8/28/20151 sermons from science -- mar 2015 科学布道 -- 2015 年 3 月 sermons from science is...

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Sermons From Science -- Mar 2015科学布道 -- 2015 年 3月Sermons from Science is now published in both YouTube

under the name “Pastor Chui” and also in PowerPoint slides and corresponding videos in the website http://ChristCenterGospel.org.

The contents of this presentation were taken from different sources and in the Internet.

May God have all the glory.

Pastor Chui

http://ChristCenterGospel.org

[email protected]

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 Dr. Danny Faulkner published an article on the

above subject in the Answers In Genesis website on February 12, 2015. Dr. Faulkner retired from the position of a Distinguished Full Professor of Physics from the University of South Carolina at Chapel Hill a few years ago. He now devotes his time to disseminate technical subjects to laymen in Answers In Genesis. I now quote his article in the following pages.

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Abstract “Many Christians today embrace the big bang theory

as an avenue for evangelism. They reason that a big bang origin of the universe naturally leads one to conclude that there must be a Creator, thus opening the door for sharing the gospel. However, there is a growing belief that a quantum fluctuation gave rise to the universe apart from God. This belief is based upon several speculative and probably incorrect ideas concerning physics, but it appears to be the direction that big bang cosmogony is headed. If big bang evangelism ever was effective, its window is rapidly closing.

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “The Reason for Belief in an Eternal Universe “Christians who believe the big bang model frequently

argue that if the universe had an origin, then there must be a transcendent Creator. Indeed, the implication of a Creator was the main reason why so many cosmologists and astronomers opposed the big bang model for many years in the middle of the 20th century. Many scientists chose to believe in an eternal universe rather than the big bang origin primarily because an eternal universe avoids the need of a Creator. However, the 1965 discovery of the cosmic microwave background convinced most scientists that the big bang was the correct origin model of the universe. Consequently, the big bang model has been the dominant cosmogony for nearly a half century, so today few people are aware of that early opposition.

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Even though the big bang model now enjoys wide

acceptance, the need for a Creator has not gone away. To counter this problem, cosmologists and physicists have devised arguments that supposedly show how the big bang could have happened apart from a Creator. Over the years, those who criticize recent creationists have chastised us for not publishing our work on creation in what they consider legitimate scientific journals. The critics claim that when creationists write popular-level books, creationists are attempting to circumvent the scientific process.

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Interestingly, very little of the supposed

mechanisms of how the universe came into existence spontaneously is published in scientific journals either. Instead, atheist scientists write their thoughts on this subject in popular-level books. A recent example of this is Lawrence Krauss’ 2012 book, A Universe from Nothing. In this book, Krauss draws upon topics that have been published in scientific journals to make some conclusions about the origin of the universe apart from a Creator, but those conclusions were made in the book, not in the scientific literature.

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Enter Quantum Fluctuations “The question arises whether any articles have been

written in the traditional scientific journals on the spontaneous appearance of the universe. One possibility is Tryon (1973). Tryon published in Nature, a prestigious science journal, but his brief article reads more like a letter or opinion piece, so it is doubtful that it went through any sort of rigorous peer review. Apparently, Tryon was the first to suggest that the universe began in a quantum fluctuation. Perhaps a better example would be the more recent, detailed paper on the supposed quantum fluctuation origin of the universe by Stenger (1989).

04/21/23 9

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “What is a quantum fluctuation? In classical physics,

we know that energy is conserved, that is, that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Our understanding of the conservation of energy comes from countless experiments of localized parts of the universe, but, presumably, the law of conservation of energy applies to the universe as a whole. Therefore, it would seem that the sudden appearance of energy, as required by the big bang model, would violate the conservation of energy. However, many physicists think that the Heisenberg uncertainty principle (HUP) offers a way around this problem. The HUP is an aspect of quantum mechanics, the physics of small systems, such as atoms and sub-atomic particles.

04/21/23 10

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “The HUP places a limit on how well we can know information

about a small particle. One formulation of the HUP relates our uncertainty in knowing a particle’s energy to the uncertainty in the measurement of time that the particle occupies the measured energy . Let ΔE represent the uncertainty in the amount of energy and ∆t represent the uncertainty in the time. Then the product ΔE∆t is approximately equal to ħ, where ħ = h/2π, and h is Planck’s constant. Planck’s constant has the value 6.626 x 10-34 Joule-second. Notice that Planck’s constant has the appropriate units of energy and time. Planck’s constant is very small, so the uncertainties are vanishingly small on a macroscopic scale. That is why the HUP is not observable in the macroscopic world. However, on the scale of subatomic particles, the uncertainties can be large compared to the quantities involved, so the consequences of the HUP can be significant on the microscopic scale.

04/21/23 11

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “But Does This Mechanism Work? “There are certain experimental results that

demonstrate the HUP, so the HUP is a well-accepted phenomenon in quantum mechanics. However, a problem arises when physicists attempt to expand the meaning and application of the HUP to violations of the conservation of energy. This expansion is the teaching that violations of energy conservation are allowed as long as they do not last very long. That is, if ΔE is the violation of the conservation of energy over some time ∆t, then such violations are permitted as long as the product ΔE∆t is less than ħ.

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “To support this interpretation, physicists often refer to

certain experiments where they infer that pairs of virtual particles pop into existence before popping back out of existence. Albert Einstein showed with his famous E = mc2 equation that matter and energy are equivalent things. Hence, the appearance of particles would violate the law of conservation of energy, unless the pairs of particles exist for a very short period of time. While this is a common interpretation of the HUP, it is controversial. For instance, Bunge (1970) has called virtual particles fictitious and argued that quantum field theory can explain these experiments without appeal to virtual particles. Or consider the comments of David Griffiths, a physicist with two well-respected textbooks in relevant fields. In one text he wrote this:

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “’It is often said that the uncertainty principle

means energy is not strictly conserved in quantum mechanics—that you’re allowed to “borrow” energy, as long as you “pay it back” in a time; the greater the violation, the briefer the period over which it can occur. Now, there are many legitimate readings of the energy-time uncertainty principle, but this is not one of them. Nowhere does quantum mechanics license violation of energy conservation, and certainly no such authorization entered into the derivation of Equation 3.74.’(Griffiths 2005)

04/21/23 14

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “And in another text he wrote the following: “’In special relativity, the energy E,

momentum, p, and mass m of a free particle are related by the equation E2-p2c2 =m2c4. But for a virtual particle E2 – p2c2 can take on any value. Many authors interpret this to mean that virtual processes violate conservation of energy (see Problem 1.2). Personally, I consider this misleading, at best. Energy is always conserved.’ (Griffiths, 2008)

04/21/23 15

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Negative Energy “Dismissing these objections, many physicists and

cosmologists want to apply this approach to the entire universe. They ask, “What if the sum of the energy in the universe is zero?” They conclude that if the energy of the universe is exactly equal to zero, then the universe could have popped into existence without violating the conservation of energy and could continue to exist for billions of years. In his essay, Tryon (1973) famously quipped that “our universe is simply one of those things which happen from time to time.” This is the ultimate evolutionary theory, because the universe itself is just a sort of accident; there was no cause, and so there is no need of God.

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Besides relying upon a very questionable

application of the HUP, this approach also requires that the total energy of the universe is zero. There is a tremendous amount of energy in the universe. Much energy is in the form of light or other electromagnetic radiation. Quantum mechanically, we think of radiation consisting of particles called photons. Each photon has energy E = h, where is the frequency of the photon. Since both h and are positive, all energy of electromagnetic radiation is positive.

04/21/23 17

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Matter in the universe has an equivalent energy

given by the famous Einstein equation E = mc2, where m is mass and c is the speed of light. Since c is a large number that is squared, matter in the universe has considerable energy (this is why nuclear power is so efficient). Since m and c are positive numbers, the total energy of matter in the universe is positive as well. Together, the mass and radiation energy of the universe is considerably positive, so for the universe to be the result of a quantum fluctuation, there must be a tremendous amount of negative energy to counterbalance the positive energy.

04/21/23 18

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Where might this negative energy be? In physics, the

only negative energies are those encountered with potential energies. Indeed, Tryon used gravitational potential energy in the general form –GmM/R to estimate the total gravitational potential energy of the universe. Using values then current (circa 1973), Tryon found that gravitational potential energy and the energy of matter were roughly equivalent, from which he concluded that the universe had zero energy. However, potential energies are zero only if we choose an appropriate reference point to make them so (the mathematics is simpler this way).

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “In classical physics, the choice of reference point is

arbitrary, and if we choose a different reference point, all potential energies could be positive. Hence, in an absolute sense, one cannot so easily make the energy of the universe zero. However, some physicists have argued that in non-classical physics this is possible (Berman 2009) or have put forth theories of how certain fields may be present in the universe that may require negative potential energies. Indeed, the entire motivation for this sort of approach appears to be the bias against the possibility of a Creator rather than some formal requirement based upon observation of the universe or known laws of physics.

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “THESE MUSINGS DEMONSTRATE THE FUTILITY OF

MAN’S THINKING APART FROM GOD. “Setting this difficulty aside for now, the manner in which

a quantum fluctuation could operate is not totally agreed upon. One possibility is to argue that the universe appeared truly out of nothing in a manner consistent with itself. In a world without quantum fluctuations, the sudden appearance of energy would violate a basic property of the universe, the conservation of energy, so a universe governed by classical physics without the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle cannot spontaneously appear out of nothing. However, a universe governed by quantum mechanics allows for quantum fluctuations, so the universe could have arisen in this manner.

04/21/23 21

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Another possibility is to argue that the big bang was

preceded by . . . well, nothing. But does nothing truly exist? Quantum mechanically, a vacuum totally devoid of matter isn’t so empty. As previously mentioned, this whole line of reasoning relies upon a particular interpretation of the HUP. This same interpretation requires that virtual particles spontaneously pop into and out of existence. Those virtual particles amount to a form of energy. If this vacuum that preceded the big bang had more energy than the current universe, then, since physical systems naturally go from higher to lower energy, the big bang inevitably followed that earlier, higher energy state.

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “However, Tryon (1973) hinted at the current thinking on

the subject when he suggested that the universe appeared, not out of nothing, but in “. . . the vacuum of some larger space in which our Universe is imbedded.” Now many astronomers and cosmologists think that our universe is just one universe in a vast multiverse consisting of myriads of other universes. In this view, our universe was spawned by a hypothetical process called inflation. This process is supposedly spawning even more universes even now in a supposedly never-ending process. The multiverse is the totality of all these past and future universes. This amounts to a return to the eternal universe, albeit on a much grander scale. As previously mentioned, an eternal universe has no place for God.

04/21/23 23

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Conclusion “Notice that these things are discussed in popular-

level books, not in the scientific literature, so apparently evolutionists are not held to the same standard that creationists are. This sort of reasoning may seem silly or even bizarre to most people, but such ideas have gained tremendous traction among physicists in recent years. At first, these were just wild ideas that physicists informally discussed, followed by more formal discussions in colloquia, followed by brief mentions in popular-level books. The statements in books eventually were expanded to the point that they became the main focus of books.

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Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “For instance, nearly 30 years before Krauss

published his book, James Trefil (1983, pp. 203–208) briefly discussed such ideas in his book, The Moment of Creation. Halfway between, Before the Beginning: Our Universe and Others, a book by Marin Rees (1997), took a decidedly less tentative approach. While Krauss’ recent book appears more definite, most readers may not notice his frequent use of qualifying terms, such as “could,” “might,” and “may.” In the near future we can expect physicists, astronomers, and cosmologists to take a much more forceful attitude in insisting that it is as indisputable as gravity that a quantum fluctuation gave rise to the universe.

04/21/23 25

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “There are at least three serious logical problems with

this entire line of reasoning: “1. Quantum mechanics implicitly assumes the

existence of time and space, so how can the laws of quantum mechanics create time and space?

“2. The only way that we know quantum mechanics is (at least approximately) correct is because we can do experiments and make observations to verify its predictions. Even if we accepted at face value the claim that QM allows particles to “pop” into and out of existence, who has ever observed a universe popping into existence?

04/21/23 26

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “3. Point #2 is one of the big logical problems with the

claim that the laws of physics can explain the creation of the universe. These laws have only been observed to be applicable within our universe. We thus have zero justification for believing that they would apply “outside” the universe.

“Of course, these musings demonstrate the futility of man’s thinking apart from God. As the Apostle Paul warned in his epistle to the Romans (1:21–22, KJV),

“Because that, when they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools. . . .

04/21/23 27

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Unfortunately, many Christians embrace the big bang as

evidence of the God of the Bible, and thus they have wedded the big bang model to their apologetics. Often their motivation is to bring people to salvation, reasoning that the big bang model shows that there must be a Creator, and so people will want to investigate who God is. However, people who take this approach fail to grasp the significance of these new developments within the big bang model. Lost souls who follow the latest pronouncements of scientists about the big bang are inclined to take those scientists’ opinions about there being no need for a Creator as well. While the motivation for evangelism of those Christians who accept the big bang is commendable, their approach is doomed to failure as the big bang model continues to assume a more atheistic bent.

04/21/23 28

Quantum Fluctuations May Kill Big Bang Evangelism 量子涨落会杀害大爆炸福音 “Answers in Genesis stands for the authority of Scripture, so we

start with the Bible when interpreting science rather than starting with the pronouncements of fallible scientists to interpret the Bible. We recognize that there are scientific problems with the big bang model (see “Does the Big Bang Fit with the Bible?”), but, more importantly, there are numerous biblical problems with the big bang model as demonstrated in the following articles:

The Big-Bang God or the God of Scripture? Does the Big Bang Fit with the Bible? (video) The Big Bang? (Chapter 2 in Evolution Exposed: Earth Science The Big Bang: God’s Chosen Method of Creation? Big Bang topic page.” Thank God for Dr. Faulkner’s contribution.

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Gloria Deo 愿荣耀归上帝

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 Dr. John G. Hartnett is a professor of physics in Australia. He

authored a book on Starlight, Time and the New Physics. He published an article in the Answers in Genesis website on the above subject on February 11, 2015. I now quote his article below:

“Abstract “I speculate on a new cosmological redshift mechanism due to

“tired light” in a created static-yet-unstable 6000-year-old finite-size universe. This utilizes Lisle’s Anisotropic Synchrony Convention (ASC) model, but I show a one-to-one correspondence with the Hartnett-Carmeli model that was so successful when tested against type Ia supernova measurements. This gives a theoretical underpinning to the ASC model with a Hubble law redshift-distance dependence, but not from expansion, yet where, today, we see all sources in the universe only 6000 years after they were created.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Introduction “In standard cosmology it is normal practice to assume no

Creator and that the material world is all that there is. Therefore it follows that only the laws of physics, time, and chance are to be considered when formulating a description of the creation and history of the universe we see. This means that within the visible horizon there has been sufficient time for the gravitational and electromagnetic influences of the matter elsewhere to be felt locally. Assuming an expanding universe, the only limitation comes from the notion that the universe has expanded faster than the speed of light (c) and therefore this has introduced to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation what is known as the horizon problem (Hartnett 2014a).

