ATTITUDES AND ATTITUDES AND VALUESVALUES

NATURE OF ATTITUDES

Attitudes are understood as beliefs ,feelings and action. Tendencies of an individual or a group of individuals towards objects, ideas and people . Implications for manners are :

Attitudes are learned Refer to feelings and beliefs of individuals or

groups Feelings and beliefs define ones predispositions

towards a given aspects.

May endure unless environmental May endure unless environmental factors influence, like day shift.factors influence, like day shift.

Can fall anywhere in a continuum from Can fall anywhere in a continuum from favorable to unfavorable favorable to unfavorable

Are organized and are core of an Are organized and are core of an individualindividual

All people hold attitudes.All people hold attitudes. Attitudes may involve prejudice ie pre Attitudes may involve prejudice ie pre

judge without unbiased consideration.judge without unbiased consideration.

DEFINITIONS OF ATTITUDESDEFINITIONS OF ATTITUDES An attitude is a mental state of readiness, An attitude is a mental state of readiness,

learning and organizes through learning and organizes through experience, exerting a specific influence experience, exerting a specific influence on persons, response to people, object, on persons, response to people, object, situations with which it is related.situations with which it is related.

Attitudes are learned predispositions Attitudes are learned predispositions towards aspects of our environment. May towards aspects of our environment. May be positively or negatively directed be positively or negatively directed towards certain people, service or towards certain people, service or institution.institution.

By attitudes we mean beliefs, By attitudes we mean beliefs, feelings and action, tendencies of an feelings and action, tendencies of an individual or group of individuals individual or group of individuals towards objects, ideas and people. towards objects, ideas and people. Quiet often these become associated Quiet often these become associated in the minds of individuals and as a in the minds of individuals and as a result of attitudes become multi result of attitudes become multi dimensional and complex.dimensional and complex.

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDECOMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE

Affective Affective Cognitive Cognitive

Attitude Attitude

Behavior Behavior

ATTITUDES COMPRISE OFATTITUDES COMPRISE OF THREE ELEMENTSTHREE ELEMENTS

AFFECTIVE COMPONENTAFFECTIVE COMPONENT– – Feelings, Feelings, sentiments,sentiments, moods and emotions about moods and emotions about some idea, person, event or objectsome idea, person, event or object

COGNITIVE ELEMENTCOGNITIVE ELEMENT – Beliefs, opinions, – Beliefs, opinions, knowledge or information held by the knowledge or information held by the individualindividual

BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENTBEHAVIOURAL COMPONENT – Predisposition to get – Predisposition to get on a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of on a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of something.something.

An attitude reflects the interplay of the three An attitude reflects the interplay of the three elements with respect to a person, group, event or elements with respect to a person, group, event or issue.issue.

THREE COMPONENTS OF THREE COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDEATTITUDE

ABC MODELABC MODEL (work environment) (work environment)

Intended behavior

Beliefs and values

Feelings and emotions

Managerial styleTechnology NoisePeersReward systemsCareer opportunity

stimuli

(Work related factors)

cognitionSupervisor unfair

Having fair supervisor important to me

I don’t like my supervisor

I am going to request a transfer

Affect

Behavior

Significance of the model is that to Significance of the model is that to thoroughly understand an attitude one thoroughly understand an attitude one must assess all three components. E.g.must assess all three components. E.g.

Evaluate employees attitude towards Evaluate employees attitude towards flextimeflextime

• How employee feels (emotions affect)How employee feels (emotions affect)• Use of flex time (behavior)Use of flex time (behavior)• What they think about policy (cognitive)What they think about policy (cognitive)• Unfortunately most techniques measure attitude Unfortunately most techniques measure attitude

cognitive componentscognitive components

FORMATION OF FORMATION OF ATTITUDEATTITUDE

• Individuals acquire attitudes from several Individuals acquire attitudes from several sources. Point to note is that they are acquired sources. Point to note is that they are acquired not inherited. Important sources are discussed not inherited. Important sources are discussed below.below.

