Wirkus H

Cells: DNA StructureTextbook Sections: 10.1-10.3, 10.16, 12.1, 12.10-12.12

Big Ideas:

○ The information passed from parents to offspring is coded in DNA molecules, long chains linking just four kinds of smaller molecules, whose precise sequence encodes genetic information.

DNA Exam Standards - What I Need to Know1. Be able to describe the discoveries of Griffith & Avery, Hershey & Chase, Franklin & Wilkins,

Watson & Crick. 2. All living organisms contain DNA as their genetic information.3. The information passed from parents to offspring is coded in DNA molecules.4. DNA molecules contain instructions for the production of proteins. 5. DNA contains the atoms H, O, N, C, and P.6. The structure of a nucleotide structure is a sugar, phosphate, and a base.7. Draw and label the 3 parts of a nucleotide, state which elements are found in each part, and

identify which of the 3 parts differs in each type of nucleotide.8. Name the 5-carbon sugar found in DNA. 9. DNA information is coded in the sequence of A, T, C, and G nucleotides.10. DNA molecules are long chains of A, T, C, and G nucleotides.11. A DNA molecule is made of two polynucleotide strands joined by hydrogen bonds and

twisted into a double-helix. 12. Nucleotide structure includes a sugar, phosphate, and base. 13. Classify the nucleotides as purines or pyrimidines. 14. A pairs with T and G pairs with C. 15. There are 3 hydrogen bonds between G and C and two hydrogen bonds between A and T.16. Explain the importance of the hydrogen bonds between base pairs. 17. Explain why A must pair with T and G must pair with C. 18. Draw and describe the structure of a DNA molecule, including antiparallel orientation of the

two strands. Label the 3’ and 5’ end of each strand. 19. If the given percentage of one nucleotide in a DNA molecule, be able to determine the

percentage of the other three nucleotides.o i.e. “A DNA molecule is 27% C bases, what is the percentage of A, T, and G?”

20. Closely related species have similar DNA sequences. 21. The degree of relatedness between organisms or species can be estimated from the

similarity of their DNA sequences, which often closely match their classification based on anatomical similarities.

Gel Electrophoresis Exam Standards - What I Need to Know1. Gel electrophoresis is used to separate and isolate fragments of DNA. 2. Explain the process of gel electrophoresis. 3. A “DNA fingerprint” is a pattern of bands created on a gel.4. DNA molecules have a negative charge. 5. It is used in forensics, biotechnology, diagnosing genetic disease, paternity testing, and

determining relatedness between species.6. Be able to analyze the results of gel electrophoresis to determine who committed a crime, if

someone has a genetic disease, etc. 7. Be able to list the four uses of gel electrophoresis. 8. Gel electrophoresis includes:

Unit 2: Cells

Wirkus Ho Digestion of DNA by restriction endonucleaseso Running fragments of DNA through a gel, where negatively charged DNA is attracted

to positive electrode.o Fragments separating by size, shortest fragments traveling farthest.

9. Describe the role of restriction endonucleases in preparing a DNA sample for gel electrophoresis.

DNA ReplicationTextbook Sections: 10.4-10.15, 11.6-11.7

Big Ideas:

○ Every cell must have its own set of genetic information and DNA must be replicated (copied).

DNA Replication Exam Standards - What I Need to Know1. The genome of a cell is all of the DNA information in that cell.2. Every cell must have its own set of DNA information.3. DNA is replicated (copied) in the nucleus before a cell divides.4. A daughter DNA double helix has the same sequence of bases as the parent DNA double

helix had originally because the parent strand serves as a template.5. Semiconservative replication is when each daughter DNA double helix contains an old strand

from the parental DNA double helix and a new strand. 6. Explain why the complementary base-pairing of the two DNA strands (A-T, C-G) makes it

easy to replicate. 7. Define semi-conservative replication and template strand.8. Describe the process of DNA replication/synthesis, including the roles of helicase and DNA

polymerase enzymes, the replication fork, and the 5’->3’ direction of synthesis. 9. Explain why the antiparallel nature of DNA requires the production of Okazaki fragments.

o Describe the difference between the leading and lagging strands, and the role of DNA ligase during DNA replication.

10. Describe replication bubbles, and explain why they are necessary.

Protein SynthesisBig Ideas:

○ DNA “controls” what happens in the cell by coding for proteins (most of which are enzymes), which control the cell’s activity (metabolism)

○ The amino acid sequence determines the protein structure and function.

Protein Synthesis Exam Standards - What I Need to Know1. DNA “controls” what happens in the cell by coding for proteins (most of which are enzymes),

which control the cell’s activity (metabolism). 2. DNA molecules are contained in the nucleus, and cannot leave the nucleus.3. A gene is a set of DNA which codes for a particular protein – there are thousands of genes on

each chromosome.4. The genetic information encoded in DNA molecules provides the instructions for assembling

protein molecules. 5. Describe the overall process of protein synthesis, including the molecules and steps

involved, and where they occur.6. The central dogma of molecular biology outlines the flow of information from transcription of

RNA in the nucleus to translation of proteins on ribosomes in the cytoplasm. 7. State the “central dogma” of molecular biology.8. Base-pairing rules are used to explain the precise copying of DNA during transcription of

information from DNA to mRNA. 9. Ribosomes synthesize proteins, using tRNAs to translate genetic information in the mRNA. 10. Compare the structures of DNA and RNA.11. List the functions of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.