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “It is implicitly assumed that redshifts, seen in the light from

extragalactic sources, correctly describe an expanding universe and that any past epoch in the history of the universe can be defined by its redshift. This is because the Hubble law is explained via the hypothesis of stretching of the wavelengths of light emitted from the galaxies as they recede from us.

It thus follows from this assumption that any region of space characterized by a particular redshift had a history back to the big bang. This might not be immediately obvious to the casual observer but this assumption is tied to redshifts defining an expanding universe, which began from a single point and expanded to all that we see today. Hence it follows that all epochs one observes, via the regions of space defined by the redshifts of the galaxies within those regions, are representative of all past epochs for regions that cannot be observed. It follows, therefore, from the assumption of the cosmological principle, that the history assumed by inspecting a sequence of redshift regions is typical for all regions in the universe.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “A similar idea can also be assumed for a static

universe where redshift is a measure of distance, but quite obviously not due to expansion. I have recently discussed the notion of expansion of space and expansion of the universe, which are not necessarily the same thing, but both lead to the idea that cosmology is more philosophy than science (Hartnett 2014b). Also I have taken another look at the biblical creationist light-travel-time problem (Hartnett 2015) to which this paper is a sequel.

04/21/23 36

Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Non-Equilibrium Universe “What I speculate about here is the idea that what we

observe in the universe is not in equilibrium, that is, the state of the universe is in a transient state. It is a universe just freshly created. That of course implies a fair amount of “mature creation” from the Creator. But the physics we interpret from the observations of the cosmos, might be better interpreted by assuming it is still in a non-equilibrium condition. One example of this may be the anomalous rotation curves observed in thousands of spiral galaxies. When a spectrograph is placed on the emissions across the disk regions of a spiral galaxy, redshifted and blueshifted spectral lines are observed on opposite sides of the central nucleus.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “This is (correctly, in my opinion) interpreted as

rotation of the galaxy, and the red and blueshifted lines are due to the Doppler Effect in the light from the gases in the disk regions. However, at large distances from the nucleus, the rotation speeds of the disk gases and stars is much too fast compared to what is expected using standard Keplerian physics. At those rates of rotation the galaxies would disintegrate—fly apart—in a matter of a hundred million years. But if the universe is only 6000 years old this is not a problem.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Those rotation curves are currently interpreted as

requiring massive amounts of halo dark matter to keep the galaxies stable over their lifetimes of ten billion years or so. The implicit assumption is that they have built themselves up over the assumed age of the universe by accumulating matter from elsewhere (mergers etc.) but always resulting in a stable gravitational condition. Essentially this is the cosmic equivalent of geological uniformitarianism. The belief that what we observe now has been going on for billions of years into the past. But what if that is not the case?

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Our own sun is a good example, too. Radiation

from the core to the surface should take about 10,000 to 170,000 years to get to the surface (NASA 2007), yet only 8.3 minutes to get to earth. Adam saw the sun, therefore light already was at its surface within 2 days of its creation, and I think we can infer it was able to be seen on the same day of its creation. That is what I would argue is the central reference point of the whole Creation Week.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Another assumption that is made when modeling the

universe is the cosmological principle. In particular, the assumption is that the universe we observe around us is just a time advanced version of any other part of the universe. This means that there is no special place in the universe; there is no centre and no edge. Thus it is assumed that our galaxy is not in any special place.

But what if all that is wrong? What if our galaxy, at least, is cosmologically somewhere near the centre of the universe, which is finite and bounded and hence has both an edge and a centre? The universe does not appear to be in any sort of an equilibrium condition, so what if the created universe is nonhomogeneous but isotropic around a unique centre with a finite extension?

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “One argument some use against this idea

is that it would be unstable and collapse into its centre. That could even be possible, but not if we are only at the 6000 year mark in its history. Who says a created universe needs to be stable against collapse? Nevertheless it could be, but the point is, why is that even a requirement? It is a uniformitarian assumption.

04/21/23 42

Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Hubble on Redshifts “Edwin Hubble observed a systematic trend

between the redshifts of galaxies and their distances from earth. This result was interpreted to mean that the universe is expanding.

“Now Hubble was not a believer in the Creator, but rather that the universe was the product of random chance and the laws of physics. His measurements indicated that the galaxy redshifts are proportional to their distances from earth, which seemed to strike him as quite significant. So in 1937 he wrote,

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Such a condition would imply that we

occupy a unique position in the universe . . . But the unwelcome supposition of a favored location must be avoided at all costs . . . . [it] is intolerable; moreover, it represents a discrepancy with the theory because the theory postulates homogeneity. (Hubble 1937, pp. 50–59)

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “What prompted this comment was that he believed he

was seeing galaxies in all directions speeding away from him by the same proportion, that is, the more distant the faster they moved. Understand though, the redshifts were only inferred as being caused by the recession speed of the galaxies. Astronomers then often spoke like that, as if it due to the Doppler Effect, but most now believe it is due to the cosmological expansion of the universe (Hartnett 2014b).

One way you could interpret those observations is that we are at the centre of the universe and the galaxies are all receding away from us. However Hubble rejected that concept on philosophical grounds. He went on to say:

04/21/23 45

Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “’Therefore, in order to restore homogeneity, and to

escape the horror of a unique position, the departures from uniformity, which are introduced by the recession factors, must be compensated by the second term representing the effects of spatial curvature. (Hubble 1937, p. 59)

“He resorts to curvature of space. By assuming that space is curved a centre could be avoided. Thus there is no need for a centre or an edge to the universe. Thus it follows that we are not in a unique position in the universe and the cosmological principle can be saved.

“Prior to these aforementioned comments from his 1937 book, Hubble, in 1935, expressed the following concern.

04/21/23 46

Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “’. . . the possibility that red-shift may be due to some other

cause, connected with the long time or distance involved in the passage of the light from the nebula to observer, should not be prematurely neglected. (Hubble and Tolman 1935, p. 303)

“He was suggesting that there could be other mechanisms causing light to be redshifted, besides recession of the galaxies due to the Doppler Effect or cosmological expansion; a mechanism possibly resulting from the passage of light through the vast distances of the cosmos.

“Again by 1947 Hubble was to express doubts about an expanding universe. His own Hubble law says that the further away the object, the greater the redshift. But it seems, at least by this time in his life, he did not strongly believe in the notion of the expanding universe and wrote that redshifts result from some hitherto-undiscovered mechanism (Hubble 1947).

04/21/23 47

Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “A Possible Redshift Mechanism “It is always difficult to know exactly what was in

the mind of some past scientist, who may have changed his view from time to time. But the notion of some other mechanism to explain the overall systematic trend of redshifts in galaxies is worth considering.

“Previously I have discussed the idea of Halton Arp’s intrinsic redshifts, and there is a lot of evidence to support the notion that quasars have large redshifts which are not related to their distance in the universe (Hartnett 2003a, 2013a, 2014c).

04/21/23 48

Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “I speculate here on a redshift mechanism, a “tired light”

mechanism. Tired light is not new, and was probably first suggested by Fritz Zwicky in 1929 (Zwicky 1929). But this tired light mechanism that I propose here is a direct consequence of creation.

“Scripture tells us (emphases added): “Lift up your eyes to the heavens, and look upon the earth

beneath: for the heavens shall vanish away like smoke, and the earth shall wax old like a garment, and they that dwell therein shall die in like manner: but my salvation shall be for ever, and my righteousness shall not be abolished. (Isaiah 51:6 KJV)

“Of old hast thou laid the foundation of the earth: and the heavens are the work of thy hands. They shall perish, but thou shalt endure: yea, all of them shall wax old like a garment; as a vesture shalt thou change them, and they shall be changed: . . . (Psalm 102:25, 26 KJV)

04/21/23 49

Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Which is quoted in the book of Hebrews (emphases added): “And, Thou, LORD, in the beginning hast laid the foundation of the

earth; and the heavens are the works of thine hands: They shall perish; but thou remainest; and they all shall wax old as doth a garment; And as a vesture shalt thou fold them up, and they shall be changed: but thou art the same, and thy years shall not fail. (Hebrews 1:10–12 KJV)

“The suggestion here in Scripture is that the heavens, the starry cosmos, is not here forever; it is not eternal, and at some future date God will “fold up” the heavens like He is folding up and putting away a tent. Scripture is quite clear that the heavens shall not endure but shall vanish away. The Bible also describes the stars “melting” or “dissolving,” which I have previously suggested could relate to comets melting as they approach the sun (Hartnett 2006), but also it could have meaning in regards to the end of the stars, as they are destroyed in the collapse of this universe (Hartnett 2003b).

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “But the day of the LORD will come . . . the

heavens shall pass away with a great noise, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat, the earth also and the works that are therein shall be burned up. . . . Looking for and hasting unto the coming of the day of God, wherein the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat? (2 Peter 3:10, 12 KJV) (emphasis added)

“And all the host of heaven shall be dissolved, and the heavens shall be rolled together as a scroll: and all their host shall fall down, . . . (Isaiah 34:4 KJV) (emphasis added)

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “The suggestion here then is that the universe

was created by God in an inherently unstable condition. It was only the sustaining power of God that could hold it in place. But since the curse that power has been withdrawn, and the whole universe is headed for destruction and collapse. God had foreknowledge of the choices man would make anyway. In other words, we should not make the implicit assumption that the universe was designed to be in a stable equilibrium condition and remain so forever.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Nevertheless, the universe is ruled by the inexorable laws

of thermodynamics. It has a finite energy content and is trending to follow the path that those laws (God’s creation) set. As part of that wearing out (“waxing old”) process (second law of thermodynamics; Hebrews 1:11) photons began losing energy from their creation about 6000 years ago.

“My proposal has two important features, “1. All photons, which we observe from the distant

cosmos, were created at the beginning of the universe about 6000 years ago;

“2. The energy of all photons, of initially any wavelength, exponentially decays with the same characteristic time constant.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “A “Tired Light” Model “Let’s suppose the most distant sources have a redshift of zmax and

that all photons at frequency 𝜈 with initial energy h𝜈0 lose energy such that at any time (t) measured from their moment of creation,

h = h𝜈 𝜈0 e−t/T, (1) where t advances from the moment of creation, and T is a

characteristic time constant. The initial photon frequency 𝜈0 is measured in the source rest frame while 𝜈 is measured in the observer rest frame with time t = r/c, where r is the distance travelled and c represents the canonical speed of light.

“The tired light model suggested by Zwicky was of the form, h = h𝜈 𝜈0 e−r/δ, (2)

where δ = c/H0 is a characteristic distance, the Hubble distance (about 13.8 billion light-years). The parameter H0 is the Hubble constant. Zwicky (1929, p. 778) has my form of the Zwicky equation in differential form.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “It was suggested that the photon’s interaction with the vacuum

during its flight is not a lossless process, but that scattering causes losses and hence an increase of wavelength. Criticism has been that such interactions should not result in a straight path for light and hence blur the images, and also that it would introduce a frequency dependence, a dispersion, neither of which are observed (Hartnett 2014d).

“A more recent paper (Urban et al. 2013) however, provides support for the idea that the finite speed of light (c) is determined by an interaction with the ephemeral particles in the quantum vacuum. This occurs at the sub-atomic Compton wavelength energy scale. The photon travels at a bare infinite speed between interactions with fermion pairs in the vacuum, which slow its progress to speed c. Such an idea was once suggested by Dicke (1957).

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “If this is valid then it would follow straight paths (within current

measurement limits) and in the Urban et al. (2013) model it is non-dispersive for all wavelengths. However the latter assumes it does not exchange energy or momentum with the vacuum, just retards its progress, that is, it is lossless. But over cosmological distances that is impossible to verify. I only speculate that the interaction, which impedes the speed of the photons also causes a miniscule loss of energy to the vacuum. This is not unreasonable as there are no other known lossless scattering processes in nature. That miniscule loss then accumulates along the very long interaction path the photons take to reach earth from distant cosmic sources. The energy of a photon as a fraction of its initial energy (h /h𝜈 𝜈0) travelling through space from a distant source, with redshift z = 10, arrives with about only 9% of its initial photon energy after travelling a distance of 13.8 billion light-years in a time of 2.4 T.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “From equation (1) we can determine the redshift (z) of any

distant source is given by, (3) The beginning of time measured backwards in cosmic time from

the present is t0. Therefore the maximum redshift possible is, zmax = et

0/T – 1, (4)

which means the characteristic time constant T = t0/ ln(1 + zmax) where t0 ≈ 13.8 billion years. Thus assuming a maximum redshift zmax = 10 for the most distant sources means T ≈ 5.75 billion years (as would in principle be measured by local earth clocks) (Ellis et al. 2012). Thus, in terms of the Zwicky model but redefining the distance scale as, δ = c T, means δ = 5.75 billion light-years under the same assumption zmax = 10. This value is tentative; I am not claiming this as a prediction, just stating some upper limit to redshifts, from the assumption that the universe had a beginning, not from a singularity (Hartnett 2014e), and is finite in extension and even bounded.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Losses Per Unit Distance “If the photons lose 1/e of their energy after travelling

for δ = 5.75 billion light-years, then their energy loss is 0.06 ppb/light-year. Since photons are all continually moving and interacting with the vacuum this means they lose their fractional energy at the rate of 2 × 10–18/s (Poli et al. 2013). Current state-of-the-art optical clocks are beginning to approach this sort of precision and have the accuracy for measuring shifts in spectral lines over real time, near this level. But the precision astronomical redshift measurements would have to be at this level to measure the evolution of the line in real time.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-1 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -1 “Currently redshifts are measured at about the 1%

level (10,000 ppm) in robot astronomy surveys but in individual cases the best spectroscopy has yielded redshift measurements down to the 10 ppm level. If the latter could be achieved in a 1 s sampling time it would still be about 13 orders of magnitude away from detecting the effect described here. If the spectroscopy could average for 10,000 s and still maintain a coherent signal that would reduce the margin another 4 orders of magnitude, but still way beyond the reach of human technology to measure in the foreseeable future.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “Cosmic Creation Processes In the cosmos we see processes from creation

Day 4 only 6000 years after creation if all objects in the universe are only 6000 years old. Stars and galaxies, like our own sun are 6000 years old. Under the assumption of the Einstein Synchrony Convention (ESC) (Hartnett 2013b), the travel time of light at constant c (the canonical two-way speed of light) may be up to many billions of years, but all light originally arrived at the earth for the first time on Day 4 of Creation Week.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “Under the alternative assumption of the

Asynchronous Synchrony Convention (ASC) the one-way speed of light towards us may be assumed to be infinite, that is, there is no travel time. Thus we see all events in the cosmos as they are happening, or, they are time-stamped by the moment the light arrives at the earth under the ESC (Hartnett 2014f, g). But this is a choice of convention. Since the one-way speed of light has no physical meaning in the universe, under the ASC this means we are free to choose our timing convention (see Hartnett 2015 for a more detailed discussion).

