90 days upsc mains optional answer writing initiative · neostencil – live online classes -...

1

NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected]

90 Days UPSC Mains Optional Answer Writing

Initiative

Sociology – Paper 1

Question and Model Answers from Subject Experts

http://neostencil.com/

2


12-Nov-2018 - Question 1

Is Sociology a Science? Give reasons for your answer. (2015) (250 words)

Model Answer

Science is a domain of knowledge. It is based on sensory observation or empirical data and subsequent experimentation and explanatory generalizations. The scientific method has the following characteristics:

(i)Experimentation

(ii)Quantification

(iii)Generalization

(iv)Value neutrality or objectivity

Positivists consider Sociology as Science and try to apply scientific methods in sociological research. Sociologists like Durkheim and Parsons viewed Sociology as positive science. However, the subject matter of Sociology is different from that of natural or physical sciences. Sociology studies living beings and their social interactions in different social situations. They act as well as react. In a similar line, there are following limitations which come in the way of Sociology being a positive science:

-It is not possible to have or conduct experiments in the laboratory.

-It is not possible to measure all the aspects of the social phenomenon. Though some aspects can be quantified many aspects are qualitative in nature.

-It is very difficult to arrive at generalization. This is because human behaviour may or may not follow repetitive patterns.

-Objectivity is almost impossible in the sociological domain. When a front door is closed for values, they make entry from the back door. Though value neutrality is desirable, it is not possible to achieve it.

Due to such limitations, Sociology cannot be called positive science. This is because social reality is complex in nature and very different from physical or natural science. Human behaviour is driven by various meanings and motives. Max Weber found a positivist approach to be inadequate to understand social


3


reality and stated that it needs to be supplemented with Verstehen method. Symbolic interactionists and phenomenologists also reject the positivists’ methodology by saying that they measure everything and know nothing.

Thus, Sociology can best be called social science. It tries to understand the social phenomenon scientifically but methods are different from that of natural sciences.


4



How is sociological approach to human actions different from that of

psychological approach? (2014) (150 words)

Model Answer

Sociology is concerned with the study of man as a social being. It attempts to understand human behaviour having an emphasis on the point that personality is shaped by different societal aspects.

Psychology, on the other hand, is associated with the study of man as a psychological being i.e it gives importance to mind. It is more concerned with learning, intelligence, hopes, fears, motivations etc of individuals.

The difference in Sociological and Psychological approach to study human actions:

Sociology Psychology

i) Man is the product of society. His behaviour is dependent on his socialization.

i) It gives importance to a psychic i.e. mind of a man. His behaviour is dependent on his psychological orientation.

ii) It tries to study a phenomenon and tries to locate its cause in the societal sphere. It also tries to find out its possible consequences on a person as well as on society.

ii) It tries to find out the psychic orientations behind a particular act or phenomenon.

iii) For example- Suicide In his theory of Suicide, Durkheim stated that various social currents are responsible for it.

iii) Psychology considers the act of committing suicide to be an individual decision.


5


iv) Another example- Alienation Sociology studies about its causative factors and possible consequences. Eg- Transformation of class in itself to class for itself and revolution which ultimately brings social change.

iv) In the Psychological domain, alienation is looked upon as a mental state and how a person is feeling in that situation.eg- -Meaninglessness -Normlessness -Isolation -Self-estrangement etc

Durkheim considered Sociology and Psychology to be completely different disciplines by stating that society is not merely an aggregate of individuals. According to him, Sociology studies social facts which are external to the individual mind.

However, many scholars have adopted an intermediate position. Though the subject matter of these disciplines is somewhat related the approaches followed are different from each other. Social psychology serves as a bridge between Psychology and Sociology.


6



What is value-free sociology? Clarify. (2016) 150 words

Model Answer

By value-free sociology we understand the Sociological studies or researches being free from values and also objective in nature. Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human behaviour, social groups and society as a whole. Sociology being a science cherishes the goal of value neutrality.

However, all social behaviour is guided by values. Human actions are driven by various motivations and orientations. Therefore, values creep in various stages in sociological research. According to Gunnar Myrdal, total value neutrality is impossible. In other words, value neutrality cannot be attained at the level of subject matter of research or study. Even social research is itself guided by the value of search for true knowledge. Researchers are also guided by values while choosing the topic of research. In addition to it, researchers belonging to different schools have different perspectives of looking at the same subject matter.

However, sociologists should refrain themselves from passing value judgements. Researchers should make their own values open and clear and refrain from advocating particular values. In this manner, it is possible to attain value neutrality at the level of researchers. Thus, value-free sociology is a goal that the researchers or sociologists strive to achieve.


7



Critically examine positivistic approach in sociological studies. (2013) (150 words)

Model Answer

Positivists consider Sociology as science based on similar principles and procedures as that of natural sciences. The positivist approach in sociology places particular emphasis on behaviour that can be directly observed. The factors such as meanings, feelings, motives etc which are not directly observable are not given importance by positivists. This view is based on the belief that human behaviour can be explained in the same way as matter. Systems theory in sociology adopts the positivist approach. Marxism and Functionalism have also been viewed in a similar line.

Positivism has been criticised by various scholars belonging to different schools. Human beings act as well as react. There are various underlying meanings and motivations. Symbolic interactionism emphasises on social meanings that arise through the process of social interaction. These meanings also tend to change with further interpretations and interactions. Thus, it is not possible to predict human behaviour on the basis of the logic of natural science.

Phenomenological perspective in sociology considers the subject matter of social and natural sciences to be fundamentally different. Ethnomethodologists also criticised positivism. Max Weber found a positivist approach to be inadequate to understand social reality and stated that it needs to be supplemented with Verstehen method.


8



Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative techniques of data collection with suitable examples from Indian society. (2018) (150 words)

Model Answer

Techniques of data collection can be broadly classified as quantitative and qualitative methods. The following are the differences between these:

Quantitative method Qualitative method

i)It is used when quantification of data is possible. It employs measurement and the use of statistical analysis.

i)It is used for non-quantitative type of analysis. Reality is described as experienced by the groups, communities, individuals etc.

ii)The problem is specific and precise. ii)In qualitative method, problem is general and loosely structured.

iii)The hypothesis is formulated before the study.

iii)The hypothesis is formulated either during the study or after the study.

iv)The research design is prescriptive. General investigators are employed for data collection. Different types of measurement scales are employed. There is high possibility of verification of data.

iv)In qualitative method, the design is not prescriptive. Mostly, the researchers analyse data single handedly. The chances of verification of results are rare.

v) Deductive or inductive generalization is made. Findings are highly integrated.

v) Usually, analytical generalization is made. Findings are mostly not integrated.

vi)Various techniques- Questionnaire, Sampling, Survey, Formal structured interview etc.

vi)Various techniques- Participant observation, Informal- unstructured interview, Case study etc.