• Direct experience with objectDirect experience with object Develop from a personally rewarding or punishing Develop from a personally rewarding or punishing

experience.experience. Employees form attitudes on their job based on Employees form attitudes on their job based on

previous experience e. g if an employee has been previous experience e. g if an employee has been promoted within 6 months current job holders will also promoted within 6 months current job holders will also exceptexcept

Such attitudes based onSuch attitudes based on experience difficult to changeexperience difficult to change

Classical Conditioning Basic process underlying attitude formations is classical conditioning People develop associations between various objects & emotional reactions

that accompany them e. g person working in a butchery develops revulsion , another fondness

Positive impact of classical conditioning is the perfume of your favorite star Advertisers use this principle of classical conditioning of attitudes by linking

product they want to promote with a positive feeling e. g use of attractive models to advertise product as uninteresting as a toothpaste

Idea to create classical conditioning response so that seeing the brand positive reaction is invoked

Operant conditioning

Attitudes that are reinforced verbally or non verbally tend to be retained conversely an attitude that evokes ridicule may modify or abandon them

Vicarious learning Relates to formation of attitudes by observing behaviors of others &

consequences . It is through this that children pick up prejudices from parents e. g never met a

blind person but due to parents believe they are incompetent We also learn attitudes vicariously through TV , films etc e.g. movies that

glorify violence create a positive attitude towards aggression

Family & Peer Groups

If your parents have a positive attitude towards an object & you admire your parents you also will develop the same attitude w/o exposure to the object

Similarly attitudes are accepted /rejected from peer groups in school or colleges

• Almost all areas where attitudes are capable Almost all areas where attitudes are capable of expression are the result of our accepting of expression are the result of our accepting or rejecting the attitudes held by members or rejecting the attitudes held by members of our family. similarly from peer groups.of our family. similarly from peer groups.Economic status and occupationEconomic status and occupation

• Determine our attitudeDetermine our attitude towards unions andtowards unions and management.management.

• Economic backgrounds reflect present and future Economic backgrounds reflect present and future attitude.attitude.

Mass communicationMass communication• Electronic, news and other media shapes Electronic, news and other media shapes

our attitude.our attitude.Functions of attitudeFunctions of attitude

AttitudeEgo defensiveAdjustment

knowledge Value expression

Functions of Attitudes Adjustment Ego Defensive Knowledge Value Expression Adjustment Attitudes help to adjust to work environment . When employees are

treated well likely to develop positive attitude towards management These attitude help employees to adjust to there environment & are

the basis of their future behavior If treated well say good things of the management & vise versa Ego Defensive Function

• Attitude of old employees to new Attitude of old employees to new entrants who threaten their entrants who threaten their image unless changed will affect image unless changed will affect work relations aroused by work relations aroused by internal or external threats.internal or external threats.

• Such attitude difficult to change Such attitude difficult to change because of misdirected nature of because of misdirected nature of impulses attached to them i.e. impulses attached to them i.e. taking out work frustrations at taking out work frustrations at home .home .

Expressive functionsExpressive functionsContains three main aspects-

•Help express individuals central values and self identity. Consumers express their value in products they buy, shops patronized.

•Defines self concept and facilities adoption of sub culture values considered important. E.g. behaving/ dressing to foster status in a group.

•Adopt and internalize the values of a group they have recently joined as a consequence relate better.

Knowledge functionKnowledge function• Need to maintain a stable, Need to maintain a stable,

organized and meaningful organized and meaningful structure to avoid chaos.structure to avoid chaos.

• Attitudes provide the standards or Attitudes provide the standards or frame of references by which an frame of references by which an individual judges objectives or individual judges objectives or events.events.

• Attitudes that provide consistency Attitudes that provide consistency in our thinking are particularly in our thinking are particularly relevant. relevant.

• If existing are inadequate in If existing are inadequate in resolving an issue, acquisition of resolving an issue, acquisition of new knowledge could bring about new knowledge could bring about a changed attitude.a changed attitude.