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “In this worldview, we are at most seeing events in

the cosmos only 6000 years after the conclusion of the Day 4 of Creation Week. Therefore on the timescales inherent in the cosmos, this is an extremely brief period. For example, at the current measured (constant) rotation speed spiral galaxies should rotate once in about 200 million earth years, if there was that time available to them. Therefore allowing for a mature creation in much of the cosmos, we are seeing it in a state that is very close to what it was when God finished creating it.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “It should be added though, that what an astronomer defines as

a measure of age, like the spiral structure of galaxies, or the sequence of stars in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, depends on implicit uniformitarian assumptions. But these are externally imposed measures of age, based on the observer’s worldview. No doubt some content of mature creation (what appears to be mature based on this arbitrary human perceived definitions of age) is necessary in this cosmology, as it is in nearly all creationist cosmologies. Day 4 of Creation Week necessarily involves some mature content, for example, our own sun; no one would assume it started in some embryonic condition, but that God created it essentially as it is seen today. Also some form of mature creation might be expected with the formation of other stars as well as galaxies. Here I conjecture that quasar redshifts result from large energy loss to the vacuum due to conditions in their creation process (Hartnett 2005).

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “In terms of the creation processes on Day 4 with quasar

ejections at speed u one can estimate that in 6000 years since then about 6000∙u/c years of process has occurred. If ejection velocity u = 0.1 c (from the Arp-type hypothesis), then their locations would be out to 600 light-years from their parent galaxies, assuming uniform motion. If non-uniform motion, then their distances could be larger but less than 6000 light-years, assuming u = c, even for an initial plasmoid of zero inertial mass under the Hoyle-Narlikar variable mass hypothesis (Hoyle and Narlikar 1974; Narlikar and Arp 1993; Narlikar and Das 1980). The Hoyle-Narlikar variable mass hypothesis is a possible explanation for the creation of new matter through galaxy or quasar ejections from other galaxies, which also results in a quantized intrinsic redshift component (Hartnett 2003a).

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “However based on ejections at the speed of

light c the maximum distance a quasar could travel out from its parent in 6000 years is about 2 kpcs, which is a lot less than the typical size of a galaxy. Since the hypothesis involves zero inertial mass during the creative process when God is creating this matter in the centres of active galaxies, on Day 4, when current laws of physics may not be all in operation, one might imagine/conjecture superluminal ejections (u > c) initially, followed by retardation only after Day 4 is over. With that came the introduction of the impedance of the vacuum, which caused large losses of energy to the vacuum and hence the large redshifts.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “So those large redshifts are largely not due to the travel

of the photons to earth, but the latter would contribute a small component (z) from equation (3) to the measured redshifts of the quasars (z0) as follows:

1 + z0 = (1 + zQ)(1 + z), (5) where z here is the redshift of the parent galaxy

and zQ is some intrinsic redshift associated with the quasar resulting from its creation. For small z the measured redshift z0 ≈ zQ. Equation (5) is derived by the product of energy losses from two different processes, where each process (i) contributes as (1 + zi) to the measured redshift (1 + z0) (Fulton and Arp 2012; see also Arp, Fulton, and Roscoe 2005).

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “Correspondence to the Carmeli Model “In my book Starlight, Time and the New

Physics (Hartnett 2010) I attempt to use Carmeli’s cosmology to explain some physics in the universe without invoking fudge factors. Here let us consider the simplest Carmeli metric,

ds2 = c2dt2 − dr2 + τ2dv2, (6) where dr2 = (dx1)2 + (dx2)2 + (dx3)2; only radial distances

are considered, angular terms can be suppressed with isotropy. The parameter τ is the Hubble-Carmeli time constant in an expanding universe, dv is the infinitesimal expansion speed of the universe, dt is the infinitesimal time element for local atomic time.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “The expansion is encoded in the velocity-dimension, which in

reality represents redshift space (z) not motion of galaxies through physical space. Now consider that Carmeli posited that his spacevelocity universe arises when one assumes dt = 0, because what we see in the universe is like taking a still photograph.

“In such a case, equation (6) becomes a spacevelocity equation with no time dependence, hence static. And I found that the formulation where matter is included, tests very well against the high redshift type Ia supernova measurements without the need for dark energy (DE) or dark matter (DM) (Hartnett 2008). Recently this was confirmed (Oliveira 2014) where an author even added dark matter and dark energy as free parameters, but the best fit was achieved where their sum was set to zero (DE + DM = 0).

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “In the case of my type Ia supernova tests, they were on the

redshift-distance (actually luminosity) dependence (Hartnett 2008). So if redshifts for the host galaxies of those supernovae have a Hubble-law–type distance dependence then it does not necessarily imply an expanding universe. All then the Carmeli formulation is doing is testing that redshift dependence against luminosity in the cosmos. So it could apply to a static universe also.

“As stated by setting dt = 0 in equation (6) we derive the (linearized) Carmeli spacevelocity metric. But doing this is equivalent to defining the one-way speed of light as infinite towards the observer. This is not some measurable quantity as has been addressed before. It is only by a convention (Lisle 2010; Newton 2001). In this case the convention is determined by the choice of time coordinates. But in equation (6) the measurable two-way speed of light is a universal constant c.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “If this is true then it also follows that the

successful fit to the data of the high-redshift type Ia supernova measurements, which has been demonstrated via Carmeli’s spacevelocity cosmology, is true also in this static universe, provided that the Hubble law still holds.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “But of course this redefines the meaning of the velocity

dimension in the Carmeli metric, resulting in a new theory entirely. The important difference is the interpretation we place on Carmeli’s velocity dimension. Instead, in this paper, I interpret it as a redshift dimension, yielding a distance-redshift relationship for the cosmos. I could speculate that this redshift dimension is something like an additional time dimension. Possibly time is really a vector, where locally we experience only one scalar component?

“From the metric of equation (6) where we choose the convention of dt = 0 it naturally follows that it is as if we are observing light with an infinite towards-the-observer one-way speed. Hence no light travel time problem, in a cosmology with a clear explanation for measured data, without the need to include the fudge factors such as dark energy, dark matter, inflation, and the expansion of space.

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Speculation on Redshift in a Created Universe-2 创造的宇宙红移揣测 -2 “Conclusion Taken together, this paper and its prequel (Hartnett

2015) provide different aspects of a creationist cosmogony consistent with the biblical history in Genesis. It is an extension of the Lisle ASC model. Here I speculate on the possibility of a “tired light” mechanism in a static universe, which is not ruled out by any known physics. This universe is finite in extension and not in equilibrium. Only God’s sustaining power need uphold this universe; in any case, I believe that was removed at the curse and the universe will eventually be “rolled up,” or changed by God as he promised.”

Thank God for Dr. Hartnett’s contribution.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 Dr. Elizabeth Mitchell, a biologist, published the above article in the

Answers In Genesis website on February 13, 2015. I now quote her article below:

Sources: The New York Times, “In Bedbugs, Scientists See a Model of Evolution”; BBC Earth, “Origin of Bed Bugs Revealed”

“From the DNA of bat-biting and people-biting bedbugs, researchers from Tulsa to Prague have demonstrated that bedbugs are still bedbugs. In fact, despite their disturbing resurgence in domestic dwellings, bedbugs are showing no sign of becoming anything else, other than more-difficult-to-eradicate bedbugs. Genetic analysis supports the hypothesis that today’s common bedbug originated in bat-caves and, having transitioned to cave-dwelling people, then developed populations with a preference for people and people’s houses. But is that a model for Darwinian evolution?

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “Darwin’s Darlings? “For something that is so hated by so many people, it might just

be a perfect model organism for evolutionary questions,” says University of Tulsa’s Warren Booth, coauthor of a study in Molecular Ecology. Variants of the same species—Cimex lectularius—bite bats and humans. Booth’s study demonstrates they do not normally interbreed. Booth says the human-biter is “right on the cusp” of diverging into a new species.

“A New York Times journalist—in “In Bedbugs, Scientists See a Model of Evolution”—claims the bedbug shows how Darwinian evolution works. Of course, Darwin held that through natural processes life evolved in all its complexity from simple life-forms through modification and selection. The NY Times author asserts that the bedbug illustrates Darwin’s conclusion that “from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.”

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “Of Bats and Bedbugs “Bedbugs are wingless parasites that feast on the blood of warm-

blooded hosts. Members of the insect family Cimicidae, cimicids are obligatory parasites in which both adults and larvae depend on their hosts’ blood. A third of these species live on birds, but about two-thirds of the cimicids are associated with bats. In 1913, long before the advent of genetics, it was suggested that bats were the original host species for parasitic bedbugs, which then adapted to live on other hosts. This study supports that hypothesis.

Because they depend on their hosts for transportation, individual populations of bedbugs easily become isolated—marooned in a particular person’s habitat. Not that the bedbugs mind. And those best suited to their particular paradise—even when it gets invaded by insecticides—survive to reproduce and pass on the genetically mediated traits that make them most suited to their abode.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “By examining the DNA of 756 Cimex

lectularius captured from human houses and attic bat roosts across the United States and Europe, teams led by Booth and Ondrĕj Balvín in Prague looked for the relationship between bat-biters and our more familiar nemeses. (They did not examine bat-biting Cimex species from non-human-associated bat roosts for this study.) The researchers also assessed the bugs for the sodium channel genes associated with pesticide resistance.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “Bat-biting and human-biting bedbugs look a little

different. The people-biting variety have short body hairs and longer, skinnier legs, perhaps less suited for defying gravity by hanging onto bats than for lounging in places where people lounge. People-biting bedbugs also are more active at night than bat-biters, apparently adapted to be awake at the times when the chosen hosts are more likely to be asleep and available. Evolutionists have even suggested that people co-evolved to retain fine sensitive hairs covering our skin after losing fur to better detect and squash such parasites before they nip.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “Booth and Balvín have found genetic footprints

suggesting how bedbugs differentiated to produce populations optimized for different hosts. And they noted that human-biting bugs, if fed only bat blood, do not live as long. Bats love to roost in human-built structures—barns, bell towers, lofts, and attics. Bat-biters definitely bite people, but they do not at present seem to establish sustained populations on people unless bats are unavailable (since they much prefer a bat-meal). That is small comfort to those whose dwellings are infested with bats and their parasitic companions. Of perhaps more comfort is the discovery that the bat-biting population does not yet possess the genetic markers for insecticide resistance.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “The Clan of the Common Bedbug “Comparison of DNA from Cimex lectularius varieties

demonstrates that even though they are all of the same species, their lineages have diverged substantially. Booth and Balvín found 14 different lineages (haplotypes) of Cimex lectularius among their bat-biting subjects and 7 different lineages among the human-biters. That all ancestral bedbugs in the species started out their parasitic lifestyle on bats is suggested by the marked biodiversity of the bat-bugs, compared to the very limited diversity among the human-biters. Thus, once the varieties diverged, they apparently followed very different paths.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “THAT THEIR GENOMES DISPLAY FAR LESS

DIVERSITY THAN THEIR BAT-BITING COUSINS SHOWS THEY HAVE LOST GENETIC INFORMATION.

“The DNA from human-biting bedbugs suggests a lot of inbreeding. Such a “founder effect” occurs when a population descends from a small group of isolated individuals. Genetic diversity is minimized. This “founder effect” is what we would expect if a few ancestral bat-biters sampled available humans where their paths crossed—perhaps in caves—and then reproduced exclusively in the new niches people provided.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “In contrast, bats carry their families of freeloaders far

and wide, producing a lot of genetic diversity within bat-biting populations. But when bat-biting and human-biting bedbug populations live in close proximity, even with overlapping territories as in this study, genetic analysis shows they do not interbreed. And laboratory hybrids have reduced fitness. The authors write, “It appears that C. lectularius parasitizing humans are following an evolutionary trajectory essentially independent of those found to parasitize sympatric bats.”

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “Evolutionary Trajectory? But where is that “evolutionary trajectory” taking bedbugs? From the

headline hoopla comparing their course to Darwin’s majestic conclusion in On the Origin of Species, one would think this model shows how organisms acquire genetic information to become something new and more complex. But these bedbugs are doing nothing more than developing into a more exclusively host-specific sort of bedbug. In fact, given that their legs appear less suitable for hanging onto bat bodies, and that they do not live as long if fed only bat blood, it appears they are losing these traits. That their genomes display far less diversity than their bat-biting cousins shows they have lost genetic information, rather than acquiring the tools to become better, badder bugs.

The bedbug does provide a living laboratory to study speciation—which is limited to variation within a created kind—but it does not provide a laboratory to show how new, more complex forms of living things evolve as Darwin poetically and imaginatively asserted.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “Bedbugs of the Past “Bedbugs have cohabited with humans for a very long time.

Writers of the classical period—Aristotle, Aristophanes, Pliny, Dioscorides, and the author of a 3rd century BC Egyptian papyrus—described these pests. Ground bedbugs were even thought to have medicinal properties! But fossilized bedbugs in housing from ancient Egypt’s Tel-el-Amarna prove their presence among Mediterranean people much earlier. The Tel-el-Amarna dig site marks an 18th Dynasty village for housing workmen and royal guards under the pharaohs Aknenaten and Tut’ankhamun, respectively. Furthermore, that people’s pains to eliminate bedtime pests stretch way back to the Middle Stone Age is evident from fossilized bedding mats in South Africa’s Subidu Cave, where bedding was repeatedly burned and also mixed with aromatic insect-repelling leaves.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “Bedbugs are primarily a nuisance and cause a good deal of

misery and discomfort, including itching, rashes, and allergic reactions. Unlike malaria-carrying mosquitos, however, they are not known to be vectors for infectious disease. Bedbugs were simply an unpleasant fact of life before World War II. They ceased to be a problem in developed nations after the widespread use of DDT in the 1940s and 50s. Unfortunately, they staged a worldwide comeback about 15 years ago. Lurking by day in bedding, in furniture, and in crevices in walls and floors, they emerge at night to feast on the blood of sleepers. “While you sleep at night they are feeding on your blood, you are a meal ticket for them,” says Booth. “That can lead to enormous psychological issues.” Everyone is at risk, and Booth says there are two types of people: “the type that have had bed bugs and the people that will still get them. We're living in a time where they're becoming much more common.”