9


vii) It emphasises on macro analysis. This method is mainly employed by positivists. For example- In society if we have to find out that people of which age group or status has the maximum suicide rate then we have to use this method.

vii)It emphasises on micro analysis. This method is employed in field studies.MN Srinivas and Andre Beteille opted for field studies to study caste system. AM Shah, Tulsi Patel and Lancy Lobo studied village in Rajasthan on the issue of industrial welfare.

At present, tailor-made approaches are popular. Different methods and techniques are used by researchers in accordance with their topic of research.


10



Explain how sociology has emerged as a distinct discipline based on rationality and scientific temper. (2017) (150 words)

Model Answer

Sociology is a discipline concerned with the scientific study of society. Renaissance had provided the space for new thinking and intellectual modernity. There was an emphasis on rationalism. Subsequently, innovations, technological developments and the Industrial Revolution resulted in various changes in the societal sphere. The new complex way of life was evolving and there were disruptions in traditional lifestyles.

At that time, the need was felt to study these changes in a systematic and scientific way. Earlier the explanations about social realities were provided by religion and philosophy. But with the rise of modernity, a spirit of rationality and scientific temper were dominant. Auguste Comte has comprehended such a shift by following three stages:

i)Theosophical stage

ii)Metaphysical stage

iii)Scientific/Positive stage

Therefore, the need of understanding social dynamics scientifically and systematically provided scope for the emergence of Sociology as a new discipline.


11



In what way did Durkheim perceive religion as functional to society? (2018)(150 words)

Model Answer

Durkheim demystified the concept of religion. He envisaged religion as a social creation based on the collective consciousness. In this time, he rejected the earlier theories of the origin of religion such as Animism, Naturism, Animatism etc.

Durkheim defined religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite people in one simple moral community called a church, all those who

adhere to it.

He perceived religion as functional to the society in following aspects:-

1 Beliefs and practices unite people in the social community by relating them to sacred things.

2 There are collective rituals which ultimately bring people closer to each other

3 It creates and strengthens solidarity in society.. 4 Religion also acts as an agent of social control. 5 Worshipper gets a huge amount of power by worshipping totem.

Religion has the same function in modern societies as well. In the name of religion, people worship society as a whole. The national flag, national anthem etc. can be considered as a new sacred having the power to bind the nation as a whole.


12



According to Marx, how are human beings alienated from their human potential and what does he suggest to change this? (2018)(250 words)

Model Answer

Marx has conceived ‘alienation’ as a phenomenon wherein the producer is separated from his product. In the capitalist mode of production, the focus is on maximizing the profit and lowering the cost of production. There is high mechanization. As a result, more and more workers are retrenched. Workers become ‘part producers’. They have no right over the final product. For example, Many workers engaged in the assembly line of a manufacturing unit of an automobile cannot think of buying a car. In such a system, most of the workers are working not because they are getting satisfaction from it. In reality, they are doing their routine job to earn their living. As the work is a mechanical & routine type, the worker loses his creativity. This ultimately leads to alienation of human beings from their potential.

Marx believed that men can be freed from their alienated existence only with the emergence of a communist society wherein each man shall work to affirm himself and be able to do what he naturally feels inclined towards. In such a society, every person would be able to realize his/her inner potential.

For this to happen, there has to be the polarization of classes and subsequent transformation of ‘class in itself’ to class for itself’. Such a situation would lead to revolution and authority of proletariats would be established and this would give rise to the communist society.


13



"Anomie is rooted in social structure." Explain with reference to R.K. Merton's contribution.(2015)(150 words)

Model Answer

Merton’s theory of Anomie is based on the premise that ‘deviance’ results from culture and structure of society.

For smooth functioning of society, value consensus among people is essential. However, members of society are placed in different positions. As a result, there is difference in the level of their adherence to shared values.

In a society, there are culturally approved goals and institutional means to attain these goals. As people are placed in different positions, so everyone may or may not get the same opportunities but the values of goal attainment are applicable to all. So, individuals tend to adapt themselves in various ways to achieve their goals. Such a situation is called an anomic situation.

R.K Merton talked about following possible responses to this state of anomie :-

I. Conformity :- Conform both to success goals and institutional means

II. Innovation :- Rejection of normative means & adoption of new means to attain goals.

III. Ritualism :- Clinging to the institutional means but not able to achieve goal.

IV. Retreatism :- Inability to cope with life and hence drop out of society.

V. Rebellion :- Rejection of the success goals, the institutionalized means and their replacement by different means and goals

In this manner, Merton tried to show how the socio- cultural realities of a society provides space to deviance due to lack of coordination between cultural goals & Institutional means.


14



Examine how Weber's characterization of capitalism is different from those of Marx.(2012)(250 words)

Model Answer

Both Marx and Weber have talked about capitalism. However, they have different viewpoints. Marx considers capitalism as an exploitative system whereas for Weber modern capitalism is based on rationality. Following are the differences in their characterisation of capitalism:

Criteria Marx Weber

1.Origin of Capitalism

Change in sub-structure leads to change in super- structure. Economy constitutes sub-structure. Internal contradictions in feudal mode of production have provided space for the rise of capitalist mode of production.

He presents the idea that super- structure can also influence the change. e.g. Protestant Ethics have played a significant role in the rise of capitalism.


15


2. Class Describes class on basis of ‘ownership of means of production’. There are two classes-have and Have nots. Class is not new phenomenon and is present since ages.

Describes class on basis of ‘market situation’. Divides class into four types- Propertied Upper Class, Property less White Collar Professionals, Petty Bourgeoisie, Manual Working Class

3. Conflict There is more conflict in capitalist society as compared to other previous societies.

Less conflict, due the presence of so many classes which dilutes the level of conflict.

4. Position of petty bourgeoisie

For Marx, they are just transitory classes and eventually they would be eliminated and converted into working class.

Only few of them would be eliminated and join white collar professionals but they exist as a class defined as ‘middle class’.

5. Revolution Revolution is inevitable when there is transformation of “class in itself” to “class for itself”.

He doesn’t deny the presence of revolution. However, he denied the inevitability and indispensability of revolution.


