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Spices of the World

An Overview

Spices Drove Exploration

Major voyages of exploration in search of spicesPepper and Clove

High demand in EuropeVery valuable commodityFind and control source

Spices Important in World Trade75% of World Trade

PepperCapsicumsCinnamonGingerTurmeric

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Percent of World Trade forImportant Spices

2%Vanilla4%Cardamon6%Ginger8%Turmeric14%Tree spices15%Seed spices22%Capsicum33%Pepper

Weiss. 2002. Spice Crops. CABI Publishing

Tropical Spices imported in theUSA

14,0007,200

1,200

19,500

54,0003,200

USA imports

India (91,000 to Japan)Ginger

IndiaCumin

Indonesia, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Tanzania

Clove

Madagascar, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Seychelles

Cinnamon

India, Morocco, Sri Lanka, Tanzania

Chilli

Guatemala, IndiaCardamon

Producing countriesSpice

Tropical Spices imported (tonnes) in the USA

1,900

2,300

42,500

1,500

200

USA imports

MadagascarVanilla

IndiaTumeric

Brazil, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Sri Lanka

Pepper

Indonesia, Grenada, Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia

Nutmeg

Indonesia, Grenada, Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia

Mace

Producing countriesSpice(Weiss, 2002)

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FAO Production Statistics(FAOSTAT, 2000-2004)

3%3%49%45%6.5Vanilla

<1%28%70%1%74Nutmeg

<1%17%79%3%344Pepper

<1%<1%98%1%121Cinnamon

<1%<1%74%26%118Clove

OceaniaLatinAmerica

AsiaAfricaWorld

% of World Production1,000s MT

Origin of Spices

Vanilla CinnamonPepper

CloveNutmeg

Fleshy herbaecousvine, hot, moistclimate

MexicoVanilla

Evergreen trees, tropical lowland, dioecious

Papua New GuineaMoluccas (Indonesia)

Nutmeg

Tropical woodyvines, wet tropics

Hills of western IndiaPepper

Tree of the wettropics

Sri Lanka, India, SE AsiaCinnamon

Evergreen tree, tropical maritimeclimate

Moluccas (Indonesia)Clove

HabitatOriginSpice

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Clove - Syzygium aromaticum

Evergreen treeUp to 15 mGlossy green leavesFragrant red flowersPurple fruit

HarvestInflorescence

Buds at full size but before they openLeaves

Leaf oil

Clove Branch

Clove Branch and Flower

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AdaptationLower montane forests

Partial shadeBelow 300 m

Precipiation: 2,000 to 3,600 mmDry season needed for best production

Flower bud initiationHigh humidity at flowering reduce yields3 month dry season (60-80 mm) for better quality

Early Trade and Use

Chinese, 200-206 BCFrom Philippines

India, 2nd century AD Egypt, 1st century AD

Regular imports by 2nd century4th century, traded around the Mediterranean

13th centuryMajor source for Europe was VeniceVia Alexandria supplied by Arab sailors

Origin of Clove

CloveArabs

1512 Portuguese

1600s Dutch

Mid 1700s French

1796 British

China 220 BC

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Trade

Arabs – traded with EuropePortuguese – 1512 found MoluccasDutch – early 1600sFrench –

Mauritius, Ile de France, Reunion Island, SeychellesIntroduced to Zanzibar in 1818

BritishOccupation of Moluccas (1796-1802)Penang and other British colonies

020,00040,00060,00080,000

100,000120,000

1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 1995

Clove Production 1950 to 1997 (Weiss, 2002, p 12)

Zanzibar Indonesia Madagascar

Recent Production History of Clove

Propagation

Traditional from seedSeed orchards from selected treesNursery production – 12 months Transplant to field

1-2 seedling per space8-9 m for clove production1 m in row to create hedge for leaf harvest

New plantations needWindbreaksShade

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Harvest

ProductionBegins to bear 4-5 yearsFull production at 20 yearsBear for 100 years

Varies tremendously from year to yearAverage 4-5 kg/tree (0-50 kg/tree)Climatic conditionsShoot and flower initiationFruit set

Harvest

Clove clustersBuds full sizeCalyx base pink flushDo not ripen uniformly5-8 hand harvests per tree25-55 kg of wet cloves per day

Commercial leaf oil production

Hedge row plantingOnly in MadagascarYield 2-3 mt leaves/haPicked every 2-3 weeks

Harvest from clove orchardsCut foliage off and strip off leaves

Top to encourage branchingLower clove yields

Collect fallen leaves every 2-3 weeks

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Processing

ClovesBuds separated from peduncles and pedicelsDried

LeavesOil extracted via steam destillation

Uses

ClovesDomestic cooking – whole cloves

Pies, stews, soups, ham, porkIndustrial food processing – powder

Baked goods, proceesed meats, picklesCigarettes

Indonesian Kretek cigarettes up to 8%

Uses – Oil Main component is Eugenol

SourcesBud, stem, leafBud is highest quality

UsesSeasonings and processed food (bud only)PerfumerySome in pharmaceutical and dental products

Antimicrobial, antioxidant, andinsecticidal activity

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Pepper

Piperaceae

Pipernigrum

PepperPerennial glabrous woody climber

Piperaceae

Piper speciesnigrumnigrum, Black/white pepper

Most importantcubebacubeba, Cubeb pepperlongumlongum, Long pepper

Peperomia and 10 other genera

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Origin of Pepper

Pepper

Native to Wet Tropical Forests

Commercial Production20º of the equator

Temperature25-35 CMinimum 15-18 C

Rain, well distributed and humid2,000 to 3,000If dry season, while berries maturing

Cloudy, partial but not heavy shadeSoil, well drained and slightly acid to neutral

Propagation

Stem cuttings, 4-5 months in the nursery

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Planting and pruning

Planted with a support (3m x 3m)Living or dead, 4-9 m in heightTie 3 climbing vines to support

PruningRepeated head back to cause branchingEvery 10 nodes prune back7-8 prunings to top of supportMaximize # of fruiting branches

Harvest

First harvest18-20 months after plantingFlower to harvest, 4-10 months

Harvest over 3-4 monthsWhite pepper, 1-3 berries ripeBlack pepper, berries still greenHarvest every 2-3 weeks

Yields

Well managed orchard in Sarawak1st picking, 8,000 to 9,000 kg/ha6th – 10th picking, 18,000 kg/ha

Small farmers – primary producersIndia: 900 - 1,000 kg/haSri Lanka: 1,350 - 2,500 kg/haBrazil: 600 – 4,000 kg/ha

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Processing - Two Products

Black pepperMature but greenSpikes, hours to begin fermentationStripped off, dried to 12% moisture

White pepper (less pungent, mellow)Ripe and red Berries stripped, in bags in running waterSoftened pericarp is removed, washedBuff colored berries dried

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