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “About 90% of the bedbugs infesting homes today are

resistant to pyrethroid insecticides. However, any reports of rapidly “evolving resistance” are poorly worded. Bedbugs remain bedbugs. They don’t evolve into anything. Those genetically equipped to survive the assault of pesticides have restored their populations with pesticide resistant offspring. This is an example of natural selection (and possibly other mechanisms), as pesticide-resistant individuals selectively survive to breed another day. But neither a bat-to-bedbug trajectory nor the emergence of pesticide resistant populations illustrates the Darwinian evolution of complex forms of life.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “Did bedbugs acquire their taste for human blood by

moving from bats to humans in long ago caves? Maybe. Human beings have long sought shelter in caves. Some still do. That bedbugs moved onto the beds and bodies of people hanging out in bat-caves is entirely plausible. And populations mooching on the blood of their new companions, separated from their bat-biting cousins, would have passed on their most successful adaptive characteristics to their offspring. They would have produced populations of the bugs best fitted for life in the ecological niches available among humans. The pesky parasite may have thus taken advantage of a new host, but it remained a bedbug.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “There is nothing in this research either

reminiscent or predictive of the evolution of increasingly complex “new forms” either wonderful or dreadful. Instead, what this research demonstrates is that bedbugs are still bedbugs, varying within their created kind to survive and thrive in a sin-cursed world. And those with the genetic equipment to resist the best we throw at them survive to bite—and reproduce—another day, much to our chagrin but not to our surprise.

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “Bad Bugs in a Good World? “So why is it that the good world God created in the

beginning (Genesis 1:31) is full of blood-sucking insects? The answer lies in the Genesis 3 account of man’s rebellion against God. We know from Genesis 1 that God provided all creatures with vegetation to eat. After Adam sinned, things began to go wrong with the world. We—the sinners of today—still live under the shadow of the Curse, augmented by 6,000 years of problems piled upon problems. Biology affirms this biblical truth: There is good biological evidence that another far more dangerous parasite, the mosquito, was once a harmless creature. (Read about it in “The Genesis of Malaria.”)

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In Bedbugs, Scientists Don’t See a Model of Evolution 在臭虫，科学家们没有看到进化模型 “Parasites abound in this world gone wrong. God equipped the

living things He made in the beginning with a wealth of genetic information and the ability to vary, allowing them to adapt to the world’s many ecological niches. Though some have gone extinct, the ability to vary has sustained countless kinds of organisms, including bedbugs, through 6,000 years of living in a sin-cursed world. Perhaps one aspect of sin’s curse included a withdrawal of some of the barriers that kept organisms from hurting each other. Perhaps mutations deprived some—such as today’s parasites—of the ability to sustain themselves without injury to other living things. But as we infer from Genesis 1 and observe in biology, living things—including bedbugs—only reproduce and vary within their created kinds. Bedbug research actually affirms this scriptural truth rather than lending any support to the bacteria-to-bedbug fallacies of Darwinian evolution.” Thank God for Dr. Mitchell’s contribution.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ Dr. Danny Faulkner published an article on the above subject in

the Answers In Genesis website on February 19, 2015. I now quote his article as follows:

“Abstract “A recently published cosmology incorporates an alternate

geometry and attempts to include quantum mechanical effects. The authors of the model suggest that they have answered several problems of modern cosmology, such as the identity of dark matter and dark energy (or alternately, the cosmological constant). An interesting feature of this model is that it rules out a big bang singularity origin of the universe. It is not clear exactly what the authors of the model mean by this; however, it does not appear that this model is compatible with biblical creation.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “Introduction “ACCORDING TO THIS PROPOSED COSMOLOGY,

THERE WAS NO BIG BANG. “There have been recent news reports of a new

cosmological theory that eliminates a beginning to the universe. In a first paper (henceforth referred to as Paper 1), Saurya Das and Rajat K. Bhaduri wrote about the basic assumptions of this new model. In a second paper (henceforth referred to as Paper 2), Ahmed Farag Ali and Saurya Das developed this cosmology. According to this proposed cosmology, there was no big bang. This is sure to be of interest to many people, because the big bang has been the reigning cosmological model for a half century.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “Some Christians see in the big bang God’s

method of creation. However, many of us realize that the big bang is not biblical. Lest we be tempted to embrace this new model, we must realize that this model appears to be a return to an eternal universe, which was very commonly believed until the big bang became popular in the 1960s. At least with a big bang, the universe had a beginning, so there might be room for a Creator, but if the universe is eternal, then there is no need of God. Let us sort through this new model.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “The Rise of Modern Physics “Physics underwent a revolution a century ago.

Since the late seventeenth century, Newtonian physics had ruled supreme. But by the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, many experimental results did not agree with predictions of classical physics. Modern physics is founded upon two pillars: general relativity and quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein published his theory of general relativity one hundred years ago. In general relativity, time is treated in a similar manner to space, so that we now say that there is a four-dimensional space-time manifold.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “Space-time may be flat or curved on large scales, but

the presence of large amounts of matter or energy will curve space-time locally. It is the motion of objects following straight paths through curved space-time (geodesics) that gives rise to what we see as gravitational attraction. Gravity appears to be the dominant force across the universe, so general relativity would seem to be the appropriate tool for studying cosmology, the structure of the universe. Indeed, shortly after publishing his theory of general relativity, Einstein published a cosmology based upon his theory. Nearly every cosmology since, including big bang, has been based upon general relativity.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “THERE IS AN INHERENT FUZZINESS IN THE

WORLD OF QUANTUM MECHANICS. “While general relativity is appropriate when studying the

largest things in the universe (such as the universe itself), quantum mechanics deals with the smallest things in the universe, such as atoms and subatomic particles. In quantum mechanics, particles have a wave nature. This is quite a departure from classical physics where particles and waves are very different entities, so there are some fundamental differences in the sorts of predictions that classical physics and quantum mechanics make about small particles. For instance, in classical physics a particle can be localized as a point.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “There is no fundamental limit to how accurately we can

locate the position of a particle; the only limits to the precision of locating a particle are practical. However, since waves are not confined to one point but instead spread out over some distance, in quantum mechanics we cannot determine where a particle is with infinite precision. That is, there is an inherent fuzziness in the world of quantum mechanics. On scales much larger than atoms this fuzziness disappears, so we do not notice quantum mechanical effects in our everyday world. Hence, to most people the concepts of quantum mechanics seem weird. However, quantum mechanics is a very powerful theory that explains much about the atomic and subatomic world.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “General relativity and quantum mechanics are very different

theories. But in physics there is a long history of unifying what had appeared to be disparate phenomenon. For instance, for a long time electricity and magnetism had seemed to be very different things, but experiments in the early nineteenth century showed that there was a relationship between them. James Clerk Maxwell, building upon the experimental work of Michael Faraday, unified electricity and magnetism into a single theory with four equations that he published in 1865. There is a belief that all physical theories, including general relativity and quantum mechanics, can be unified into a single theory. Einstein was working on this unification when he died 60 years ago. While much progress has come since then, we probably still are far away from this ultimate theory.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “What Is This New Cosmology? While the authors of the newly published cosmology do

not claim that they have produced a full theory of quantum gravity, they suggest that their theory may be a good start. They supposed that the universe is filled with a type of particle called bosons. Physicists divide all particles into two broad classes: bosons and fermions. All particles appear to spin (although the spin of the Higgs boson is thought to be zero). For the sake of argument, imagine a particle spinning like a baseball. Like most analogies, this one has many shortcomings. For instance, while a baseball may spin at any rate, elementary particles can spin only at multiples or half-multiples of a certain fixed value.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “Particles that spin with integral multiples of this

fundamental value are bosons; particles that spin with half-integral multiples are fermions. Electrons and protons have half-integer spin, so they are fermions. Photons, particles of light, have integer spin, so they are bosons. Bosons and fermions behave very differently. Nearly a century ago, Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose (for whom the boson is named) predicted that at very low temperatures bosons can assume an odd state with unusual properties. We call this odd form of matter the Bose-Einstein condensate. This state of matter has been produced and studied in the lab.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “It is important in the new cosmological theory that

most of the bosons assumed to fill the universe remain as a Bose-Einstein condensate. This is possible only if the temperature of the universe remains below a certain critical temperature. The critical temperature depends upon the mass of the particles. To ensure that most of the particles remain in a Bose-Einstein condensate, the particles must have very low mass. The electron is one of the lightest known particles, but the electron would have more than 500,000 times more mass than the hypothesized particles.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “The authors of Paper 1 suggested that their

hypothetical bosons may be gravitons or axions. Gravitons are hypothetical particles that are involved with gravitational interaction. Gravitons are very difficult to detect, so we do not yet have evidence for them, though most physicists think that gravitons exist. Similarly, axions are difficult to detect, and so we have not observed them, though most physicists think that axions exist. Axions are required by the standard theory of particle physics. The authors of Paper 2 concentrated on the case in which the bosons in their model are gravitons.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “The authors of the new cosmological model made further

modifications to the standard approach to general relativity. They assumed a different kind of geometry, and then included quantum mechanical effects. This produced a quantum mechanical wave function that they then solved. Actually, Paper 2 made two quantum mechanical corrections. They concluded that the universe did not undergo a singularity in the past. In mathematics, a singularity is a condition where the mathematics breaks down. The classic singularity is division by zero—when one divides by zero, all sorts of errors can arise, so we conclude that division by zero is undefined. The big bang amounts to a singularity. Hence, Paper 2 reached the following conclusion:

“’Thus, the second quantum correction in the Friedmann equation gets rid of the big-bang singularity.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “Paper 2 claimed to solve several problems. Among those

problems was the identification of dark matter and the identification of dark energy or, alternately, the cosmological constant. Dark matter has been invoked to explain strange, fast motions of objects orbiting galaxies. This new cosmology identifies dark matter as the hypothesized bosons. Dark energy, or the cosmological constant, amounts to a repulsion that space has for itself. Secular scientists think that the apparent acceleration of very distant objects in the universe is proof of this repulsion, although it should be noted that George Ellis, a well-known cosmologist, has pointed out that this conclusion could be based upon a misinterpretation of the data. The new cosmology suggests that this apparent repulsion is a result of a quantum mechanical wave.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “IF THERE WAS NO BIG BANG IN THE PAST, THEN HOW

DID THE UNIVERSE BEGIN? “What does this new study mean? First of all, I do not expect

many scientists to abandon the big bang model in favor of this new one. The big bang model is firmly entrenched (the big bang is too big to fail, so to speak), so not many scientists will give it up willingly. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background a half-century ago is taken as the great proof of the big bang model. It would require a complete reevaluation of the cosmic microwave background to dislodge the widespread support that the big bang model has. There are a few scientists who are committed to belief in an eternal universe—some of them likely will be attracted to this new model. I think that this might be the motivation of the authors of this new study. If there was no big bang in the past, then how did the universe begin?

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “Of course, there is the option of biblical creation, but this

does not seem to be the underlying belief of the authors of this new study. They have not yet indicated what they think. One possibility is that they may propose that the universe is oscillating. Normally, the idea of an oscillating universe is an infinite series of a big bang, followed by expansion, an eventual contraction, leading to a big crunch, followed by a new cycle initiated by another big bang. However, if there never was a big bang, as these authors claim, then an oscillating universe would undergo expansion and contraction without ever passing through a singularity. Another possibility is that the big bang was not a singularity, and that prior to the big bang the universe existed eternally in a state different from today.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “Conclusion “How might other scientists object to the new theory? One

avenue may be to dispute the alternate geometry used in this model. In discussing their conclusion that there was no big bang singularity in the past, the authors of Paper 2 stated the following:

“’This is precisely what is expected from the no-focusing of geodesics and the quantum Raychaudhuri equation.’

“That is, the fix was in when they assumed a geometry that did not allow for singularities. Given the nature of their geometric assumption, it would have been difficult to reach any other conclusion. However, there are other things to quibble with, such as the manner in which the authors included quantum mechanics.

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Study Says Universe Had No Beginning and No Big Bang?研究称宇宙无始无大爆炸？ “In short, I do not expect this model to gain much traction,

so I am not very concerned with it. Previous papers have claimed to eliminate a beginning for the universe while explaining dark energy and expansion. Some of these models appear good at first, but problems emerge long after the media attention.

“What if a theory like this gains traction? This would be a large problem for Christians who have wedded the Genesis creation to the big bang. If we interpret Genesis in terms of the big bang, and the world were to decide to embrace some model other than the big bang, then it would undermine the authority of Scripture. This is why it is important to examine man’s ideas in light of the Bible rather than the other way around.”

Thank God for Dr. Faulkner’s contribution.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 Scientists Timothy L. Clarey and Jeffrey P. Tomkins published

the above article in the Answers In Genesis website on February 18, 2015. I now quote their article below:

“Abstract “The median mass of a dinosaur is determined to be 630 kg

(1389 lb), or the size of an American bison, based on the largest published and most accurate data set to date. Most dinosaurs seem to have stayed very small (0–60 kg [0–132 lb]) or grew very large (1081–56,000 kg [2383–123,459 lb]), with less species in the medium-sized range. The dinosaurs buried in the lower Flood layers (Upper Triassic series) were mostly small. Although there was an average size increase upward into younger Flood layers, it was not universal or statistically strong. There were many small dinosaurs buried throughout the entire spectrum of dinosaur-bearing rocks.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 “The largest sauropodomorphs were buried in the Upper

Jurassic series, about midway through the Flood record of dinosaurs. Whereas, ornithopods showed an increase in size from earliest to latest Flood deposits, attaining greatest size in the Upper Cretaceous series. Theropods generally showed an increase in size from the earliest deposits to the later Flood deposits, but had a small peak in size in the Middle Jurassic deposits also. The sizes of dinosaurs buried at different times in the Flood seem to have been influenced by several factors, including habitat elevation, mobility, and reaction to danger or intelligence. The larger brain size and mobility of the coelurosaur theropods may explain their prevalence in the Cretaceous system. Higher mobility of theropods in general may explain their greater than expected proportion of footprints also.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 “Introduction “It has often been stated in the literature that the

average dinosaur was only the size of a sheep or large dog. This notion probably originated in the secular scientific literature where Horner and Lessem (1993) have claimed that most dinosaurs were smaller than bulls, and in popular literature where Crichton (1995) has stated that they were the size of sheep or a pony. Unfortunately, most of these estimates have been based on very little empirical data. It is critical that creationists base their statements on the best available data, so this contribution hopefully assists that endeavor.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 “There are about 1350 species of dinosaurs, with several new

named each year (O’Gorman and Hone 2012). Most of these are named on incomplete specimens, so occasionally a species becomes combined with another, reducing the overall number of species. Benton (2008) estimated that the overall success rate in naming a new dinosaur species has been about 50%. A lot of this uncertainty is due to the fragmentary nature of most discoveries.