16


6. Power Upper class people enjoy power whereas lower class people do not have any power. Source of power is based on over ‘means of production’.

There are three sources of power- Class (economy), Status (social), Party (Political).

Thus, Weber and Marx have looked at capitalism in different ways and thus enriched the domain of Sociology with their respective theories.


17



Give an assessment of Durkheimian notion of ‘scared’ and ‘profane’ in sociology of religion.(2017)(150 words)

Model Answer

Durkheim defined ‘Religion’ as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite in one simple moral community called a church, all those who adhere to it.

His explanation of the religion is based on the ideas of ‘sacred’ and ‘profane’. The sacred refers to the things humans have set apart, including religious beliefs, rites or anything socially defined as requiring special treatment. There is collective consciousness associated with the idea of sacredness. To strengthen the collective beliefs, collective rituals are performed. The profane is the reverse of the sacred. What is not sacred is profane.

Durkheim considered ‘Totemism’ to be the most primitive form of religion. ’Totem’ is considered sacred by the people of clan. It is a symbolic form of ancestors. The members of the clan pay respect to it. Thus, in the name of religion, people worship whole society. Worshipper gets huge amount of strength and sense of power by worshipping totem. In the modern society as well , national flag, national anthem etc. emerged as new totems to which nation as a whole pay respect. In essense , collective rituals associated with sacred things create solidarity in society.

However, the ideas of ‘sacred & profane’ have been criticised by various scholars. Edmond Leach stated that it is not a proper classification. It is very difficult to differentiate between what constitutes sacred what don’t. Alexander Golden Weiser has also criticized Durkheim on similar lines.

However, Durkheim was not concerned only about such classification. He just talked about the concept of sacred & profane to explain about the most primitive form of religion.


18



How is social equilibrium maintained in Parsonian framework?(2015)(250 words)

Model Answer

In Parson’s theory, the idea of system is important. His theory of ‘social system’ is based on concept of ‘Social Action’

There are certain functions without which a social system cannot sustain, these are called ‘functional prerequisites’ These are:

1. Adaptation 2. Goal attainment 3. Integration 4. Latency

Social systems have self adjustive and self-maintenance qualities. The functional prerequisites deal with various processes external or internal to the system. The interaction can be instrumental or consummatory.

1 Adaptation: It implies generation and acquisition of resource from outside the system. Example : economic system

2 Goal attainment: It involves determination of goals and motivation of the members to achieve the goals and motivating the members to achieve the goal. Example: Political System

3 Integration: It helps to maintain solidarity and coordination in the system. Example: This function is mainly performed by culture and values.

4 Latency : It involves pattern maintenance and tension management within the system. Example: Role of family In this manner, these sub-systems are interdependent and thus, tend towards equilibrium. However, this does not mean that there would not be any change.

Parsons was the first functionalist to talk about social change with his idea of ‘moving equilibrium’. When there is change in one sub-system, subsequent changes take place in other sub-systems as well. As a result, the social system


19


moves towards new equilibrium system. That’s how social equilibrium is maintained in Parsonian framework.


20


10-Dec-2018 - Question 1

Evaluate if social stratification is functional For society. (2018)(150 words)

Model Answer

Stratification is that system by which different positions are hierarchically divided. Some sociologists consider it functional for society whereas others consider it as exploitative in nature.

Stratification is functional in following manner:

For individuals-

i) Motivation- Differential reward patterns associated with different works act as motivational factor.

ii) Competition-In a stratified society, individuals with right skills are placed at right positions.

iii) Recognition of talent- Fair and open competition helps in recognition of talent.

iv) Mobility-The system based on achievement orientation provides opportunities for social mobility.

For society-

a) Ascriptive form of stratification- The traditional societies were based on ascriptive orientation. For example- Under caste system, the status of individual is fixed at birth and different castes are hierarchically arranged. However within castes, there are various sub-castes. Certain roles and occupations have been associated with such caste groups. There is a kind of inter dependency under jajmani system.

In this way, society was being well served and there was inter -dependence between castes because of the specialized roles.


21


(b) Stratification based on achievement orientation- In modern societies, status is assigned according to the worth of individual. The following are the functions of stratification in such societies:

i) Occupational hierarchy- The most important works have been assigned higher position in society.

ii) Work efficiency- Placing right individuals at right places results in more work efficiency. It leads to the development of society as a whole.

iii) Development-The competition to move higher in the social ladder leads to new inventions, new methods of work, social innovations etc. In, this way social stratification helps in development of society.

Functionalists like Parsons and Davis & Moore have considered social stratification to be functional for society. However, this was challenged by Melvin Tumin. He propounded that differential reward pattern may act as motivational factor in some situations but it may be discouraging also in other situations. Example- A talent and intelligent dalit cannot become a priest. Sociologists have also presented the view that social stratification can also be dysfunctional for society leading to frustration, anxiety and mental tension amongst individuals. Such sense of relative deprivation in society may sometimes lead to deviation and violence in society.

Thus, social stratification has functions as well as dysfunctions for society.


22



Differentiate between Marxian and Weberian theories of social stratification.(2015)(250 words)

Model Answer

Social stratification is defined as the division of society in hierarchical order on the basis of social values. Social stratification is an inherent character of all the societies. Various sociologists have presented their views about social stratification from different perspectives.

Marxian theory emphasises on the social relations based on the control over economic resources. According to Karl Marx, in all societies there have been two classes – ‘Haves’ and ‘Have nots’. The ‘Haves’ derive power from their control over means of production. From Marxian viewpoint, political power is derived from economic power as economy constitutes sub-structure and rest others come in super-structure. The ruling class exploits the working class. Marxian view considers social stratification as a means through which the people belonging to upper strata exploits those placed at lower rungs of the society. Thus, social stratification is seen as divisive in nature.

Weberian perspective on social stratification is based on the ideas of class, status and party. Max Weber propounded that class is based on market situation and individuals’ position in market. Those who share similar position also share the similar life chances and thus constitute strata . According to Max Weber, the following classes are present in capitalist society:

-The propertied upper class

-The property less white collar workers

-The petty bourgeoisie

-The working class

Though Max Weber agreed with Marx about stratification on economic basis, he has not considered not it to be the only basis of stratification. He added the


23


aspects of prestige (status) and power (party) as other dimensions of social stratification.