Why do managers need to know about Why do managers need to know about attitude functionsattitude functions

• Helps to understand and predict behavior e.g. Helps to understand and predict behavior e.g. prejudice and it has developed.prejudice and it has developed.

• Helps change attitude of another by changing Helps change attitude of another by changing the conditions leading to the attitude.the conditions leading to the attitude.

Changing attitudesChanging attitudes• Employee attitude particularly when Employee attitude particularly when

unfavorable needs to be changed. best in the unfavorable needs to be changed. best in the interest of the organization .interest of the organization .

• Changing is difficult task as attitudes endure. Changing is difficult task as attitudes endure. This is reinforced by three factors:This is reinforced by three factors:

Escalation of commitmentEscalation of commitment• Prior commitment to cause and unwillingness to change.Prior commitment to cause and unwillingness to change.

Cognitive dissonanceCognitive dissonance• State of inconsistency between individuals attitude and behavior.State of inconsistency between individuals attitude and behavior.

• Discomfort experienced by people feeling cognitive dissonance leads to Discomfort experienced by people feeling cognitive dissonance leads to efforts to reduce tension by changing attitude or behavior or rationalizing efforts to reduce tension by changing attitude or behavior or rationalizing dissonance . The last option preferreddissonance . The last option preferred..

Insufficient informationInsufficient information• Sometimes individual feels no need to change.Sometimes individual feels no need to change.

• Boss may not like subordinates attitude who however is quit happy about it.Boss may not like subordinates attitude who however is quit happy about it.

• Unless the ill effects of such an attitude is reinforced there will be no Unless the ill effects of such an attitude is reinforced there will be no change.change.

Ways of changingWays of changing

Changing attitude of selfChanging attitude of self

Changing employees Changing employees attitudesattitudes

• Providing new infoProviding new info

• use of fearuse of fear

• Influence of friends or peersInfluence of friends or peers

• Get in to Get in to continuous continuous education education

• Build positive self Build positive self esteemesteem

• Stay away from Stay away from negative influencenegative influence

• Give feed back Give feed back • Accentuate Accentuate

positive positive conditionsconditions

• Positive rolePositive role modelmodel

• Forced contact co-Forced contact co-opting strategyopting strategy

• Not making stand Not making stand publicpublic

Changing attitude of selfChanging attitude of self• Keep an open mindKeep an open mind

• Understand negative Understand negative attitude has no benefit.attitude has no benefit.

Be aware of ones attitude

Think of self

Ways of changing Self Be Aware of ones Attitude---- people who are optimistic have higher

optimism , need to maintain high level positive attitude continuously Think for self ---- develop own attitudes from others inputs Realize few in any benefits from harboring negative attitudes Keep an open mind --- Get into continuous education programme Build a positive self esteem Stay away from negative influence

Changing attitudes of employees Give feedback ----convey negative inputs , consequences offer

alternatives Accentuate positive conditions ---- employees tend to develop

positive attitudes on thi8ngs they do well . Create positive environ Positive role model --- manager must have positive attitude

Providing new info ---- help to change attitudes , negatives attitudes are generally due to lack of info /insufficient info . Workers become pro union due to lack of info of management intention

Use of fear ---- can change attitude, change depends on degree of fear . If low level of fear arousal used people ignore them . Moderate level used become aware & change attitude whilst high level is rejected as it is too threatening thus not convincing , become stubborn

Influence of friends or peers – persuasion of friends /peers. Credibility of others especially peers imp to affect change . High credibility more influence

Co –opting approach --- another way of changing attitudes . Means taking people dissatisfied with a situation & getting them involved to improve things

Others – research has established that privately held attitudes are more likely to be

changed than public ally held attitudes . Necessary to avoid making things public if change is desired

Indl from deprived environ who holds an attitude may change if educated or privileged sub culture change an attitude due to an experience