“Fig. 1 shows one way to classify dinosaurs. Dinosauria are first divided into two clades (Orders) by hip style, the Ornithischia (bird-hipped) and the Saurischia (lizard-hipped). These two groups are further subdivided into five suborders based on additional skeletal similarities, the Thyreophora, the Marginocephalia, the Ornithopoda, the Sauropodomorpha and the Theropoda. Currently accepted infraorders are also shown for each suborder. The data set used in this study occasionally differentiated down to the Family level.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 “Determining the exact mass of a dinosaur is something

we’ll never be able to do without a living specimen. Scientists can only make estimates using skeletal data. For this reason, mass estimates for some dinosaurs have changed dramatically over the years. The earliest models and paintings portrayed dinosaurs as fat, sluggish, lethargic-looking reptiles. Most of the first reconstructions of upright dinosaurs were in the classic, kangaroo-like pose, with the tail dragging on the ground behind. More recent portrayals have made dinosaurs into leaner and more agile-moving creatures. Detailed computer analyses, footprint data, showing a lack of tail-dragging marks, and movies such as Jurassic Park have made these slimmer reconstructions mainstream.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 “There are three generally accepted ways to

estimate dinosaur mass: 1) use of leg bone circumferences, 2) use of fleshed-out scale models, and 3) use of leg bone lengths. Some paleontologists prefer to use scale models (Lucas 2007), but there are distinct advantages and disadvantages to all methods. The beauty of the circumference method is in its simplicity. All a paleontologist needs is a couple of leg bones, which are often well preserved, in order to make a reasonable estimate of body mass, and the same is true of the leg-length method.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 “Anderson, Hall-Martin, and Russell (1985) developed a method to

estimate mass of a quadruped based on the circumferences of the humerus and femur bones, measured at the midpoint where the bones are the thinnest. They summed the two circumferences and plotted the value against body mass on a logarithmic scale and found a straight-line relationship and corresponding best-fit equation for us to use. A similar method involving the circumference of only the femur was also developed for bipedal dinosaurs (Anderson, Hall-Martin, and Russell 1985).

“The scale model method requires a more complete skeleton to begin with in order to make an estimate and may be less accurate due to a possible greater variation in the fleshed-out volume of the model (Benson et al. 2014). The leg bone length method of estimating dinosaur mass is also thought to be less reliable compared to the circumference method (Benson et al. 2014).

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 “There have been several large studies that have tried to

address the question of average dinosaur size. However, because most dinosaur specimens are incomplete and many do not possess sufficient leg bones, an average dinosaur size has been difficult to determine. An early attempt by Peczkis (1994) used 220 dinosaur genera. Peczkis determined that the mass of dinosaurs varied across six orders of magnitude with the modal mass range falling in the 1–10 tonnes (1.1–11.02 US short tons, 0.98–9.8 British long tons) category. More recent research has examined individual species instead of genera. O’Gorman and Hone (2012) used 329 species of dinosaurs, but relied heavily on less accurate methods of mass estimation, including bone lengths and scale models. Benson et al. (2014) exclusively used leg bone shaft circumference measurements of 441 species of dinosaurs and fossil birds to compile their mass estimates.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 “Methods “The data used in this study was taken from the

species listed in Dataset S1 of Benson et al. (2014). These data include species name, suborder classification, some infraorders, a mass estimate (kg) if leg bone material was available and the level of occurrence in the rock strata. This is likely the most accurate, and comprehensive, data set of dinosaur mass estimates to date. Unfortunately the data set also included many fossil birds.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 “Before beginning our study, we eliminated all mass

estimates that were classified as birds (Avialae) and five arguable bird-like species that were classified as theropods such as Microraptor gui. We also dropped all species that had no given mass estimate, paring down our analysis to a final total of 350 dinosaur species. This final data set included some mass estimates from different species within the same genus when leg bone material was available. We also left in 10 theropods and one sauropodomorph with multiple (two, and sometimes three) mass estimates from the same species, but determined using different specimens.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-1 确定恐龙平均大小 -1 “We were able to extract classification information from the

published data set to place each of the dinosaurs into one of the five suborders listed in Fig. 1. Further classification into infraorders was not attempted as the numbers in some of these categories were quite small, making statistical analysis less meaningful. We also used the geologic occurrence information given for each specimen to place the dinosaurs into one of six, accepted geologic series, the Upper Triassic, the Lower Jurassic, the Middle Jurassic, the Upper Jurassic, the Lower Cretaceous, and the Upper Cretaceous, in ascending Flood depositional order. Two of the 350 dinosaur species used in this study did not have any geologic series information provided. Statistics and graphing of data were done using both MS Excel and the R statistical programming language.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Results “Basic mass trends “Table 1 shows the overall basic statistics for the dataset. Adult

dinosaur masses were found to range from 0.14 kg (0.3 lb) to 56,000 kg (123,459 lb) in this data set, with a mean of 4282 kg (9440 lb) and a median of 630 kg (1389 lb). This mean is approximately equivalent to a small adult African elephant and the median mass is equivalent to an adult American bison. However, median size is probably a better measure of the average adult dinosaur size as it is not skewed as much by the high number of sauropodomorph specimens in the data base, and their extreme size, compared to the mean. Table 1 also shows that there are small dinosaurs (less than 10 kg [22 lb]) in every suborder of dinosaurs, except the Thyreophora. As expected, the median and mean are highest for the sauropodomorphs and smallest for the theropods.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Table 1. Basic mass (kg) statistics for the five major dinosaur

orders.

N Range Mean Median

Sauropodomorphs 91 1.2 to 56,000 12,640 9800

Theropods 152 0.14 to 7700 652 99

Marginocephalia 25 3 to 14,000 2305 120

Thyreophora 18 610 to 7400 2858 2300

Ornithopoda 64 0.73 to 17,000 2189 415

All dinosaurs 350 0.14 to 56,000 4282 630

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Fig. 2 shows the number of dinosaurs in various mass

categories in the data set. This graph suggests adult dinosaur masses exhibit a bimodal distribution, either very light (0–60 kg [0–132 lb]) or very heavy (1081–56,000 kg [2383–123,459 lb]). The fewest dinosaurs in the data set fall in the 61–360 kg (134–794 lb) range. So, yes there were a lot of small dinosaurs, but there were even more large and extremely large dinosaurs. For some reason though, the medium-sized dinosaur was the least common. This may have to do with the ecological niches that small and large dinosaurs were able to fill, or it could be a designed survival tactic. A really small dinosaur could hide more easily, and a large dinosaur was less likely to be threatened by predators. It was likely an advantage to be one or the other. On the other side, small predators could hunt small prey and large predators could hunt larger prey, possibly explaining why there were fewer medium-sized predators also.

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“These data show that it is unlikely that the average dinosaur was the size of a large dog or pony as often quoted in the literature. Instead, a median-sized adult dinosaur was comparable to the mass of a modern adult bison. However, just because the median size of an adult dinosaur was fairly large, it doesn’t mean there was a room problem on Noah’s Ark during the global Flood. Most dinosaur pairs on the Ark would likely have been juveniles or young adults, not the largest and oldest dinosaurs so often seen in museum specimens. The dinosaurs taken on the Ark might have only averaged 70–100 kg (154–320 lb), or about sheep sized.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “All dinosaurs went through a year or two when

they grew very rapidly, a growth spurt similar to teenage humans (Erickson, Rogers, and Yerby 2001). Dinosaurs were possibly taken on the Ark about a year prior to this growth spurt, thereby needing less to eat over the course of the year-long Flood. After the Flood and their release to land, the dinosaurs would have experienced their growth spurt, rapidly maturing to adult size and sexual maturity, and therefore able to fulfill God’s plan to repopulate and fill the earth (Genesis 9:7).

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Results of Dinosaur Mass by Order of Flood

Burial “We also examined the data set for mass

distribution patterns with order of deposition in the Flood sediments. It has been suggested that the larger dinosaurs might have survived longer as they were more mobile and able to withstand the earlier Flood events compared to smaller ones (Snelling 2014). This implies a relationship to size and timing of burial in the Flood, and that dinosaurs should become larger with time, sorting themselves upward in the Flood strata.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “In order to test this hypothesis, we analyzed the total

dinosaur (n = 348) distribution by stratum, and the individual suborders of the Sauropodomorphs, Theropods, and Ornithopods by their order of deposition. We did not examine the Marginocephalia (n = 25) and Thyreophora (n = 18) suborders individually by order of their burial because there were so few specimens in these categories.

Table 2 lists the means and medians for all 348 dinosaur taxa and selected suborders by geologic series or depositional sequence. In this analysis, the mean is probably the most significant number as it minimizes the large mass ranges within the dinosaur groups.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Table 2. Means in kg (median in parentheses) of dinosaurs by

geological series. Upper Lower Middle Upper Lower Upper Triassic Jurassic Jurassic Jurassic Cretaceous Cretaceous

Sauropodomorphs 1015 1,950 12,382 22,508 12,660 13,386 (805) (460) (8900) (16,000) (11,500) (9050)

Theropods 53 223 642 557 551 854

(16) (195) (560) (72) (20) (180)

Ornithopoda 17 16 20 301 2386 3093

(17) (6) (7) (150) (800) (3200)

All dinosaurs 575 1097 6009 9866 3108 3221

(30) (260) (1400) (2300) (260) (675)

All dinosaurs (minus 46 166 617 1216 1165 1782

Sauropodomorphs) (31) (88) (360) (375) (51) (420)

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Results show that only smaller varieties of dinosaurs seem to

have become buried in the lowest dinosaur-bearing strata. The mean mass for all dinosaur taxa buried in the Upper Triassic series is 575 kg (1268 lb). In the next stratum above, the mean mass of all dinosaurs goes up dramatically, with a mean of 1097 kg (2418 lb) in the Lower Jurassic series. This trend in mean mass continues to increase through the Middle Jurassic (6009 kg [13,248 lb]) and Upper Jurassic (9866 kg [21,751 lb]) series until the Lower Cretaceous, when the mean dinosaur mass drops to 3108 kg [6852 lb]. Finally, the mean mass stays nearly constant through the last of the dinosaur-bearing stratum, the Upper Cretaceous series, where the mean mass is 3221 kg (7079 lb). These data suggest that dinosaur deposition as a whole did not get systematically larger and larger as the period of the deluge progressed.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Although only small varieties of dinosaurs are found in the

lowest dinosaur-bearing strata, similar small dinosaurs are found continually throughout all subsequent Flood strata, through the Upper Cretaceous series. The mean mass in each higher level stratum is merely altered by the immense sizes of dinosaurs found in Jurassic and Cretaceous strata.

“We also conducted linear regression analysis of the 348 dinosaur taxa to see if there was any statistical correlation between dinosaur mass and strata. The R-value was nearly zero at −0.0097 due to the inclusion of many small dinosaurs in every stratum (Fig 3). Overall, it can be said that there is no significant correlation between dinosaur mass and strata. However, a visual inspection of the plots indicated that the sauropodomorphs were potentially masking any detectable linear trend. After their removal, the data set and regression analysis gave a positive, but low correlation of R = 0.19.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Both the theropods and the ornithopods exhibit

the largest mean masses in the Upper Cretaceous strata (Table 2). In contrast, the sauropodomorphs show a peak in mean mass in the Upper Jurassic and a dramatic drop in mean mass in the final two dinosaur-bearing series. This peak was almost double the mean mass of the previous series (Middle Jurassic) and was again, nearly double the mean mass of each subsequent series (Lower and Upper Cretaceous).

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Because the sauropodomorphs make up a

substantial amount of the data set (n = 91), and their mass distribution pattern was completely different from the other suborders, we also calculated the mass of all other dinosaur suborders collectively, excluding the sauropodomorphs (Table 2). Results of this analysis showed a different pattern with burial compared to our earlier analysis of all the dinosaurs. The mean mass of dinosaurs failed to show a clear, systematic increase with time of burial even without the influence of the sauropodomorphs. Although the mean mass generally increases with time, there is still an observable drop in mean mass in the Lower Cretaceous series.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “However, we do not just observe large dinosaurs in

the last of the dinosaur-bearing strata. As shown in Fig. 3, there are many small dinosaurs in every rock layer, from the Upper Triassic through the Upper Cretaceous, complicating statistical relationships. Fig. 3 does show the larger dinosaurs getting larger with time, boosting the mean masses and contributing to the observed weak statistical significance. But this relationship is skewed by the very largest sauropodomorphs which peaked in the Upper Jurassic.

Fig. 3 (A). Plot of all individual dinosaur masses by geologic strata. (B). Plot of all individual dinosaur masses by geologic strata omitting sauropodomorphs.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Discussion and Conclusions “Where does this all lead? Are we any closer to

explaining the fossil record of dinosaurs? Yes and no. Yes, we now have a fairly accurate median adult dinosaur size of 630 kg (1389 lb), based on the largest, most accurate survey of the currently available data on dinosaur taxa. This is a lot heavier than many earlier estimates of a dog or pony, and closer to that of an American bison. We would suggest that creationists should be careful not to state that the “average” dinosaur was necessarily small. There were many small dinosaurs, but just as many large dinosaurs, boosting the median size considerably.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “And no, there is no simple explanation to the

distribution of dinosaurs in the Flood rocks—the model is clearly multi-factor. In fact, Snelling (2014) suggested there were at least three factors that determined the burial order of organisms in the Flood: 1) their elevation of habitat, 2) their reaction to danger (and possibly intelligence), and 3) their mobility. If we assume the dinosaurs were living at about the same elevation and habitat, we can essentially eliminate the first factor, leaving us with two main variables. A fairly similar elevation of habitat is possibly why dinosaurs are found only in limited Flood strata (exclusively in the Mesozoic Erathem). Obviously, there was some variation in their habitat elevations, but overall, it may not have been as significant as the other two factors discussed below.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Dinosaur reaction to danger may be partly related to their

intelligence. Dinosaurs exhibited large variations in brain-to-body ratios (Lucas 2007). Most dinosaur suborders, the sauropodomorphs, thyreophorans, and ceratopsians had relative brain sizes much less than that of a modern lizard. Whereas, the ornithopods had relative brain sizes similar to modern lizards, or slightly larger. Theropods had the largest brain-to-body ratios of any dinosaur group, with most of them possessing brains larger than a comparable-sized lizard (between 1.0–1.8 times greater; Lucas 2007). And the coelurosaurs (a subcategory of the theropods which includes the “raptors”) had by far the largest brains of any dinosaur category, with brains about 5.8 times larger than a comparable modern lizard (Lucas 2007).