Difference in social status leads to difference in lifestyles which form an important element in social distinctiveness of various status groups. Such groups may not have economic power but due to their exclusive lifestyle , they enjoy social prestige. For example- Brahmins in India constitute status group. Similarly, Weber emphasised on the political power as an aspect for stratification. Party arises from the nature of domination which is present in one form or other in all the societies.

In this manner, Weber has given multidimensional theory of social stratification by analytically distinguishing between economic, social and political order in society. On the other hand, Marxian perspective gave a unilinear theory of social stratification.


24



Is social mobility possible in closed systems of stratification ?Illustrate from research work.(2018)(150 words)

Model Answer

In a stratified system, society is divided into various hierarchical divisions on the basis of social values. In other words, stratification is that system by which different positions are hierarchically divided. Social mobility is the possibility of moving upward or downward across the social ladder.

The phenomenon of social mobility is widely associated with modern societies based on achievement orientation. On the other hand, societies based on ascriptive orientation considered to be closed with remote possibility of mobility. However, in reality no society is absolutely open and no society is absolutely close.

Social mobility in closed systems:

i)Slavery system- Mobility was possible through manumission and through rebellion.

ii)Estate system-Mobility was possible through the act of grace of the monarch.

iii)Caste system-Under caste system, the status of individual is fixed by birth. However, social mobility has occurred due to following factors:

-Industrialization and commercialization of occupation

-Politicisation of caste

-Inter-caste marriages

-Access to land and economic resources

-Sanskritization and westernization


25


With these concepts, M N Srinivas was able to highlight upon the possibility of social mobility in particular and social change in general. Due to improvement of their position in economic structure, caste groups claim higher position in ritual structure also. Thus, social mobility is possible in closed societies as well.


26



What do you mean by social mobility?Discuss the major sources and causes of mobility.(2011)(250 words)

Model Answer

Social mobility can simply be defined as the possibility of moving across the social ladder in societal structure .

Types of mobility:

i) Horizontal mobility-It refers to change of occupational position or role of an individual without changing position in social hierarchy. Eg-Rural agricultural labourer migrated to city and became daily wage labourer in industry.

ii) Vertical mobility- It refers to change in position leading to change in status in social hierarchy. The movement can be in upward or downward direction.

Upward mobility- eg-A dalit boy clears UPSC exam and become an IAS officer.

Downward mobility-eg-A businessman opts for menial job after suffering huge losses in business.

Social mobility can be further classified into :-Inter-generational and Intra-generational social mobility.

There are various factors that affect mobility in societal set up.

Source of social mobility- Source is somewhat external i.e where from it is emanating. These can be-

-Rapid industrialization

-Commercialization of occupation and new jobs

-New ideology such as democracy


27


-Migration

-Modern education system

-New institutions

Such changes in society provide various opportunities to individuals for achievement of higher status. Thus, these factors provide scope for social mobility.

Cause of social mobility- It is the internal spirit that actually motivates people to go for social mobility.

-Feeling of relative deprivation- Relative deprivation is based on socio-cultural aspects, economic opportunities etc. It has to be there for a person to think about mobility.

The combination of both the external and internal factors are required for social mobility. Though both are separate, they work in coordination as the source and cause of social mobility like the two sides of the same coin.


28



Discuss the relationship between poverty and social exclusion.(2016)(150 words)

Model Answer

Poverty is a social problem and is a manifestation of inequality prevalent in society. The state of poverty is associated with insufficient supply of those necessities which are required by an individual to maintain himself and those dependent on him.

Poverty leads to several kinds of deprivations such as poor health, illiteracy etc. The prolonged experiences of such deprivations lead to social exclusion. It is defined as a state wherein individuals may get cut off from full involvement in wider community.

Due to extreme poverty and inadequate implementation of government schemes, poor people suffer the most. They are not able to have access to essential goods and services such as education, health, transportation, social security, banking, insurance etc. For example- A rickshaw puller cannot afford to send his child to a good private school. It is not enough to provide just food, clothing and shelter to individuals. An active involvement in life demands greater freedom and better access to all the necessities of life. People suffering from poverty are not able to express their due rights guaranteed by the constitution. They do not have any voice in the societal set up. The perpetuation of such situation leads to their exclusion.

At times, social exclusion may also lead to poverty. For example- People living in slums are excluded from urban civic life and suffer from poverty. Similarly, destitutes, old aged persons, transgenders also tend to face social exclusion and suffer from poverty.

Thus, the poverty and social exclusion are interlinked or closely related. It has been rightly said that poverty is the worst form of violence against mankind.


29



What do you understand by gender? How does it shape 'male' identity?(2014)(250 words)

Model Answer

The ‘gender’ is a socio-cultural concept whereas ‘sex’ is biological concept. In other words , the word ‘sex’ refers to the anatomical and physiological differences that define male or female bodies. On the other hand, ‘gender’ is associated with psychological, social and cultural differences between males and females.

Gender plays significant role in shaping ‘male’ identity. The notions of masculinity and femininity are associated to it. In this line, gender socialization is done in our society. Gender specific roles are assigned by the society and everyone is supposed to follow it. Those who do not fall in line are considered as deviants. Men and women are socialized into different roles. For example- A man is expected to earn the livelihood whereas a woman is expected to do the household work even if she is doing job outside. Similarly, the role of woman is given more importance in childcare. There are different names for male or female child highlighting their masculine or feminine qualities. A woman is considered weaker than the man. When a woman tries to compete and tends to perform better, she is questioned and crimes are committed against her. Such differences act as the root cause of patriarchy. These kinds of everyday interactions and practices perpetuate the gender differentiation and helps in shaping ‘male’ and ‘female’ identity.

The functionalists consider that such gender differences contribute to social stability and integration. Other sociologists have tried to give explanation that division of labour between men and women is biological in nature.

On the other hand, feminist scholars have called for the restructuring of family and end of domestic slavery of women. In contemporary times, we have to strive for gender equality for a fair and just world.


30



Distinguish between Political parties and Pressure groups. (2014)(150 words)

Model Answer

Both political parties and pressure groups are important constituents of a democratic society. Various sociologists have talked about these. The following are the differences between political parties and pressure groups:

Criterion Political parties Pressure groups

1. Definition Political party is constituted of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government.

Pressure group is any group that attempts to influence governing institutions, executive decisions, legislations etc in its own favour.

2. Participation Direct participation in politics Indirect participation in politics

3. Functions -Political parties put forward different policies and programmes. -Parties play a decisive role in formulating laws. -Parties form and run govt or offer constructive criticism while in opposition.