Work related attitude---Work related attitude---

Job satisfactionJob satisfaction• Job satisfaction refers to the general attitude of Job satisfaction refers to the general attitude of employees towards their job. When positive leads to employees towards their job. When positive leads to

satisfaction and dissatisfaction when negative.satisfaction and dissatisfaction when negative.• Collection of attitudes about specific factors of the Collection of attitudes about specific factors of the

job . Employees can be satisfied with some elements job . Employees can be satisfied with some elements of the job while simultaneously Dis satisfied with of the job while simultaneously Dis satisfied with others .e. g a lecturer can be unhappy with others .e. g a lecturer can be unhappy with management but happy with handling a course on management but happy with handling a course on OB OB

• Imp for management as it impacts turnover , Imp for management as it impacts turnover , absenteeism & productivity absenteeism & productivity 1.1. ..

Two factor theory (Hertzberg)Two factor theory (Hertzberg)Factors contributing to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction different.Factors contributing to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction different.Dis satisfaction Dis satisfaction associated with conditions surrounding the job e. g working conditions , associated with conditions surrounding the job e. g working conditions ,

pay , quality of supervision , interpersonal relations ) rather than work pay , quality of supervision , interpersonal relations ) rather than work itself itself

Since these factors prevent negative reactions they were called Since these factors prevent negative reactions they were called maintenance or hygiene factors maintenance or hygiene factors

SatisfactionSatisfaction associated with work itself or outcomes directly derived from it like associated with work itself or outcomes directly derived from it like

nature of job , achievements , advancement , recognition .nature of job , achievements , advancement , recognition . These associated with high level of satisfaction Hertzberg called them These associated with high level of satisfaction Hertzberg called them

motivators conditions (hygiene factor or maintenance ).motivators conditions (hygiene factor or maintenance ).In practice both categories of elements affect job satisfaction or In practice both categories of elements affect job satisfaction or

dissatisfaction e.g.. Working conditions can be maintenance factor dissatisfaction e.g.. Working conditions can be maintenance factor for some & motivator for others for some & motivator for others

Theory useful in emphasizing imp of factors such as recognition , Theory useful in emphasizing imp of factors such as recognition , advancement , & responsibility advancement , & responsibility

Locke's value theoryLocke's value theory• Theory posits that job satisfaction is the relationship

between job outcomes realized to those desired • Satisfaction high when outcomes received are

highly valued.• Locke approach focuses on any outcomes that

people value regardless whether they are low order needs.

• Key to satisfaction is the discrepancy between those aspects of job of the job one has and those one wants. Greater the discrepancy greater the dissatisfaction.

• Stresses those aspects of job that need to be attended for job satisfaction to result

• May not be the same for all people • Obtain satisfaction may be derived from many

sources.

MODEL OF JOB SATISFACTIONMODEL OF JOB SATISFACTION

Model shows causes and consequences of job satisfaction.

Causes of job satisfaction comprise organizational ,group and individual needs.

Between causes and consequences there are two variables viz outcomes valued /expected and outcomes received.

Org factors

Group factors

Indl factors

Outcomes expected /valued

Outcomes received

Job satisfaction

Dis-satisfaction

Low turnover

Low absenteeism

High turnover

High absenteeism

Causes of job satisfactionOrganizational factors

Wages• Money important. Also reflects managements concern/ attitude.

• System fair and transparent. Not absolute amount but perfection of fairness.

Promotions• Affects job satisfaction. Reflects on the performance/ worth.

• Motivates towards better performance.

Nature of work• Intellectual challenge. Utilization of skills and abilities.

• Too challenging leads to failure and frustration.

Organizational policies and procedures• Policies include comprehensive standing orders. Effecting promotions ( sr

/merit )transfer , retrenchment etc

• Includes career, increment, training and other aspects.