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “The reason so many small coelurosaur

dinosaurs were found in higher Flood strata, like the Lower and Upper Cretaceous systems, may be because these dinosaurs were the most intelligent. They likely recognized and reacted to the dangers of the rising Floodwaters quicker and more efficiently than many other dinosaurs, and thus, survived longer before eventually succumbing to burial.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Dinosaur mobility also probably played a big role in

stratification of the dinosaurs. Few large dinosaurs are found in the lowest dinosaur-bearing strata because the larger ones were able to escape more readily. And yet, the largest sauropodomorphs are found in Late Jurassic rocks, near the middle of the dinosaur-bearing strata. It is likely that the sauropodomorphs could not run as fast or sustain travel as far as many of the other larger dinosaur groups, like the ornithopods and the ceratopsians. As mentioned above, the sauropodomorphs also had the smallest brain-to-body ratios of any dinosaur suborder which probably caused them to react much differently to the impending dangers of the rising water. The large herds (numbering thousands) of ornithopods and ceratopsians that likely were very mobile and could sustain travel for great distances are also found dominantly in the uppermost dinosaur-bearing rocks of the Cretaceous system.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Many of the largest theropods are found in the final dinosaur-

bearing Flood strata also. It was likely their combination of size, mobility, and intelligence that allowed them to survive as long as they did. It is no surprise, therefore, to find Tyrannosaurus rex fossils near the top of Upper Cretaceous strata.

“Dinosaur mobility may also explain why there appears to be an overrepresentation of theropod footprints compared to the bone record of theropods. Bone fossils of theropods make up much less than 10% of the dinosaur fossils (Lockley and Hunt 1995). Tracks at the Purgatoire site in Colorado, in Jurassic system rocks, show a 60% theropod (predator) to 40% sauropodomorph (prey) distribution (Lockley and Hunt 1995). And tracks within the Dakota Group (Cretaceous system) near Denver, Colorado at Dinosaur Ridge exhibit proportions of 25–30% predator to 70–75% prey (Lockley and Hunt 1995).

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “Why the discrepancy between dinosaur footprint

data and the bone data? Higher activity levels of the theropods may be the solution. This makes even more sense if considered in a Flood context, however. During the Flood, the theropods may have used their higher intelligence, speed, and agility levels to disproportionately escape the advancing Floodwaters and leave more tracks, compared to the slower, and less agile, plant eaters. This may be one reason why the proportion of theropod bones does not match the proportion of theropod tracks.

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Determining Average Dinosaur Size-2 确定恐龙平均大小 -2 “It appears there are competing and complicating

factors to the order of dinosaur burial in the Flood. Variables such as reaction to danger and mobility seem to have strongly influenced the burial order of some dinosaur groups, and to a lesser degree, the relative differences in habitat elevation. Although some dinosaur groups seem to follow distinct patterns, it may not be possible to sort out which factor was most dominant in every case.

It is inevitable that future finds on dinosaur bones might change our current conclusions, though we suspect our estimate will not be changed drastically.”

Thank God for the contributions of scientists Timothy L. Clarey and Jeffrey P. Tomkins.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ Dr. Elizabeth Mitchell published the above article in the Answers

In Genesis website on February 21, 2015. I now quote her article as follows:

“Did viral invasion help the mammalian brain evolve? “About 8–10% of human DNA, as well as the DNA of animals like

mice, consists of scattered DNA sequences matching those of retroviruses. These sequences are called endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) because they are actually a part of the healthy host cell’s DNA. (Exogenous retroviruses—like HIV that causes AIDS—come from outside a cell and infect it.) How ERVs came to be part of our DNA and what they are doing there have been the subjects of much speculation and research. Scientists have known for some time that placental formation depends on ERVs. Evolutionists credit such viruses with making mammalian evolution possible. Now scientists have shown that ERVs play a crucial role in the development of the mouse brain.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ Exogenous retroviruses invade cells. They make DNA copies of

their own RNA genome, and each DNA copy inserts itself into the host cell’s genome, where it is called a provirus. Once incorporated into a cell’s DNA, this provirus may replicate itself and move on to infect other cells or it may linger for a time. Proviruses can also be inherited as a part of a host cell’s genome; an inherited provirus is called an endogenous retrovirus. A provirus—whether exogenous or endogenous—can affect the expression of nearby genes. And if a virus is incorporated into the genome of a reproductive cell, it can be passed down to offspring. Evolutionists think that endogenous retroviruses are broken-down versions of ancient exogenous retroviruses that were incorporated into many genomes millions of years ago. Reproduced from user “Mrdavis21,” Wikimedia Commons.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “What’s a Virus to Do? “’We have been able to observe that these viruses

are activated specifically in the brain cells and have an important regulatory role,” explains Johan Jakobsson, who led the Lund University team that made the discovery. “We believe that the role of retroviruses can contribute to explaining why brain cells in particular are so dynamic and multifaceted in their function. It may also be the case that the viruses’ more or less complex functions in various species can help us to understand why we are so different.”

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Many viruses contain DNA, but retroviruses contain RNA

instead. An RNA virus normally makes DNA copies of its genome and inserts them into a host cell’s DNA. Exogenous retroviruses are RNA viruses that invade cells and, like DNA viruses, hijack the host cells’ machinery to replicate themselves and then go on to infect other cells. But endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) do not behave like this. They—or rather the DNA versions called proviruses—are actually part of the cells’ genome. They do not seem to be in the business of copying themselves and breaking free to infect other cells but simply get copied along with the rest of the DNA and passed along from generation to generation. Whether endogenous or exogenous, this retroviral DNA can trigger the expression of other genes in the DNA. Exogenous retroviruses that do this can, for instance, cause tumor production. But what sorts of things might endogenous retroviruses do?

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “The Placental Story “Before exploring what Jakobsson and colleagues

discovered about the brain cells in mouse embryos, let’s step back a moment and examine the role of ERVs in the formation of the placenta.

“Cell membranes normally keep their cell “insides” in and the outside out. They regulate what part of the outside is allowed to come in and what part of the inside is allowed to exit. But placental formation requires cell fusion! So what did God design in order to make this happen? Something we know as a virus. Specifically, an endogenous retrovirus. Except that this virus is not an enemy alien, a pathogenic invader come to destroy, but an integral part of the mammalian genome and essential to mammalian life.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Disease-causing viruses, a scourge to mankind,

insert their genetic material into host cells and hijack the cell’s reproductive machinery to replicate the components to build more viruses. Retroviruses must bring along the molecular tools to make DNA copies of their own RNA. Therefore, they must fuse with the cell membrane so that all of their components enter the host cell. Retroviruses are able to do this because they produce a particular protein product that tags the cell membrane, acting like an entry-pass by making the cell recognize the retrovirus as “friendly” and respond to it by merging its membrane with the virus’s. Endogenous retroviruses associated with placental formation also make this substance.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “As a mammalian embryo forms, some of its cells are

partitioned off to form the placenta. Those cells—called trophoblasts—invade the uterine wall and fuse together to form the placenta, a complex organ that builds blood vessels continuous with those of the developing embryo, connecting via the umbilical cord. In recent years scientists have learned that the ability of the trophoblastic cells to fuse, forming the placenta, comes from certain retroviral genes in the mammalian genome. The specific genes differ from species to species, but expression of these genes is essential to placental formation and therefore to mammalian reproduction.

Of course these particular retroviruses are actually part of the genome. How did mammals get these viruses? Were these endogenous retroviruses ever really invaders?

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Ancient Invaders Bearing Evolutionary Gifts? “Did ERVs start out as invaders bestowing the

information life needed to evolve into complex organisms like mammals? Evolutionists believe so. Evolutionists maintain that long ago retroviruses infected cells of evolving organisms, supplied those cells with the ability to fuse or do other things useful for survival or reproduction, and—like the formerly outdoor feline that now lives exclusively inside my house—stayed on like freeloaders. And unlike the cat, these ancient retroviruses provided some useful services in their new homes. Evolutionists believe endogenous retroviruses no longer break loose to infect other cells because millions of years of mutations damaged them.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Many creation scientists instead maintain

that the same Designer, the creator God of all, used this design to make life and reproduction possible in many organisms, including human beings, from the beginning. If that is the case, then at least some of these “endogenous retroviruses”—regardless of their disconcerting, dangerous-sounding name—were never random invaders that took up residence in cells but a part of God’s design from the beginning.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Transposable Elements “Scattered throughout DNA, endogenous retroviruses

(ERVs) were once thought to be part of the so-called “junk DNA” that evolutionists thought were evolutionary leftovers without any function. Of course, now scientists, with the ENCODE study, have demonstrated that much if not most of so-called “junk DNA” has a function. Like many other transposable elements (DNA sequences that are repeated in many places in the genome), ERVs can regulate the expression of other genes. ERVs are found in all vertebrate genomes. As such, the ERVs may help explain at a genetic level how species with genetic similarities differ greatly. Of course, understanding how animals differ is not the same as demonstrating how they came to differ in the unobservable past.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Controlling Genetic Expression “The expression of genes in DNA is controlled in several

ways. DNA methylation—attaching “methyl” chemical groups to DNA in order to silence certain genes—is one way. Another such epigenetic (“above the level of the gene”) method of controlling genetic expression includes wrapping the genes around spool-like proteins called histones. With such controls, genes can be expressed at the time when they are needed, such as at particular phases of embryonic development, and then be silenced.

“Most known ERVs seem to be controlled by DNA methylation. But, Jakobsson says, “There seems to be a different mechanism regulating endogenous retroviruses in brain cells than in other cells.” These cells control the expression of their ERVs with histone modification.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Architects of Neural Complexity? “Early in embryonic development, these embryonic brain cells may,

researchers suspect, fine-tune the way nerve cells develop and the complex connections they form using ERVs. “Brain cells are very complex compared to other cells,” explains Jakobsson. “Co-opting endogenous retroviruses allows for much more complexity, especially since they make up so much of the genome.”

“Jakobsson’s team found that a gene called TRIM28 is responsible for the histone modification of ERVs in mice. They experimented with disabling TRIM28 genes to see what would happen. In most cells, the loss of histone modification made no difference. But in mouse brain cells the effect was dramatic. When TRIM28 is disabled in the embryonic brain cells, their ERVs seemed to “wake up” and trigger expression of various nearby genes and even the transcription of some other non-coding regions of the DNA.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “When both copies (alleles) of TRIM28 are destroyed in living

mouse embryos, they die. When only one copy of TRIM28 is eliminated, the embryos survive but have various behavioral abnormalities such as hyperactivity and symptoms mimicking human psychiatric disorders. This suggests, the researchers believe, that ERVs could not only be important for mammalian embryonic brain development but even be associated with behavioral problems:

“’Together, these findings demonstrate that disruption of TRIM28 levels in the mouse brain results in behavioral changes that are similar to impairments found in humans with certain psychiatric disorders. With this in mind, it is noteworthy that increased levels of ERV transcripts have been detected in patients with several neurological and psychiatric disorders.’

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Functional Significance “Many scenarios are possible. ERVs may play a crucial role in

early embryonic brain development—perhaps by helping orchestrate other complex controls on gene expression. And they might ultimately cause problems if not shut down properly once their job is done. It is far too early to draw any definitive conclusions about the functional significance of ERVs in normal and abnormal brain development and function, even in mice, much less in humans. And it will be difficult to nail down too many specifics, as the same ERVs appear at many locations in the genome, multiplying the potential complexity of their effects. Nevertheless, it now seems likely that the ERVs do play some sort of role in mouse—and possibly all mammalian—embryonic brain development.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “The next question to address, however, is where these ERVs

came from. And if they somehow help tweak and tailor the complex development of the embryonic brain, does that mean they played a role in the evolution of the complex mammalian brain? Evolutionists often claim they can extrapolate from observations of embryonic development to unobservable speculations about a hypothetical evolutionary past. (This is called Recapitulation Theory. Read more about in “Recapitulation Repackaged and Re-Applied.”) Indeed, since ERVs comprise a significant percentage of the mammalian genome and are necessary for proper placental development, do we, as biological mammals with superior brain function, owe our very existence to the intrusion of ancient retroviruses on the evolutionary process? Many evolutionists would answer “yes.”

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Evolutionists generally assume that ERVs are the hobbled

remains of retroviruses that invaded the genomes of evolving organisms millions of years ago, bringing in essential genetic information to facilitate evolution. Jakobsson and colleagues speculate about the possible evolutionary pros and cons of ancient retroviral incorporation into genomes:

“’Occasionally, retroviruses infect germline cells allowing the integrated proviruses to be passed on to the offspring as an endogenous retrovirus (ERV). Around 8%–10% of the human and mouse genome are composed of this type of TE [transposable element], and, despite up to millions of years since their integration in host germline, many ERVs contain sequences that can serve as transcriptional start sites or as cis-acting regulatory elements in the host genomes.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “’The large amount of ERVs in mammalian

genomes suggest that they play important roles in the host organisms, for instance, by influencing gene regulatory networks, but ERVs have also been linked to diseases. In humans, aberrant expression of ERVs has been found in both cancer and brain disorders, although causality remains to be established. Thus ERVs may contribute both beneficial and detrimental effects, which have been balanced throughout evolution, to the host organism.’

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “We must remember, however, that no scientist has

observed these ubiquitous proviral elements being integrated into vertebrate genomes, nor can anyone show that these events occurred millions of years ago. DNA sequences do not come with labels giving their age. Efforts to say how many millions of years old a particular gene is are based on a stack of unverifiable evolutionary worldview-based assumptions.

“Dr. Yingguang Liu, associate professor of microbiology at Liberty University’s College of Osteopathic Medicine, commented on the significance of this study and how it is explained by the biblical creationist model of origins:

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “’For a number of years, I have been advocating that ERV

elements were created in the cell to provide coordinated regulation of interspersed genes, among other possible functions. Our laboratory studies showed that multiple human ERV elements were controlled simultaneously by female sex hormones. It is encouraging that mouse ERVs are found to regulate nearby genes in the brain. However, these authors still believe ERVs are recent insertions into the mouse genome. Did mice all have psychiatric/behavioral disorders before they were infected by ERVs?’

“Many ERVs are not only critical to life through irreducibly complex associations with other cellular processes but are also tightly controlled by the molecular mechanisms that normally control genetic expression in cells. This suggests they were a critical design element present from the beginning—not of molecules-to-mammals evolution, but of divinely designed creation.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Viruses in a Very Good World? “So if these important ERVs are not the vestiges of

viral invasion representing a pivotal event in evolutionary history, why do they look like viral elements? Where did viruses come from anyway? Do they serve any good purposes?

“Well, as much as we are accustomed to thinking of viruses as our enemies—especially in the flu season and more particularly in view of the terrible scourges of viruses like HIV and Ebola—we need to remember that many viruses do not hurt us. In fact, many viruses serve useful roles.

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “For instance, bacteriophages—viruses that infect

bacteria—help our immune system fend off pathogenic viruses. Bacteriophages may also facilitate the transfer of genetic information between microorganisms, enabling them to adapt to a changing environment. And since most microbial organisms are actually beneficial and even essential to us and to our environment rather than harmful, the fact that God apparently designed microbes to adapt in this way is an example of God’s good design. That some viruses, bacteria, and other microbial organisms have become pathogenic is an effect of sin’s curse on a world originally created perfectly good (Genesis 1:31).