Transcription Exam Standards - What I Need to Know

Unit 2: Cells

Wirkus H1. Genes are a set of instructions encoded in the DNA sequence of each organism that specify

the sequence of amino acids in proteins characteristic of that organism.2. DNA must be transcribed into RNA, which carries the genetic message from inside the

nucleus through the cytoplasm to the ribosome. 3. A group of 3 bases on a DNA strand is called a triplet and a group of 3 bases on an mRNA is

called a codon. 4. Explain the purpose of mRNA.5. RNA Polymerase (an enzyme) and energy from ATP are needed to catalyze transcription.6. Label a polynucleotide with the 5’ and 3’ ends, and know that nucleotides are always added

to the 3’ end of a polynucleotide.7. Draw and describe the process of transcription, including:

The promoter region and transcription factors RNA Polymerase and ATP Initiation, elongation, termination Template strand of DNA 5’ -> 3’ pre-mRNA

8. Determine the sequence of mRNA transcribed from a particular sequence of DNA.

RNA Processing Exam Standards - What I Need to Know1. Most of the eukaryotic genome is “noncoding”, functioning in the regulation of gene

expression or having unknown functions.2. Describe the process of RNA processing, including:

o The addition of the 5’ G cap and Poly-A tail.o RNA Splicing (Intron, Exon)o Spliceosomes

3. Explain the purpose of the cap and tail.4. Explain how Alternative RNA Splicing can allow a single gene to code for multiple

polypeptides.

The Genetic Code Exam Standards - What I Need to Know1. The coding table is universal to all organisms.2. The three-nucleotide sequences in DNA are called triplets, and in RNA they are called

codons.3. Start and stop codons are used to start and stop translation.4. Using the coding table, translate a DNA or RNA sequence into a sequence of amino acids.5. Explain why the genetic code is “redundant”.

Translation Exam Standards - What I Need to Know1. The mRNA is translated into a protein by the ribosome.2. tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome.3. tRNA is used to translate an mRNA codon into an amino acid. 4. tRNA has an anticodon sequence which matches the codon on mRNA. 5. Using the coding table, mRNA sequence can be translated into a sequence of amino acids. 6. The sequence of amino acids in a protein can be predicted from the sequence of codons in

the mRNA, by applying the universal genetic coding rules. 7. The ribosome has enzymes which catalyze the formation of bonds between amino acids. 8. Differentiate between the ribosome bonding sites E, P, and A. 9. Enzymes in the ribosome and energy from ATP are needed to catalyze the formation of

peptide bonds between amino acids during translation.10. Describe the structure and function of tRNA, including the anticodon and amino acid

attachment site.11. Draw and describe the process of translation, including:

o mRNA and tRNAo Ribosome binding siteso Anticodono Initiation, elongation, terminationo ATP

Unit 2: Cells

Wirkus H

MutationsBig Ideas:

○ Mutations are the ultimate source of genetic diversity.

Mutations Exam Standards - What I Need to Know1. Mutations occur during DNA replication. 2. A mutation can change just one or a few nucleotides, or many nucleotides (as much as a chromosome)3. Point Mutations include: base deletions, base insertions, and base substitutions. 4. Be able to recognize different point mutations in a sequence of DNA. 5. Be able to classify a mutation as a point mutation or a chromosomal mutation.6. Be able to explain why base deletions and insertions are called “frameshift” mutations. 7. Be able to differentiate between chromosomal deletions, duplications, insertions, and substitutions. 8. Inserting, deleting, or substituting segments of DNA molecules can alter genes. 9. Mutated genes are passed on to every cell that develops from it.10. The resulting features may help, harm, or have little to no effect (silent mutation) on the

offspring’s success in its environment. 11. Explain how the processes of genetic mutation and natural selection are related to the

evolution of species.12. New mutations are constantly occurring in a population.13. Mutations can lead to a different amino acid sequence, changing the shape of the protein

and its function. 14. Be able to determine the sequence of amino acids for a protein before and after a mutation. 15. Explain why a mutation can change or destroy a protein’s structure and function.16. Explain why some mutations can have no effect on a protein’s structure and function. 17. Mutations can occur “naturally”, or can be caused by mutagens. 18. Mutations occur randomly and cells/organisms cannot purposely mutate with a goal in mind. 19. Genetic mutations can lead to genetic disorders that are passed from parents to offspring. 20. In sexually reproducing organisms, a mutation must occur in the sex cells in order to be

passed on to the organism’s offspring. 21. Gene mutation in a cell can result in uncontrolled division called cancer. Exposure of cells to

certain chemicals and radiation increases mutations and thus the chance of cancer.o Radiation includes sunlight (UV), x-rays, radon, and nuclear radiation

Root Words to Know: A- = without, not, lacking Anti- = against, opposite of -gen = production of Poly- = much, many Semi- = half -some = body

Unit 2: Cells