Work conditions-- compatible with employees physical comforts that facilitates to good job & satisfaction

Assumption that that working conditions & satisfaction are interrelated contradicts two factor theory as working conditions are part of maintenance factors which if provided remove Dis-satisfaction opposite of this is no dis satisfaction not satisfaction

Working conditions constitute only minor source of satisfaction as gen taken for granted like train travel –thus employees not overtly influenced by this

Unfav work environ

Favorable environ

Satisfaction

Dissatisfaction

Group Factors

1 Size

Longer the size less the satisfaction opportunities for participation & social interaction decreases thus ability of members Identify with the groups performance

More members means more dissensions , conflicts & group's within groups

2 Supervision

perceived quality of supervision another determinant of job satisfaction

High when belief supervision competent , have best interests & treat subordinates with dignity & respect

communication another aspect of supervision satisfaction high when able to communicate easily with supervisor

3

Individual factors

Personality types• Self esteem and stress resistant.

• Stronger in above traits greater the satisfaction.

Status• Plays an important role in achieving satisfaction.

• Higher status, increase responsibility, esteem.

Job congruent with interest• Right job as per qualification.

• I.e. MBA as a teacher would not be satisfied.

Job satisfaction in relation to general satisfaction• Satisfied with life in general.

• Happy family life spills over to job/ work place.

Productivity• Relationship between job satisfaction and productivity is not clearly

established. Long run satisfaction leads to productivity.

• Other hand performance also leads to high job satisfaction.

Lawler- Porter model of performance and satisfaction

Performance

Perceived equity of rewards

Satisfaction

Extrinsic rewards

Intrinsic rewards

Consequences of job Satisfaction

Employee who performs well gets intrinsic and extrinsic rewards lead to satisfaction. Poor performance less rewarded thus less satisfaction.

Some conditions higher productivity leads more clearly to job satisfaction.

Perceives intrinsic and intrinsic rewards contingent upon performance.

Extrinsic rewards ( incentive) paid equably to establish co-relation between hard work and rewards.

Job satisfaction and turnover• High turnover considerable concern disrupts operations, lowers

morale, increases replacement costs including training.

• Job satisfaction has positive co-relation with turnover. Employees with low satisfaction level most likely to quit.

• Certain factors like loyalty and alternatives modifies withdrawal behavior.

• Despite all factors including satisfaction individual leaves for better prospects.

Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism• Correlation a Reality dissatisfaction leads to absenteeism

• Moderated by importance of job and impact of absence

• High satisfaction may not reduce absenteeism but low satisfaction impacts

Miscellaneous Factors• Poor Safety lends to low satisfaction

• Stress in job disturbs equilibrium affects mental and physical health.

• Unions also responsible for low absenteeism.

Measuring Job Satisfaction• Survey to find out feelings of employees job and work environment

Benefits

Management made aware of positive/negative areas and groups

Improves communication flow tool for upward communication

Improves attitudes, a tool for emotional release, management welfare source .

Indirect feed back on low productivity by findings of survey concerning morale, quality and satisfaction.

Source for initiating rewards and improvements. Also training needs.

Survey useful if following conditions met.• Management interested in findings.

• Objectives for survey clear

• Management interested in follow-up action .

Ways of Measuring Job SatisfactionRating Scale• Tailor made for particular setting

• Standardized for group/ individual norms to ensure reliability and validity

• Job descriptive index is one such scale for measuring also for pay ,promotion, supervision.

Critical Incident Scale • Developed by Herzberg .To measure motivation

• Employees asked to describe aspects of job leading to satisfaction/dissatisfaction.

Likert Scale• Indicate agreement or disagreement with job factors.

• Value given to response to various statements in a questionnaire. Over all score indicative of satisfaction level.

• Responses to questions are strongly disagree, disagree, tend to disagree, neither agree/ disagree, tend to agree, agree, strongly agree.

• Employees identification and involvement with organization

• Three kinds of commitment

Affective- Beliefs in goals and values, effort and loyalty.

Continuous- Remain due to lack of alternatives.

Normative- Remain due to feeling of obligation.

Organizational Commitment

Building CommitmentJob Characteristics • Responsibility and job enrichment

• Advancement and increment

Positive and equitable work experience• Feels organization fulfilling obligations

• Suffers due to inequitable perks and reward not commensurate with work

Measuring Job SatisfactionExisting Information• Daily meetings, Available data, Behavioral indicators, Absenteeism, Turnover,

Accidents.