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Endogenous Retroviruses: Key to Mammalian Brain Development? 内源性逆转录病毒：哺乳动物大脑发展的关键？ “Much research remains to be done to discover the functions of

ERVs and to learn more about how today’s pathogenic viruses could be related to non-pathogenic counterparts. Some scientists—both evolutionists and creationists—have even suggested that endogenous retroviruses could be the source of some exogenous retroviruses! But we do know from God’s eyewitness account in the Bible that God created all kinds of living things to reproduce after their kinds about 6,000 years ago. Even though viruses were first discovered in connection with disease, we should not discount their importance in a perfectly good world. And given that the same Creator—our common Designer—created mammalian genomes and viruses, the existence of homologous DNA sequences among them should not be a surprise. Perhaps as more research is done, clues about possible relationships between endogenous and exogenous retroviruses will become apparent.”

Thank God for Dr. Mitchell’s contribution.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Experiment: How to Make Water Climb a Tree 实验：如何使水爬树 Scientist John UpChurch published the above article

in the Answers In Genesis website on March 12, 2014; last featured February 22, 2015. I now quote his article below:

“How do you make water flow upward? It’s not a problem if you’re the Creator of the universe.

“American poet Joyce Kilmer famously penned the words, “I think that I shall never see a poem lovely as a tree.” While Kilmer marveled at the external wonders of trees—and God adorned them with plenty—some real “poetry in motion” happens on the inside. That’s where our Creator made a way for water to defy gravity, flowing upward to nourish leaves hundreds of feet above the ground.

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Experiment: How to Make Water Climb a Tree 实验：如何使水爬树 “Most of the time we experience the downward force

of water. Rain pours from clouds, waterfalls gush over rocky cliffs into pools below, and spilled drinks splatter off the table and soak the carpet. Put simply: water flows downward. But when you take a paper towel to that water you spilled, suddenly you’ve flipped things around—and the water goes up.

“While we take for granted that towels can absorb our messes, why does this happen? Yes, the water moves from the floor up into the cotton or paper fibers. But it’s not mainly because of properties in the fibers themselves—despite what paper towel commercials say. Rather, water is sticky.

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Experiment: How to Make Water Climb a Tree 实验：如何使水爬树 “The bent V-shape of water molecules (H2O) gives them

something of a split personality. One end has a positive charge, and the other end a negative. In the same way that the negative side of one magnet attracts the positive side of another magnet, two water molecules cling together through hydrogen bonding. This clinginess gives water some unique characteristics that work together to draw water into the leaves of trees.

“For one thing, the surface of water contracts as all the molecules pull together. This creates tension, which allows some objects to float above the water like they’re resting on a tight mesh. Also, the bonding that makes water molecules adhere to each other (cohesion) also makes them stick to most containers (adhesion). That’s why it’s so hard to get those last drops out of your glass.

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Experiment: How to Make Water Climb a Tree 实验：如何使水爬树 “So, what do you get when you combine water’s surface

tension and its adhesive qualities? Capillary action, or the ability of water to “climb.”

“Now, let’s be clear. Water can’t just scale a mountain. After all, gravity is good at its job, keeping oceans and lakes in place and making sure your drink doesn’t crawl out of your cup. But if you put water in a narrow enough container, something incredible happens.

“Perhaps you’ve seen this effect with a straw or tube. The smaller the tube’s diameter, the more the water will rise. Those sticky water molecules grab on to one another and to the sides of the tube and hoist themselves up. It’s something like a chain reaction.

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Experiment: How to Make Water Climb a Tree 实验：如何使水爬树 “The same thing happens when towels sop up the

spills. The molecules latch onto each other and flow up into the fibers (it’s almost as if capillary action does the cleanup work for you—almost). Empty spaces in sponges also produce capillary action that absorbs a great deal of water, and sports fabrics designed to wick away sweat rely on this effect.

“Capillary action also gives trees and other plants a boost in drawing nutrient-rich water from the soil up the stem and into the leaves. The small tubes in plants (called their vascular system) help water molecules move up.

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Experiment: How to Make Water Climb a Tree 实验：如何使水爬树 “Its power is greatly multiplied when you factor in

transpiration—the evaporation of water from the leaves and stems of plants. As water evaporates, it creates something of a vacuum that helps draw up more water to replace what escaped. Transpiration creates the vacuum, but the cohesion keeps the water molecules linked in a chain that is strong enough to withstand the pull of gravity and not break.

“Such forces help explain why the largest living tree on Earth, the California redwood, can tickle the sky at up to 379 feet (116 m), and still haul up minerals from soil to leaf. (See the experiment for how you can watch this happen on a smaller scale.)

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Experiment: How to Make Water Climb a Tree 实验：如何使水爬树 “Given the “gravity busting” ability of capillary action,

Kilmer’s poem ends appropriately: “Poems are made by fools like me, but only God can make a tree.” Genesis 1 makes a brief reference to God’s creation of water and plants, which may not impress a casual reader, but the more we study the details, the more our appreciation for our Creator’s majesty keeps on growing.

“See for Yourself . . . “You don’t have to cut open a tree to see capillary

action; it can take place right on your kitchen counter. But to observe it, you’ll need some patience and adult help.

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Experiment: How to Make Water Climb a Tree 实验：如何使水爬树 “Materials ½ cup of water

Clear glass or vaseTube of red or blue liquid food coloring Three or four white carnations (fresh flowers with shorter stems work best) Sharp knifeCamera

“Procedure Pour the ½ cup of water into the glass or vase. Put about 20 drops of food coloring into the water. Get an adult to cut the stems of the carnations at a 45º angle. Be careful not

to crush the stems with a dull knife or scissors. Use the stems of your carnations to stir the dye into the water. Take a picture of the flowers so that you can check the progress later.

Leave your flowers in the dyed water. Take pictures of your flowers after 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours (or as

often as you can during that time). Note the changes you see.

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Experiment: How to Make Water Climb a Tree 实验：如何使水爬树

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Experiment: How to Make Water Climb a Tree 实验：如何使水爬树 “Other Things to Try “Try adding more dye to your water. How does that

change the results? “Use celery instead of carnations. Does celery work

the same way? “Split the stem of an undyed carnation down the

middle. Put one half in red dye and one half in blue die. What happens to the petals?”

Thank God for Scientist John UpChurch for his contribution.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Saharan Dust—Part 1: Circumnavigation of Earth and Snow in California 撒哈拉尘第 1 部分：地球和雪在加州航行 Geologist Carl Froede Jr published the above article in the

Volume 20 Number 1 of the Creation Matters. His article is quoted below:

“Beginning in the 20th century, atmospheric and geological scientists began the study of airborne dust and other microscopic particles (i.e. aerosols) in the atmosphere. Only in the last 50 years have scientists begun to discover its global impact. Research in the last ten years has revealed several surprises.

“This subject is worthy of investigation, especially from a biblical perspective, because it factors into post-Flood plant, insect, and animal dispersion. The global interaction of what we view as our local weather is often not considered. A recent article on the atmospheric transport of Saharan Desert dust and aerosols reports unexpected results and these findings have implications for a post-Flood Earth.

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Saharan Dust—Part 1: Circumnavigation of Earth and Snow in California 撒哈拉尘第 1 部分：地球和雪在加州航行 “The topic of dust in the environment was reviewed by

Holms (2001). Her subject-specific chapters deal with various aspects of dust, derived from Asian deserts and the African continent, and its effect on our lives. The interested reader is encouraged to review that work for further information. Much has also been written in the naturalistic (i.e. non-biblical) scientific literature about Asian and African dust and aerosols and their effects on the western hemisphere.

“Surprisingly large volumes of particulates from the Saharan desert can be lifted and transported westward across the Atlantic in a matter of days (Froede, 2003). However, recent research indicates it also plays an important role in the precipitation of snow in California.

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Saharan Dust—Part 1: Circumnavigation of Earth and Snow in California 撒哈拉尘第 1 部分：地球和雪在加州航行 “Creamean et al. (2013) conducted a study

of the snowpack across California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains. They sought to determine the terrestrial sources and particulate composition of the nuclei responsible for snow accumulation. Dust and aerosols from the Asian desert had previously been identified, but in this new study, Creamean et al. (2013) recognize additional source areas including the Saharan Desert and Middle East.

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Saharan Dust—Part 1: Circumnavigation of Earth and Snow in California 撒哈拉尘第 1 部分：地球和雪在加州航行 “Dust and other aerosols derived from the Saharan

desert typically travel westward across the Atlantic Ocean. However, this new study identified Saharan Desert particles traveling eastward in mid-level clouds (13,100 to 16,400 feet above mean sea level, msl) around the globe. Of the different kinds of particles examined, bacteria were identified as the best source for ice nucleation (Lemonick, 2013). The results of this study suggest that the snowpack of California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains is derived from dust and aerosols sourced from geographically diverse areas and transported by air currents that circumnavigate the Earth.

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Saharan Dust—Part 1: Circumnavigation of Earth and Snow in California 撒哈拉尘第 1 部分：地球和雪在加州航行

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Saharan Dust—Part 1: Circumnavigation of Earth and Snow in California 撒哈拉尘第 1 部分：地球和雪在加州航行 “As a footnote, a recent study correlated volcanic ash

layers in northern Greenland and Western Europe to volcanic eruptions from the Wrangell volcanic field of southeastern Alaska (Jensen et al., 2014). Wind transported the ash eastward thousands of miles dropping the particles with a loss of the heat that originally lifted them into the atmosphere.

“The Bible states that wind blew across subsiding Floodwater (Gen 8:1). These winds probably continued for some time and eventually stabilized into the global atmospheric circulation patterns (and layers) we observe today. However, creationists have not studied possible wind patterns prior to modern conditions and past variations are certainly possible. Further study of post-Flood atmospheric conditions is warranted.

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Saharan Dust—Part 1: Circumnavigation of Earth and Snow in California 撒哈拉尘第 1 部分：地球和雪在加州航行 “The movement of air is important in understanding the

modern transport of dust and aerosol materials. These studies should be of great interest to creationists, because atmospheric transport likely played a role in plant, insect, and animal dispersion following the global Flood of Genesis (Froede, 2003; Rucker, 2004).

“This new study suggests that airborne dust and aerosols from African and Eurasian sources contribute to the deposition of snow located on the other side of Earth! This finding has implications for the development of alpine and continental glaciers following the Flood. The combination of dust and aerosols derived from Earth’s exposed un-vegetated landmasses combined with ash propelled into the atmosphere from erupting volcanoes would have served as nucleation sites for precipitation.

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Saharan Dust—Part 1: Circumnavigation of Earth and Snow in California 撒哈拉尘第 1 部分：地球和雪在加州航行

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Saharan Dust—Part 1: Circumnavigation of Earth and Snow in California 撒哈拉尘第 1 部分：地球和雪在加州航行 “Although undocumented at present, the buildup of

snow across the Earth following the Flood was probably a function of available atmospheric dust, particulates, and high levels of water vapor. The removal of these materials from the atmosphere in the centuries following the Flood along with a decrease in water vapor levels has likely served to reduce the volume of precipitation falling on Earth today.”

Thank God for geologist Carl Froede’s contribution.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？ Dr. Jerry Bergman published an article on the

above subject in the Volume 20 Number 1 of Creation Matters. I now quote his article as follows:

“The uvula (Latin, “little grape”) is a small tear-shaped projection located at the posterior edge of the center of the soft palate. It consists primarily of connective tissue containing secretory glands and diffuse interdigitated muscle fibers (musculus uvulae). Properly named the palatine uvula to distinguish it from the uvula vermis, a cerebellum lobe, or the uvula vesicae in the urinary bladder, it is often just called the uvula.

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？ “The uvula was long regarded as ‘a useless

remnant of our evolutionary past’ and a ‘vestigial organ in humans that has no function’ (Garner, 2003). Richardson and Pullen noted that the ‘uvula has been classed with vestigial structures, such as the vermiform appendix’ (1948). More recently, Putman and Shelton claim that the uvula is ‘a vestigial nublin of connective and glandular tissue’ (1985, p. 99). Azzan and Kuehn wrote ‘the uvula itself is often considered as a vestigial structure serving no important function in man’ (1977).

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？ “Some science teachers still teach that the uvula ‘does

nothing,’ and even some ‘anatomy experts think it is only a vestigial organ’ (Ray, 2003, pp. 162-163). Nonetheless, from ‘ancient times up to the present day many different functions…have been attributed to the uvula, many speculative and some with a more scientific basis’ (Back, et al. 2004).

“The most well-documented function of the uvula, in tandem with the back of the tongue, the palate, and the lungs, is its role in the articulation of guttural and other human voice sounds (Finkelstein, 1992). The uvula also allows singers to produce a vibrato sound, a wavy-soprano to bass voice. Additionally, it lowers resonance of the air column over the larynx to reduce the extremes of voices nasality (Back, et al., 2004; Kaplan, 1971, p. 298).

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？ “The uvula is unique to humans and ‘no comparable

organization of serous and mucous glands is found in the homologous velum of other mammals studied’ (Finkelstein, et al., 1992). This is logical, since its role is primarily as a speech organ. In one study, the soft palates of eight different mammals were compared. The researchers found evidence of a very small uvula-like structure in two baboons that, in contrast to humans’, does not differ histologically from the surrounding soft palate tissue. Another similar study led to the conclusion that the uvula may be yet ‘another structure that differentiates man from other mammals’ (Finkelstein, et al., 1992)

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？ “In humans, it varies greatly in size and shape, from a

tiny knob to a size reaching across almost to the opposite side of the throat (Finkelstein, et al., 1992). The variability of the uvula’s size and shape may help to explain the voice distinctions that help us to differentiate people on the basis of their speech.

“The uvula also produces seromucous fluid to provide the proper lubrication for complicated human speech, as can be illustrated by the dry throat problem that occurs in some speakers before addressing a large group of people. Studies of patients lacking the uvula have concluded it has an abundance of seromucous glands that can produce a large amount of saliva in a very short period of time (Back, et al., 2004).

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？ “The fact that the uvula can produce and secrete large

quantities of thin saliva is confirmed from the finding that a ‘common complication of surgery involving removal of the uvula is pharyngeal dryness…on phonation and swallowing, the uvula swings back and forth in the oropharynx,’ thereby basting the throat. This ‘helps keep it moist and well lubricated’ (Back, et al., 2004).