-Pressure groups increase the participation of people in governance process indirectly. -The presence of pressure groups presents the pluralism in political domain. -These make power dispersed and decentralized. -These groups make govt aware of the public opinion.


31


4. Types A political party has three components: -The leaders -The active members -The followers In India, political parties are of following types- i)National political parties- example- BJP, Congress ii)Regional political parties-example- Akali Dal in Punjab etc.

The pressure groups in India can be broadly classified into following categories: i)Business groups-example-FICCI, ASSOCHAM ii)Trade unions- example-AITUC, Hind Mazdoor Sabha etc. iii)Agrarian groups-example- Bhartiya Kisan Union, All India Kisan Sabha etc. iv)Professional Associations- example-Bar Council of India v)Student Organizations- example-Akhil Bhartiya Vidyarthi Parishad vi)Religious organizations- example-Rashtriya Swayam Sewak Sangh, Shiromani Akali Dal etc. vii)Caste groups-example-Kayastha sabha, Marwari association viii)Ideology based groups-example-Civil liberties association etc.

5. Challenges -Lack of internal democracy -Money and muscle power

-Anomic groups-Such groups indulge in violence, riots etc and tend to raise illegitimate demands. -Too much of pressure groups can hinder decision making process due to lack of consensus.

Pressure groups also act as breeding ground for the rise of new political leaders. These groups also provide funds to political parties. After coming into power, the political party tries to cater to the interests of related pressure groups. Thus, there is give and take relationship between both of these within the political framework.


32



Trace the changing nature of organisation of work in capitalist society over the years. (2017) (250 words)

Model Answer

In a capitalist system, decisions related to production, investment, distribution etc are taken by private players , usually in context of market forces. Property rights are protected by rule of law.

Marx considered the capitalist stage of development as the most exploitative in nature. In other words, the workers have been exploited by bourgeoisie. This view was criticised by Weber who considered capitalist system to be based on rationality. In capitalist mode of production, there are formal employer-employee relationships. He talked about four classes namely propertied upper class, white collar workers, petty bourgeoisie and manual workers.

Over the years, various changes have taken place. These are as follows:

i)In post industrial societies, there has been significant rise of service sector. There has been emphasis on intellectual technologies of telecommunication and computers. In this sector, highly skilled professionals are employed and are getting benefitted.

ii)There has been separation of ownership and management. Role of managerial class has become very important. Various incentives and attractive packages are offered by companies to such professionals to get the best talent in the market. Professionals are also having plenty of opportunities and are able to choose best for them.

iii)New kind of bureaucracy is working in private enterprises which constitutes a mixture of formal and informal relations. There is some kind of flexibility. The employees at lower rungs of the firm also get chance to express themselves. Thus, there is no more top down decision making. This view has been presented by Chester Bernard when he talked about formal cooperative organization.


33


iv)More women are entering into the job market and there has been increase in female labour force participation rate. However, glass ceiling is still present and inequalities are there.

v)Globalisation has led to the growth of informal sector. In globalised world, production chains are becoming increasingly atypical and non-standard involving flexible workforce engaged in temporary or part time employment. MNCs often outsource various tasks to workers in different countries which is seen largely as a measure to reduce labour cost in face of stiff competition.

Such global division of labour has been considered good by functionalists as it increases solidarity amongst different countries. However, conflict theorists consider it to be exploitative in nature as it is leading to increase in income inequalities across the globe. In this background, various regional trading blocs are also making appearance and different countries try to get into free trade agreements. Such new trends are visible in organization of work in capitalist societies.


34



What, according to Pareto, are the basic characteristics of elites ? Discuss. (2018)(150 words)

Model Answer

Pareto has presented classical elite theory. He places particular emphasis on psychological characteristics as the basis of elite rule. He argues that there are two main types of governing elite which he calls ‘lions’ and ‘foxes’.

i)Lions achieve power because of their ability to take direct and incisive action and they tend to rule by force. For example -Military dictatorship.

ii)Foxes rule by cunning and guile, by diplomatic manipulation and wheeling and dealing. For example- European democracies.

According to him, members of governing elite owe their positions primarily to their personal qualities, either to their lion like or fox like qualities. Major changes in society occurs when one elite replaces another which is stated by Pareto as ‘circulation of elites’.

Whereas history to Marx ultimately leads to and ends with the communist utopia, history to Pareto is never ending circulation of elites. He says that history is and always will be ‘ a graveyard of aristocracies’.


35



Explain the conditions under which a collective action transforms into a social movememt.(2015)(250 words)

Model Answer

Any action done by group of people may not be a collective action. A collective action is the action that is done collectively by people having common interest and there is awareness about it amongst all. It is spontaneous in nature. It is unorganised as well as non-institutional. There is lack of continuity in such actions. Social support or social acceptance may or may not be there.

Collective actions can be broadly classified into following types:

1.Protest- It is mostly non-violent but violence could be there in 5-10 percent cases. For example-Violence in students’ protest.

2.Agitation-It is mostly violent in nature. However, there could be peaceful agitation as well if there is very strong demand for a cause. For example-Salt satyagraha etc.

A social movement requires sustained collective action over a period of time. In general, it is directed towards bringing a change or to stop a change. For a collective action to transform into a social movement, the following are the two essential conditions:

i) Spontaneity

ii) Continuity

Example Spontaneity Continuity

Crowd Yes No

Trade union movement No Yes

Social reforms movements Yes Yes


36


Spontaneous, disorganized protest cannot be called as a social movement either. There has to be some degree of organisation. This organisation may include a leadership and structure that defines how members relate to each other and make decisions. Those participating in social movement have shared objectives and ideologies.

M S A Rao has talked about following three factors responsible for social movements:

a) Relative deprivation

It is the root cause for the rise of lower-class movements, women movements etc.

(b) Structural strain

It leads to various students’ movements, anti-corruption movements etc.

(c) Revitalization

Some social movements are intended to revive the cultural traits. For example-Celebration of Shiva ji and Ganpati festivals etc.

Social movements cannot change society easily as opposition and resistance are bound to be there. But over a period of time, changes do take place.


37



Discuss the changing interface between state and civil society in post-independent India. (2017) (150 words)

Model Answer

Civil society is a space between state, market and family. It can be structural or behavioural. It involves citizens acting collectively in public sphere to express their interests and ideas and to achieve mutual goals. It is an association of people putting check and balance on the discourses of state.

Indian civil society movement started during colonial era. India got freedom in August 1947 and became a democratic country. However, conditions were not created for democracy. Large number of people were suffering from poverty, hunger and malnourishment. They needed protection from state rather than power to question the state. Govt of India initiated various appeasing policies. Therefore, initially civil society was weak in India.