Satisfaction and managerial implication• Causes and consequences can help managers to diagnose and solve problems.

• Managers should be clear about

Dissatisfaction due to perceived low pay and monotonous work

Influenced by feeling of inequality

Individual satisfaction/dissatisfaction more important than overall

Implication on absenteeism, turnover, productivity.

Managers role vital for cause and effect analysis and remedial measures.

Note- Interchange 33 and 34

Permanence in employment relationship Environment to nurture feeling of reward for efforts

Develop ties

Stress advantage of seniority and experience

VALUES• Represents stable long lasting beliefs of what is important right or wrong.

• Differ from attitudes which are directed towards special objects, events or people. Values general beliefs.

• Values influence attitude as relate to social or cultural standards. Attitudes are personal experiences.

Two types of values• Terminal- Desired end state worth trying for.

• Instrumental- Desirable modes of behavior to reach desired objectives of terminal values.

• Values can also be categorized as

Theoretical- Critical / Rational approach

Economic- Utility and practicality

Aesthetic- Grace and Harmony

Political- Power ,Position, Status

Religious- High ideals and meaning of life

Merging Organization and Personal Values• Own beliefs clash with organizations beliefs called intended values • To be successful intended values should be congruent with adopted values and

become operative values.

• This become frame work for reference in decision making and relationships .

• Organization prospers when operative values are strong.

Attitudes Values And OB• Attitudes influence behavior not absolute i.e.. Direct link does not exist.

Behavioral Intention Model

BEHAVIOR

Attitudes, Values And OB• Intention to behave establishes relationship between attitudes and values more

definite.

• Norms are proper ways of behavior of groups or society excepted as appropriate. Exert social pressure to behave in certain ways.

• If attitudes and norms are proper individuals behavior will be strong. If contradictory relative strength determines intention of behavior.

• Incase of attitudes, beliefs concern the relationships between behavior and its consequences-(outcomes).

• Beliefs about norms reflect individuals perceptions of how other persons expect him to act.

• Model also explains another aspect of behavior. Real or perceived situational or internal obstacles influence behavior in a certain manner, example person intends to perform task effectively but lacks competency.

Influences on Attitudes• Perception – Outcomes derived from past experiences influence the way

we perceive stimuli.

• Job Satisfaction – Managers job to provide satisfaction to employees. High / Low satisfaction creates positive or negative attitude. Refers also to level of satisfaction.

• Job Involvement – Degree to which an individual identifies with his job. Perceives his performance important to his self worth. Attitude is an important variable in developing job involvement.

• Organizational Commitment – Job involvement is identification with job, commitment means involvement with organization. Results in stable work force.

Importance Of Values In OB• Lays the foundation for understanding attitudes and motivation as well as

influencing perceptions.

• Individual enters an organization with pre conceive notion based on his values. These cloud objectivity rationality.

• Values generally influence attitude and behavior. If not aligned with the organization values leads to disillusionment and affects performance e.g. reward seniority not merit.

• Challenge and reestablishment of work value constitute cornerstone of current management revolution- thus important.

• Values differ across cultures, implies no theories and principles are universally applicable.

Summary• Attitude is an important variable in individual behavior.

• Attitudes are formed by direct experience with the object- classical conditioning, vicarious learning , operant conditioning etc.

• Positive/Negative attitudes affect productivity, quality, stress etc.

• Serves important function such as adjustment, ego defense, value expressive and knowledge.

• Attitude of individual and groups difficult to change due to three barriers- escalation of commitment, cognitive dissonance and insufficient information.

• Job satisfaction is one type of attitude responsible for several benefits and consequences. Organizational commitment is another work related attitude concerns identification and involvement.

• Values represent stable beliefs about what is important. Individual values need to be merge with organizational values to avoid conflict.

• Attitude an important concept in OB influences perception, satisfaction and commitment.

• Values influence attitudes, perception and motivation.