permit the move from the reproductive model of teaching and learning to an independent model which promotes initiation and creativity with information.

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ICTs and student learning

The National University of Lesotho’s Information Strategic Plan (1998-2000), recognised the need for ICTs literate graduates. The plan states that “to further increase the relevance of the university programmes to society, the university aims to increase computer awareness and computer skills of NUL graduates, to align them with labour market requirements”. This is in tandem with global developments. Current educational literature widely indicates that there are differences in the way students learn. Learning is an extremely complex process. Learning styles come from three schools of thought: Perceptual Modality, Information Processing, and Personality Patterns (Conner & Hodgins in UNESCO, 2002).

Learners use all three to receive information. However, one or more of these receiving styles is normally dominant. This dominant style defines the best way for a person to learn new information by filtering what is to be learned. This style may not always be the same for all tasks. The learner may prefer one style of learning for one task, and a combination of others for another task (Clark in UNESCO, 2002).

In this study, only one model will be considered: the perceptual model. This model emphasises the Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic (VAK) learning Style which uses the three main sensory receivers - Vision, Auditory, and Kinaesthetic (movement) to determine the dominant learning style.

One of the most powerful uses of technology in education is to tailor instruction to students’ individual learning needs. It is widely recognised in educational literature that there are differences in the way students learn. Understanding students’ personal learning styles helps lecturers make learning more relevant. Learners can be defined by the sensory pathways through which they prefer to receive information: Visual learning, Auditory learning, Kinaesthetic or tactile learning.

In visual learning, Information and Communication Technologies can stimulate visual learning with graphics, animations and simulations. Interactive whiteboards and PowerPoint presentations enable lecturers to present concepts in a visual way. Use of television sets and drawings or photographs helps visual learning for learners who are visual. Many personal computers (PC) and all tablet personal computers can record speech and sound. Thatcher (2005) holds that with an all tablet PC you can, “write, rather than type, in meetings, create a searchable archive of all your handwritten notes; convert notes to text and share them with colleagues. You can work easily with drawings, formulas, or signatures”.

Auditory learning, that is, learning by hearing: Auditory learners prefer to learn through sound and speech. ICTs can also encourage conversation-

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based collaboration, for example, through video conferencing. This is the mode of learning that augments the traditional lecture method whereby educators talk most of the time and learners listen to what they are being taught. Nowadays, computers and Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) projectors can be used to go along with visual learning in order to cater for learners who learn most by hearing things.

Kinaesthetic or tactile learning: Kinaesthetic or tactile learners prefer active forms of learning such as writing, drawing and producing animations, or making models and doing practical experiments. They benefit from using devices that involve touch, like a tablet PC, which enables users to write or draw onto a computer using a pen. This form of learning has promoted the traditional active learning whereby learners read and then transfer what they have read onto a separate paper as a form of crystallising the material learned. It is also helpful in encouraging learners to use such tools as drawing their own mind maps in order to help them learn better (Buzan, 2005). This can be done more effectively by computer as colouring and animations can be added to drawings, depending on the learner’s taste and innovativeness. This type of learning ties very well with the modern constructivist approach to learning.

Students need to develop the ability to think for themselves, continually learn as technologies change, and provide support to one another and their teachers. Besides, young people can be more dexterous with machines and gadgets. Regarding this last element, peer teaching is a natural product of ICTs because often the younger generations bring increasingly high levels of competence into the learning environment.

The learning environment and ICTs

The pivotal aspect of continuing professional development is not only enabling lecturers to understand and use ICTs tools in their teaching practices, but understanding how technology, coupled with new approaches to teaching and learning, may enhance student learning. Many lecturers may recognize that approaches to education are changing and that new technologies have the potential to improve education and learning. Therefore, there is need to help them to revitalize and modernize their teaching with ICTs. Similarly, the risk that senior lecturers must take to develop their practice needs to be recognized and mitigated.

UNESCO promotes access to good-quality education as a human right and supports a rights-based approach to all educational activities (Pigozzi in UNESCO, 2005). Within this approach, learning is perceived to be affected at two levels. First, at the level of the learner, education needs to seek out and acknowledge learners’ prior knowledge, to recognize

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formal and informal modes, to practise non-discrimination and to provide a safe and supportive learning environment. Second, at the level of the learning system, a support structure is needed to implement policies, enact legislation, and distribute resources and measure learning outcomes, so as to have the best possible impact on learning for all. There should be adequate and up to standard ICTs resources for learning to take place.

Establishing New Learning Environments

Adopted from: Information and Communication Technologies in Teacher Education: A Planning Guide (2002) UNESCO.

There is a dichotomy of learning environments, that is, the traditional learning environments and the new learning environments. The diagram above clearly demarcates the two environments. Generally, there is a move towards the new learning environments in which learning is more student-centred, active, and exploratory. Students’ texts and presentations can be more innovative and attention-capturing as they may include animations that communicate a lot more than mere words do. Thus, the use of multimedia in ICTs-supported learning is much more didactic than in the traditional environments. The National University of Lesotho has been following mainly the old tradition.