However, with the passage of time, various social movements were initiated in India. For example- Protests against inflation & price rise, anti-emergency movements etc. Indian women also came forward and participated in movements such as anti-rape movements, anti-dowry movements etc. India against corruption movement, protests against Nirbhaya case, me too movement etc are the most recent examples.

Reasons for growth of civil society:

i)Developmental failure of govt.

ii)Gradual emergence of civil culture.

iii)Advent of information age.

iv)The rise of the notion of people-centric governance.

v)Globalisation and rise of international NGO movement.


38


Etc.

In contemporary times, civil society has become relatively strong. Such a scenario is instrumental in converting class politics into mass politics and command politics into demand politics.


39



Human relations school of Thought by Elton Mayo as a social organisation of work process in industry.(2010((250 words)

Model Answer

Research carried out by Elton Mayo at the General Electric Company in Chicago concluded that group relationships and management –worker communication were far more important in determining employee behaviour than physical conditions (e.g. lighting and noise) and the working practices imposed by management. Also, wage levels were not the dominant motivating factor for most workers.

In many respects this work paved the way for the volume of research that followed, looking at employee behaviour, motivation and so on. Further research established the following propositions of the human relations school.

-Employee behaviour depends primarily on the social and organizational circumstances of work.

-Leadership style, group cohesion and job satisfaction are the major determinants of the outputs of the working group.

-Employees work better if they are given a wide range of tasks to complete.

-Standards set internally by a working group influence employee attitudes and perspectives more than standards set by management.

-Individual workers cannot be treated in isolation but must be seen as members of a group.

-Monetary incentives and good working conditions are less important to the individual than the need to belong to a group.

-Informal or unofficial groups formed at work have a strong influence on the behaviour of those workers in a group.


40


-Managers must be aware of these ‘social needs’ and address them to ensure that employees collaborate with the official organization rather than working against it.

The school explicitly recognised the role of interpersonal relations in determining workplace behaviour and it demonstrated that factors other than pay can motivate workers.However, the approach possibly overestimates the commitment, motivation and desire to participate in decision making of many employees.


41


07-Jan-2019 - Question 1

What are the new forms of family in developed societies? Discuss.(2018)(150 words)

Model Answer

The family is a primary kinship unit which carries out aspects of sexual, reproductive, economic and educational functions. In other words, family is an institution constituted of adult male and female living together with their child in a more or less permanent relationship such as marriage.

In contemporary times, widespread changes are taking place and household dimension has become significant. ‘Nuclear families’ and ‘Step families’ were already present in developed world. However, several new forms of families are making appearance. These are given as follows:

i)Live in relationships- Due to high rate of divorce, people are now preferring to enter in live in relationships. These are legally recognised. Non-marital cohabitation has increased.

If a child is born and later on parents get separated then child lives mostly with mother. This results into ‘lonely women families’.

ii)Single parent families- In present times, single people prefer to adopt a child and build up their families rather than entering into marital relationship. Unmarried parenthood has increased.

iii)Homosexual families or gay and lesbian partnerships- Many homosexual men and women now live in stable relationships as couples. Some countries have also given legal recognition to such relationships. Other countries are also gradually following the trend of accepting homosexual marriages.

Several factors have combined to increase the number of people living alone on modern western societies. Young people are leaving home simply to start an independent life rather than to get married. Hence, it seems that the trend of staying single or living on one’s own may be a part of societal trend towards


42


valuing independence more than family life. So, household dimension in very significant to understand such a societal trend.


43



Distinguish between Family and household with reference to the concept of development of the household.(2018)(250 words)

Model Answer

A family is an institution constituted of adult male and female living together with their child or children in more or less permanent relationship such as marriage which is approved in the eyes of society. On the other hand, household is the residential unit of family. A household unit can be a house, an apartment, single room etc.

Distinction between family and household:

Criterion Family Household

i) Primary element

Relationship by blood or marriage

Residence

ii) Secondary element

-co-residence -co-kitchen -co-property

Relationship

iii) Example Husband and wife living together with their children.

Two friends living together in flat. There can be single person household as well.

In contemporary times, widespread changes have been taking place. Due to industrialisation and rise in economic opportunities in urban areas, migration has been increased. Moreover, people give more importance to individualism and privacy. Various structural variations have been taken place in family system with respect to household dimension.

Some specific elements are required to tie the members of a family related with kinship relations in a single household which create the feeling of cooperation and conflict which eventually ensures whether a family would remain one household or change into many households.


44


A M Shah in his writing ‘Household dimension of family in India’ writes that traditional families in India have been manifesting different structural variations on the basis of household patterns. For example-

-Widow mother living with her married male child and grandchildren.

-Brother’s family and sister’s family are living together in the same house after the death of sister’s husband.

Etc.

He writes that divorce, destitution, widowhood, socio-cultural changes are greatly responsible for offering different kinds of structural variations to family system in India. Therefore, so called nuclear families in India should be called as extended families which are manifesting various household patterns.

In addition to this, various new trends are also coming up. Now, people are starting their families without getting into marital relationship. It is possible to cohabitate without marriage. Live in relationships are legal now a days. Male and female partner live in one household and if a child is born then they together constitute a family. Many single people are also adopting children and constituting families in their own way.

Thus, family as an institution is not dying out. However, the traditional definition of family is not befitting to contemporary times and is undergoing change with reference to household dimension. The correlation of family and household is highly relevant to understand the family system properly.


45



Is religion playing an important role in increasing fundamentalism? Give reasons for your answer.(2016)(150 words)

Model Answer

Fundamentalism is a phenomenon in which religion is considered fundamental to all other aspects. It stresses the infallibility of a scripture or holy book. There is emphasis on its literal interpretation and no change is accepted. Religious fundamentalists believe that only one view i.e. their own view is possible and that is the correct one.

The phenomenon of fundamentalism is not confined to any one religion but is widely found amongst different religions. Fundamentalists ask for return to the fundamental tenets of religion. Fundamentalists do not accept any other religion and there is tendency to abolish any alternative system. Taliban regime in Afghanistan could be cited as the most recent example of fundamentalism.

Causes of fundamentalism:

i) Unique text- It provides common ideology to people or believers. Emphasis is given on literal meaning of text.

ii) Common enemy- There is a tendency to evoke religious sentiments so as to unite people against common enemy. It is relatively easier to unite people by using religion.

iii) Modernisation- Fundamentalism is anti-science and denies the validity of human knowledge which is outside the religious realm.