“For this reason, Finkelstein et al. concluded that a ‘major function of the uvula’ is as a lubricating organ (1992). Talking causes intermittent opening and closing of the velopharyngeal valve, which provides continued lubrication that is critical for normal speech (Hand, et al., 1999). Removal of the uvula usually results in a dry throat problem, which consequently causes hoarseness (Finkelstein, et al., 1992; Back, et al., 2004).

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？ “Thus, the evidence from numerous studies is clear, ‘the

uvula plays a very important role in moistening the oropharyngeal mucosa’ (Balcerzak, et al., 2006). The uvula also has large drainage canals that help to drain excess saliva from the oral cavity towards the base of the tongue (Delavan, 1923).

“The uvula striated muscle, called the musculus uvulae, is part of the soft palate and functions as part of the velopharyngeal mechanism. Two individually identifiable bundles of muscle elevate the uvula and shorten the soft palate (Assam and Kuehn, 1977). The uvula also triggers the swallowing reflex, and the uvula muscle allows it to stiffen, altering its shape to help seal off the breathing passage when swallowing. Some evidence also exists that the uvula may have a role in immunology (Finkelstein, et al., 1992).

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？ “Uvula abnormalities were once an argument about its lack of

function. If the mucous membrane around the uvula swells, it can expand from three to five times its normal size. If the swollen uvula touches the throat or tongue, it can cause a gag reflex or choking sensation, even if no foreign matter is present. This condition may cause breathing, talking, and eating problems. An abnormally elongated uvula can also contribute to snoring, or even sleep apnea, which is treated by removal of part of the uvula.

“However, this operation can also cause sleep apnea if scar tissue forms that decreases the velopharynx airspace. One study found that uvula removal can reduce symptoms normally caused by an abnormal uvula from 50 to 60 percent (Petri, et al., 1994). Typically, after the uvula is trimmed, sleep apnea subsides in the short term, but often returns in the long term, and is sometimes worse than it was before surgery.

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？ “Many factors exist to cause the uvula to swell, including

excessive smoking or inhaling of other irritants, dehydration from arid weather, snoring, an allergic reaction, or viral or bacterial infections. An aphthous ulcer that has formed on the uvula can also cause swelling and discomfort (Biblo and Gilbert, 1983).

“Instead of surgery, other treatment is often preferable. If swelling is caused by dehydration, drinking fluids often improves the condition. If the cause is a bacterial infection, gargling with salt water often helps. A swollen uvula is not normally life threatening, and usually subsides, typically within a day or so. Persons with a history of extreme uvulitis can carry an EpiPens containing adrenaline (epinephrine) to inject themselves when uvulitis occurs. Research on these problems has documented the fact than a healthy uvula is important for many normal functions, supporting the creation worldview, and not evolution, as claimed by some Darwinists.

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The Uvula: A Useless or Multi-tasking Organ? 悬雍垂：无用或多任务的器官？ “The uvula, although a small organ, is not

an evolutionary leftover as believed by some evolutionists, but rather is a complex, well designed structure that has numerous important functions in humans. In the words of Finkelstein, et al., it is ‘a highly sophisticated structure’ that is ‘another marker… that differentiates man from other mammals’ (1992).”

Thank God for Dr. Bergman’s contribution.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Maria Mitchell: Astronomer and Mathematician 玛丽亚 ·米切尔：天文学家和数学家 The January/February 2015 Creation Matters magazine has a

short article on the above subject by Dr. Don DeYoung. The article is quoted below:

“Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) was born into a Quaker family in Nantucket, MA, one of ten children and a distant relative of Benjamin Franklin. She was taught mathematics and astronomy by her father, William. As a young adult she turned her mathematical and observational skills to exploring the heavens from a rooftop observatory. This resulted at age 29 in the discovery of ‘Miss Mitchell’s Comet,’ officially named 1847 VI. Quickly Maria Mitchell became a household name as the first professional female astronomer in North America. In this early era she was made an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1842).

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Maria Mitchell: Astronomer and Mathematician 玛丽亚 ·米切尔：天文学家和数学家

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Maria Mitchell: Astronomer and Mathematician 玛丽亚 ·米切尔：天文学家和数学家 “Maria spoke out against slavery in the years leading up to the

Civil War. As a protest she refused to wear clothes made from cotton. A visit to a New Orleans slave market touched her deeply and contributed to her activist position. These quotations from her speeches and writings show a godly and balanced view of life (Gormley, 1995).

“’We especially need imagination in science. It is not all mathematics, nor all logic, but is somewhat beauty and poetry.

‘Study as if you were going to live forever; live as if you were going to die tomorrow.

‘There is a God and He is good…I try to increase my trust in this, my only article or creed.

‘Every formula which expresses a law of nature is a hymn of praise to God.’

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Maria Mitchell: Astronomer and Mathematician 玛丽亚 ·米切尔：天文学家和数学家 “Regarding this last quote, I have wondered about an alternate

activity to the traditional special music which often occurs during formal worship services. Would it not appropriate to have a black/white board in front of the congregation and to write out the steps of an elegant mathematical proof or physics problem solution? Since math is the language of creation, could not this activity also be a worship experience? On second thought, most audiences are not ready for such a technical display!

“Maria Mitchell enjoyed a long career of astronomy and mathematics teaching and research at Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, New York. At her birthplace in Nantucket, MA, the Maria Mitchell Association was founded in 1902. An observatory, library, and science museum are maintained in her honor.”

Thank God for Dr. DeYoung’s contribution.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证 The January/February 2015 Creation Matters magazine

has an article on the above subject by scientist Timothy R. Stout. The article is quoted below:

“Phosphorus (P) is one of the major chemicals essential for life. In addition to being a major component of tooth enamel and bones [in the form of hydroxyapatite, or calcium phosphate; Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2], it is a structural component of the nucleotides which form the molecular backbones for RNA and DNA. It also functions as a major constituent of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which serves as the energy currency of the cell. Other P-containing molecules are required as sources of phosphorus/phosphate to form ATP (e.g., phosphocreatine).

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证 “For these reasons, P is considered an essential element for

the origin of life. In a recent article Pasek et al. (2013) stated, ‘Synthesizing RNA and other organo-phosphates under plausible early Earth conditions has proved difficult, with the incorporation of phosphorus (P) causing a particular problem because phosphate, where most environmental P resides, is relatively insoluble and unreactive.’

“Although it is the 12th most abundant element on Earth, it is not found as free P, other than in the occasional meteorite (Sanderson, 2014). It is highly reactive, combining with other elements and forming a variety of salts, principally calcium phosphate (apatite). The resulting minerals are very insoluble, unreactive, and thus unavailable as sources of P for prebiotic chemical syntheses. This is a well-understood problem and the reason behind the difficulty acknowledged by Pasek et al. (2013).

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证 “Bacteria and plants are able to extract phosphorus directly

from their environments. The extracted phosphorus then proceeds up the food chain to meet the requirements of other organisms. One of the major difficulties facing abiogenesis is the provision of a reasonable source of P for use in RNA and ATP fabrication before bacteria and plants existed. We find yet another of the many ‘chicken or egg’ paradoxes, characteristic of abiogenesis.

“There has been a long, ongoing discussion in the journals about potential sources of naturally occurring P for use in chemical evolution, but these are all problematic. For instance, Schwartz (2006) acknowledged a variety of problems that had so far thwarted the finding of a plausible scenario for supplying P. He then proposed three new, alternative solutions:

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证 “1. reduction of phosphate to phosphite under certain

environmental conditions “2. the volatilization of P4O10 from apatite during volcanic

eruptions “3. the presence of phosphide (combination of P with a

metal; e.g., Fe3P) in the mineral schreibersite, found in meteorites

“One supposed advantage provided by the first proposal above, is that phosphite salts of calcium are more soluble than apatite (Schwartz, 2006). However, living systems use phosphates, not phosphites, as building blocks and energy currency. So, at some point a conversion back to phosphates needs to occur.

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证 “The discussion around the second proposal indicated that

the actual amount of P released volcanically is very low—likely too low to be of use for chemical evolution (Schwartz, 2006).

“Regarding Schwartz’s third proposal, phosphide in water is converted to phosphites (Pasek et al., 2013). Even though meteoritic phosphide is more soluble than apatite, the available concentration of P still ‘seems low’ (Schwartz, 2006). Pasek et al. (2013) also looked to meteoritic schreibersite as a solution for the P problem. Meteorites as a long-term, steady source of phosphate does not seem plausible, as it is required by all life forms in more than trace amounts.

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证 “Proposals involving phosphite seem to avoid

consideration of prebiotic ATP synthesis. ATP basically cycles back and forth between ATP, the energized form, and ADP plus a phosphate molecule, as the de-energized form. An external source of energy enzymatically combines ADP with a phosphate molecule to form ATP, requiring the continual availability of phosphate molecules. Phosphite does not resolve the need for a continuing supply of free phosphate in ATP-related reactions during abiogenesis.

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证 “A fundamental, underlying problem is the instability of

RNA. Under some conditions, RNA can degrade in only a matter of days or less (see for example, Johnston et al., 2001). A major proposed step in advancing toward life’s abiogenic origin is the appearance of a self-replicating RNA molecule. Yet, even if such a molecule did appear, its continued existence would depend on a steady, uninterrupted supply of raw materials, including phosphate. Any interruption in the supply of P for a significant length of time would stop the replication process, and natural decay would relatively quickly destroy the replicators, undoing any progress.

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证 “Pasek et al. (2013) propose that the ancient meteor

bombardments landed in the primordial ocean, releasing large quantities of phosphate in the form of dissolved schreibersite. This brings up several difficulties. First, there is a lot of water in the ocean, which would tend to dilute the P excessively. Additionally, over the geologic timeframe required for abiogenesis, one could expect the oceans to have an abundance of calcium, leading to the precipitation of phosphate as apatite or similar minerals (Schwartz, 2006). Thus, phosphate would be rendered unavailable.

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The Testimony of Phosphorus 磷的见证 “Furthermore, most abiogenists today believe that life did not

start in an ocean, because none of the raw materials would be sufficiently concentrated, including P. Instead, they prefer a small pond or other isolated location. However, small, isolated locations would be characterized by an erratic flux of incoming meteorites. This would not provide the required steady supply of P.

“The problem for evolutionists is to incorporate P into a fully functioning metabolic system by building it one step at a time. Creationists believe God formed complete metabolic systems in a single step. It is yet another example of God’s providing evidence of Himself, through His creative handiwork—evidence for which rejection is ‘without excuse.’”

Thank God for scientist Timothy Stout’s contribution.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Power Punch 动力冲压 The January/February 2015 Creation Matters magazine has a

short article on the above subject written by Dr. Jonathan C. O’Quinn. The article is quoted below:

“The creationist view of living things is that they were created by an intelligent Designer and are not the products of random chance (evolution). One remarkable animal testifying to a planned creation is the peacock mantis shrimp (Odontodactylus scyllarus).

“This shrimp has specialized forelimbs called raptorial appendages. Mantis shrimp use these club-shaped limbs to smash open crab and snail shells for food and to defend themselves from predators. The limbs strike so quickly (up to 52 miles per hour) that they vaporize the water at the strike zone, causing cavitation bubbles, which then collapse, releasing additional energy in the forms of heat, light, and sound.

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Power Punch 动力冲压

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Power Punch 动力冲压 “With each strike, there is one force from the initial strike of the

first limb, followed by a second force from the collapse of the cavitation bubble, repeated by the same forces from the second limb. The peak forces can reach 1,500 N (newtons), which is over 2,500 times the body weight of the animal. Imagine a 170 pound person punching with over 375,000 lbs of force! Parts of this limb act as a spring and latch, storing large amounts of potential energy, allowing it to crush crab and mollusk shells (or your finger).

“The outer part of the club-shaped limb is made of hydroxyapitate in a regular pattern to give it strength. Inside are flattened spirals of sugar fibers stacked slightly asymmetrically upon each other, which absorb shock when striking hard objects. Additional sugar fibers wrap around the sides of the club, preventing swelling and cracking upon impact, in the way a boxer’s hand-tape protects the hands.

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Power Punch 动力冲压 “This animal survives by eating hard-

shelled prey and has unique physical traits allowing it to do that efficiently. How could these specific traits have developed by degrees and completely by accident?”

Thank God for Dr. O’Quinn’s contribution.

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Pastor Chui


[email protected]

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Close-Up of an Ex-Planet 近观以前的星球 The March 2015 Popular Science magazine has a short

article on the above subject by journalists Katie Peek and Junnie Kwon. The article is quoted below:

“This month, the Dawn probe will give scientists their first clear view of dwarf planet Ceres. Like many objects in our solar system, it has a checkered past. Astronomers deemed the body a planet, then an asteroid, then a dwarf planet, all in the span of 200 years. The designation isn’t up for debate on this mission. But if history is any guide, the term used to describe a rocky planetoid is still anything but solid.

“Before the invention of the telescope in 1608, people could see seven bodies move across the night sky and named them ‘planets,’ Greek for ‘wanderers.’

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Close-Up of an Ex-Planet 近观以前的星球 “By 1700, scholars had accepted Copernicus’s 16th century

view that the Sun, not Earth, anchored the solar system. The Earth was added to the planet list and the Sun removed. The moon was relegated to satellite status.

“As telescopes grew in size, strength, and popularity, scientists started spotting additional apparent planets. Uranus was first, in 1781. Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta soon followed.

“By the mid-1800s, astronomers agreed there were too many rocks floating in the asteroid belt for Ceres and its companions to warrant the title of ‘planet,’ so these objects quietly fell from the ranks.

“Astronomer Clyde Tombaugh first glimpsed the diminutive Pluto in February 1930. For the next seven decades, it would rule the distant reaches of the solar system as the ninth planet.

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Close-Up of an Ex-Planet 近观以前的星球 “In 2005, astronomers discovered Eris—

appropriately named for the goddess of discord—a body larger than Pluto and one of a growing number of icy objects in the neighborhood that looked suspiciously like planets.

“The International Astronomical Union officially defined ‘planets’ in 2006. Ceres, Pluto, and Eris only qualify as dwarf planets, which are big, spherical bodies whose gravities don’t dominate their orbital zones.

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Close-Up of an Ex-Planet 近观以前的星球 “Dawn will be the first craft to orbit two deep-space bodies

(Vesta, in 2011, and now Ceres) in a single mission—a feat made possible by its ion-propulsion engines. Instead of hauling heavy chemical fuel, Dawn relies on solar energy to charge atoms of xenon gas. Electrified metal grids push the newly formed ions into space at up to 90,000 mph, providing an extremely low but constant thrust. (To approximate that force, tear out a page and rest it on your palm.) The craft accelerates gradually to high speed and uses far less fuel than a conventional rocket. Ion propulsion will enable increasingly ambitious exploration, says Marc Rayman, Dawn’s chief engineer and mission director: ‘We’re going to see a whole new world.’”

Thank God for the excellent reporting of Popular Science.

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