There are also tele-computing projects which are Internet-enriched learning activities that often involve students in one location collaborating with students or professionals in one or more other locations around the world. Tele-computing tools include e-mail, electronic mailing lists, electronic bulletin boards, discussion groups, web browsers, real-time chatting, and

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audio- and video-conferencing (Harris 2001). These things are unknown to many learners and lecturers at the National University of Lesotho.

Even though computers are available on campus, there can be significant practical difficulties in using them and gaining access to Internet. The issue of accessibility is a big problem at the National University of Lesotho. Students far outnumber the current provision for them to use computers and other ICTs equipment. Access should be adequate and commensurate throughout the educational experience of students in the process of becoming teachers and future professionals. However, this could be an ideal situation at the National University of Lesotho. The University should strife to satisfy the demands for ICTs assisted learning. Creative partnerships are often required to make this happen.

Additionally, there need to be access to technology appropriate to the subject areas being studied, such as word processing programmes and Internet access. The technology should be accessible immediately when it is the best route to the information or tools needed by lecturers and students, especially in this age when books become obsolete after a short period. In addition to ICTs access in their coursework, lecturers must have technology access in their teaching environments and in their classrooms in the induction year and beyond (Jager & Lokman, 1999).

With the Internet, students can have access to libraries that are many times more extensive than libraries in their schools or communities, and can take advantage of information that is up-to-date, not found in their textbooks, and perhaps unfamiliar to their lecturer. Interactions through e-mail have been shown to be motivating factors for students to improve their reading and writing skills. It is therefore very important for learning environments, especially at NUL to be ICTs-driven and encouraging to young developing minds.

MethodologyThe research design and methodology employed in the present research

effort adheres to “The Scientific Method”. The method used is a qualitative, descriptive type. The research followed a methodological triangulation which involves using more than one method and may consist of within-method or between-method strategies (Herbert & Shepherd 2001). This is reiterated by Sampieri, Callado & Lucio (2003), who contend that triangulation, is complementary because it transcends methods and mixes, in one single study, different facets of the phenomenon of the study.

The sample of the study was made of clusters of informants. The first stratum consisted of all lecturers who could be reached by e-mail -- about 151 of them -- using the internal directory containing their addresses. The second cluster was made up of students taking the Educational Psychology and Counselling course in the Department of Educational Foundation of the

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Faculty of Education. This is a very heterogeneous group made of students from many faculties of the University. It may not be all representative, but the majority of the students are represented from across faculties at the second, third and fourth year of study. A sample of about thirty students was selected through purposive sampling from a population of four hundred and they were given a questionnaire to fill. The last cluster consisted of key players in the provision of ICTs at NUL. Interviews were conducted with the heads of sections such as the Computer Service Unit, the library and the Institute of Education, respectively.

Data collection and analysisData was collected by interviewing key players in ICTs at NUL from

different sections of the University. Two sets of questionnaires were used to collect data. One was sent electronically to all the teaching staff (about 151 persons) through the information office at NUL. A sample of 10 lecturers responded. The other was printed and given to Educational Foundation students to fill. A sample of 30 students was purposefully chosen. The group is made up of students from several faculties taking a course in educational psychology, and the students are from second year to fourth year. Data was also collected by taking photographs around the campus to give a picture of ICTs laboratories on campus.

The method used in this case study was a qualitative, descriptive type, since descriptive case studies are concerned with a detailed description of the phenomenon within its contexts, (Willig, 2008). As a small case study, the interest was to answer the four research questions posed at the beginning. Data was computed and analysed to calculate percentages. NUL Information strategic plan (1998-2000) was analysed and some photographs taken were analysed. Questionnaires from both students and lecturers were analysed. The following tables show the type and usage of the ICTs.Table 1: To what extent are lecturers at NUL using ICTs in teaching (n=10)

Type of ICTs Number using How it is being usedInternet 5 Sending documents

WORD 8 Preparing materials

PowerPoint 4 TeachingStatistical to-ols (Excel, SPSS, Stats)

6 Data processing

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Table 2: Learners Use of ICTs to assist learning (n=30)

Use of applications (word pro-cessing, spreadsheets, etc.) 21

In classroom learning of spe-cific subjects

E-mailing for telecollabora-tion/online collaborative pro-jects,

9Exchanging assignments and lessons, commenting on pa-pers used in school

Use of Internet resources 11To prepare homework, re-search, lessons, for collabora-tive school projects

Table 3: Contribution of ICTs to quality of learning (n=10)

Vignette 1

‘ICTs would certainly contribute to a better quality in teaching, but I think unfortunately, we don’t have enough infrastructure and we still need better facilities in order to actually use ICTs in teaching’.

Vignette 2

‘There are very few computers available at NUL for the stu-dents and students learn to use a computer only to pass and not to acquire knowledge. Students are not forced to type their assignments and so do not see the need of acquiring computer skills. There are no training programmes for teachers and no emphasis on the use of ICTs’.