According to Almond and Appleby, various factors such as modern education, migration, modern communication system etc are leading to increase in fundamentalism. For example- Communication system has led to the spread of modern ideas. However, fundamentalists are also using it for spreading their views. Social media platforms are used for radicalisation. In addition to it, the conditions of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment and under development also


46


provide a breeding ground and tend to make people fall in the trap of fundamentalist ideology.


47



How is religious revivalism different from communalism?Elaborate with suitable examples in the Indian context.(2014)(250 words)

Model Answer

Communalism is an ideology that believes in the idea of different communities having different interests which might be antagonised or in conflict with one another. It can be based on any common identity such as religion, ethnicity, language etc.

In India, communalism has largely manifested itself along the lines of religious identity. Communalism is largely associated with using religion for the sake of vested interests. A communal man is the one who does politics in the name of religion. There is a charismatic leader who can convince common people.

On the other hand, religious revivalism is altogether different concept. It can be simply defined as the re-emergence of religion or religion getting re-emphasis in various domains. Religious revivalism in India can be understood on demand supply phenomenon. Various sociologists have presented their views. It is broadly associated with following viewpoints:

i) Narrow view

Fundamentalism come under this view. The phenomenon of fundamentalism is not confined to any one religion but is widely found amongst different religions. Fundamentalists ask for return to the fundamental tenets of religion. For example- Pehlawi dynasty in Iran, Taliban in Afghanistan, ISIS etc.

ii) Mild view

There is emphasis on functional aspect. For example- Arya Samaj gave the slogan-“Go back to Vedas”.

iii) Broad view


48


In contemporary times, various sects and cults are making appearance. For example- Transcendental meditation, ISCKON, Shirdi ke Sai and so on. Many people are opting for religious conversions.

In addition to this, religion is also used as a tool for vote bank politics. Though it is not acceptable according to law yet it is the ground reality. Such a scenario provides water to the seed of communalism in a secular country. Thus, communalism is only one aspect whereas religious revivalism in itself is a broad concept.


49



Discuss the regional variations of kinship system in Indian society. (2017)(250 words)

Model Answer

Kinship system is the way in which relations between individuals and groups are organized. It is referred to as “a structured system of statuses and roles and of relationship in which the kin (primary, secondary, tertiary and distant) are bound to one another by complex interlocking ties.”

India is a diverse country and there are regional variations in kinship system as well. The kinship features in North and Central India differ from those in South India. Such regional variations in kinship system are listed as follows:

Zone Area Features

1. Northern Zone

The northern zone consists of the Sindhi, Punjabi, Hindi, Bihari, Bengali, Nepali etc language areas.

Iravati Karve has given some important features of the kinship organisation of the northern zone: -In these areas, caste endogamy and clan exogamy are strictly observed. -There is patriarchy, patrilocality and patrilineality. -Marriage among close kin in not allowed. -Kin junior to ego are addressed by their names and senior to ego by the kinship term. -Girl is supposed to get married far away and reside at husband’s place. -The duties and behaviour patterns of the members of different generations are strictly regulated.


50


2. Central Zone

The central zone comprises the linguistic regions of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Kathiawad, Maharasthra and Odisha. They have affinity with northern zone. But there are pockets of Dravidian languages in this region. There is impact of eastern zone as well.

The important features of kinship organisation in central India are: -Many castes are divided into exogamous clans. Such clans are also arranged in hierarchical order. -The kinship terminology shows intimacy and closeness between various kin. -The family system in Maharashtra is patrilineal and patrilocal but there are some differences as compared to northern zone. -The kinship system of the tribals in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh is somewhat different from that of caste Hindus. -Some castes like Marathas and Kunbis practice bride-price too though dowry system also exists. Iravati Karwe states that though the kinship organisation in the northern and central zone is almost similar yet it can be described as region of transition from the north to south.

3. Eastern Zone

The eastern zone is not compact and also geographically non-contiguous. Many tribes are present in this region.

In this zone, kinship organisation has no single pattern. -People speaking Mundari languages have patrilineal patrilocal families. However, joint families are rare in this zone. -In Khasis, out of many daughters only one daughter inherits the property. She stays at her mother’s house with her husband. -Ritual marriage is also prevalent. -Bride price is very common. -Among Garos, household is called


51


‘Nok’ and the daughter who inherits the property is called Nokma and her husband is referred as Nokram. Different systems are practiced amongst different tribes.

4. Southern Zone

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala etc come under this zone.

The southern zone presents a complicated system of kinship organisation. -Though patrilineal and patrilocal family is dominant yet various caste and communities follow matrilineal and matrilocal system. -There are some castes who practice polygyny and there are some who practice both polygyny and polyandry. For example- Todas. -In north India, bride takers are considered superior than bride givers, there is no such difference in South India. -Cross cousin marriages and uncle-niece marriages are practiced. -Kinship terms are different from those of northern zone.

All this shows varied patterns in kinship organisation in different regions of India. One common feature is that kinship in India is influenced by caste or ethnicity. Both rigidity and flexibility exist side by side in regard to values, norms, behavioural patterns and practices related to kinship system.


52



Define patriarchy. How does patriarchy manifest in interpersonal relations ? (2018)(250 words)

Model Answer

Patriarchy is a system of society in which men hold primary power and women are considered inferior or lower in status. Some aspects of patriarchy in interpersonal relations are given below:

i)Marriage circles and status of women- The state of being away from home and a near stranger in one’s marital home renders women as easy objects of male control and authority. Such authority is affirmed by customs.

ii)Mothering and childcare-In our society, childcare is considered to be the responsibility of women alone.

iii)Social and cultural norms defining male and female roles and needs- In several instances, we find boys actually doing ‘female’ work such as nurturing younger siblings or cousins, assisting their mothers or sisters in fetching water or firewood. But once boys grow up to be men, all this is considered ‘women’s work’. Masculinity becomes important as one enters into adulthood.

iv)Women’s access to social support systems- A woman’s health is rarely considered worthy of concern. It is assumed that whatever she suffers has to be endured because she is a woman and that is how it would be.

v)Rules of marriage and inheritance- There is emphasis on caste endogamy. Upper caste women are considered the ‘purest of the pure’ and violation of caste limits by them is considered as a direct challenge to caste system. Practice of dowry is prevalent and women are not supposed to inherit property.

vi)Employment or work- Even if a woman is working outside then also she is expected to do the household work but same is not applicable to man. There are pink coloured occupations and glass ceiling phenomenon is also visible. Working woman is not supposed to spend her salary independently. Also, women


53


themselves prefer to work in home based production so that their household work is not impacted.

vii)Family planning- Two child norm put lot of pressure on women in a culture that celebrates the birth of male child.