Vignette 3

‘One would expect that there would be tremendous improve-ment on performance of both staff and students with introduc-tion of ICT but that is not the case. Some staff do not utilize this facility due to lack of time and basic training, students also complain that there is no time and also that resources (space & computers) are insufficient, therefore, access is impossible’.

Table 4: Sufficiency of ICTs infrastructure at NULUniversity (own office) 10 Internet, ComputingAt home 4 Internet, planningComputer laboratories 4 DemonstrationsAcademic Development Centre 1 Internet, demonstrations

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Discussions and Conclusions

ICTs are a new teaching and learning phenomenon at NUL. The study revealed that there are problems relating to inadequacy of ICTs structures used by a significant number of lecturers and learners. ICTs do not seem to be utilised satisfactorily at NUL. The study found that opinions vary as to the contribution of ICTs to the quality of education at NUL. There is a general outcry for the improvement of ICTs facilities and services.

A significant number of negative reactions were voiced with regard to the question of quality education at NUL. (see table 3). The majority of the subjects decried the poor quality of education. The reactions can be summed up in one statement: NUL is a frustrating environment with minimal support for teaching and learning. As a result, it is not possible to attract and maintain high-quality learners and researchers. This situation adversely impacts the quality teaching.’ There are those, however, who think there is quality education at NUL and that ICTs contribute to the quality of education despite inadequacies. This can be measured by the competitiveness and good performance of NUL graduates who enrol in other universities.

It seems that most learners (67 percent) at NUL learn best visually. This implies that the use of visual ICTs could encourage learning. A smaller portion of the respondents (23 percent) learn by listening. This highlights the danger in overusing the traditional lecture method, which in the new constructivist paradigm could be improved by use of sound technologies. There is an even smaller percentage (10), consisting of those who learn by doing. The findings of the study therefore strongly suggest that as far as students` learning is concerned, ICTs can play a major role in promoting and facilitating all modes of learning.

The results show that the majority (87 percent) of lecturers never use ICTs to make presentations or even teach. However, a larger percentage of the lecturers have received on-the-job training. This could suggest that non-use may be due to non-availability or lack of support as has been observed previously, or lack of interest.

Recommendations

The results of this study are should be used with caution, as the sample was not representative enough. However, they can be used to some extent. Based on the findings, it is recommended that NUL review its policy on ICTs. Meanwhile, the University should take steps to improve the curriculum in favour of a more learner-centred constructivist approach. The Computer Service Unit at NUL should be assessed to address issues

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of staff retention and improvements on the server so as to accommodate teachers who would like to maintain websites to display information relevant to learning on the web.

On-the-job training on the use of ICTs in teaching should be provided on a regular basis to lecturers. NUL should develop its own definition of quality.

References

Ambrose, D. (nd). Historical Note of the National University of Lesotho. Unpublished paper.

Buzan, T. (2005). Mind Map: The Ultimate Thinking Tool. London, United Kingdom: Thorsons.

Clark, D. (2000). A Trainer’s Toolbox of Templates, Outlines and Briefings. Retrieved,1-11-2005, from. http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/styles.html:

Clemet, K. (2003, October). Mantra or Meaning: Quality in Education and Research. Lecture in connection with the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation’s celebration of the P2-channel’s tenth anniversary.

Conner, M.L. & Hodgins, W. (2000). Learning Styles. Retrieved March 14, 2006, from www.learnativity.com/learningstyles.html.

Government of Lesotho. (2005). ICT Policy for Lesotho. Ministry of Communications, Science and Technology. Retrieved February 7, 2009 from

www.lesotho.gov.ls/documents/Lesotho_ICT_Policy_Final.pdf

Hawkins, R.J. (2002). Ten Lessons for ICT and Education in the Developing World. World Bank Institute. http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/itg/libpubs/gitrr2002_ch04.pdf

Jager, A.K., & Lokman, A.H. (1999, September 22-25). Impacts of ICT in Education: The Role of the Lecturer and Lecturer Training. Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research in Lahti, Finland.

Sampieri, H.R., Callado, C.F., & Lucio, P.B. (2003). Metodología de la Investigación. Mexico: McGraw Hill.

NUL [National University of Lesotho]. (1998). Information Strategic Plan 1998-2000.

Toure, K., Tchombé, T.M.S., & Karsenti, T. (2008). ICT and Changing Mindsets in Education / Repenser l’éducation à l’aide des TIC. Bamenda, Cameroon: Laanga; Bamako, Mali: ERNWACA / ROCARE. www.rocare.org/ChangingMindsets

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UNESCO. (2002). Information and Communication Technologies in Education: A Curriculum for Schools and Programme of Teacher Development. Retrieved on October 31, 2005 from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001295/129538e.pdf

UNESCO. (2005). EFA Global Monitoring Report. Retrieved on October 12 and November 31, 2005 f rom ht tp: / /unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001373/137333e.pdf

Willig, C. (2008). Introducing Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2nd edn. Open University Press.

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