Radical feminists consider women’s sexual vulnerability and men’s sexual authority as central to patriarchal oppression. Another view is presented by socialist feminists who consider women’s oppression as part of a larger system of economic and social inequalities. However, no society could progress if almost half of the population is treated inferior.


54



"Science and technology are the major forces of acceleration of the process of social change."Comment.(2011)(250 words)

Model Answer

With change in technology, there is change in work culture. This leads to change in attitude of people which ultimately leads to change in society as a whole. Thorstein Veblen has summarised the impact of technology in terms of following points:

i) Impact on social life:

-Individuality

-Decline of community life

-Crime, corruption and competition

ii) Impact on family life

-Decrease of joint families

-Dilution of the function of family

-Employment of women

iii) Impact on economy

-Promotion of capitalism

-Large scale production and development

-Specialised division of labour

-Higher standard of living


55


iv) Impact on religion

-Secularization

v) Impact on rural society

-Migration

-New class formation

-Mechanization of agriculture

Commenting on the role of technology in social change, Ogburn writes “Technology changes society by changing our environment to which we in turn adapt. This change is usually in the material environment and the adjustment we make with.” Technology affects society greatly in that a variation in technology causes variation in some institution or custom. The introduction of machine technology has had such far reaching consequences that it is often described as a ‘revolution’. Industrialisation has destroyed the domestic system of production, brought women from the home to the factory or office. It has meant a new social life for women. There are several such examples which proves that development is Science and technology accelerates the process of social change.

However, social change can also bring change in Science and technology. Max Weber has emphasised on ideological change in the form of religion. Such change was instrumental in providing space for the rise of capitalism. This was accompanied by change in Science and technology. Similarly, development in the field of education also brings change in the field of Science and technology. This view was presented by Daniel Bell when he talked about social change.

Thus, various scholars have reflected on social change with their own perspectives. It can be concluded that Science and technology play important role in bringing and accelerating the process of social change and social change in turn also provides positive feedback for further advancement in the field of Science and technology.


56



How is the increasing use of technology changing the status of women in Indian society?(2014)(250 words)

Model Answer

Science and technology acts as an agent or means of social change. The developments in the field of Science and technology had provided sound base for the rise of industrialisation. Industrialisation has destroyed the domestic system of production, brought women from the home to the factory and office and distinguished their earnings. It has meant a new social life for women.

In India, particularly after 1991 reforms various new employment opportunities have been created. Women education has been given importance. Women started coming out of four walls of the house and have entered into job market. There is trend of self-dependency and financial independence. Women are earning themselves and also making decisions about financial investments. This economic independence has improved the status of women in society. The earlier beliefs with respect to working women have been changing for the good.

Development of technology has also made the life of women easier. For example- Various devices or home appliances have made it easier to perform several tasks. Women are able to get more time for themselves. In contemporary times, various vehicles are specifically designed for women. This has been really empowering for women as they can drive or ride themselves. The advancement of communication technology has provided scope for work from home to women. In addition to it, the development in the field of cryogenics has been looked upon as a boon with which women can choose the time of pregnancy period.

However, there is other side of the coin as well. The development in Science and technology and advancement in medical field have put enormous pressure on women. The rising trend of small family and emphasis on family planning are playing role in deteriorating child sex ratio. Ultrasound machines are used illegally for sex determination of the foetus. This presents a paradoxical situation where women on one side are being empowered while child sex ratio is declining.


57


Similar is the concern with the issue of women safety. On one side, women safety has got a boost with technological advancement. However, on the other side, various cyber crimes such as stalking, leaking pictures, MMS, revenge porn etc are rising which clearly highlights the sorry state of affairs in India.

The domain of Science and technology in itself is neutral. It can be used in positive as well as in negative manner and it depends on humans in which way they want to go.


58



Is the theory of cultural lag valid in present times ?Discuss.(2018)(150 words)

Model Answer

The term ‘cultural lag’ is often used to describe the state of disequilibrium between material and non-material aspects of a culture. Ogburn who coined this word, explained that ‘cultural lag’ occurs when parts of a culture that were once in adjustment with each other change at different rates, and become incompatible with each other. Ogburn pointed out how the non-material culture (values, beliefs, norms, family, religion) often lags behind material culture (technology, means of production output of the economic system). For example, family planning technologies (i.e. material culture) have advanced, but people take their time to accept them. Some sections of the population may reject the very idea of ‘family planning’ and believe in having a large family. Again, when an event such as increase in population or a depletion in natural resources cause a strain in society, it takes some time for the society to understand and absorb the strain and alter its values and institutions to adapt to the change. But in order to function smoothly, societies adjust to maintain and restore themselves.

Critics have pointed out that such view neglects revolutionary changes which are profound and sudden. Conflict theorists do not assume that societies smoothly evolve to higher or complex levels. Modern life is full of examples. The feminist movement has stimulated a reaction from men and women. The liberalisation of sexual mores has led to open denunciation.

Values are strongly bound to other aspects of the social system to which they belong; and change in the value system goes hand in hand with changes in the social system as a whole. Whether it is the change in the value system that causes social change, that is, the change of the social system; or it is some other factors which bring about basic social change, including a change in the value systems - is a question on which opinion is sharply divided. Thus, theory of ‘cultural lag’ is relevant to understand social change.


59



"Social conflict is both a cause and a consequence of social change."Explain.(2016)(250 words)

Model Answer

Sociological perspectives fall broadly in the categories of function i.e., consensus-based, and conflict which is primarily oriented, to explaining the elements of instability and change. Karl Marx was an important social thinker who systematically analysed the phenomenon of social conflicts. Today conflict theorists insist that conflict is a perennial feature of social life, and that as a result societies are in a state of constant change. They see conflicts involving a broad range of interests and groups. The interests are economic, political, legal, religious, social and moral.

Conflicts emerge and continue to persist in social life because things like power, prestige, wealth and other resources are not equally available to everyone−they are scarce commodities. Those who have them or who have control over these scarce commodities, will always try to defend and protect their interests at the expense of others. As a result, conflict emerges between the groups of opposing interests.

Social conflict as a cause of social change:

Conflicts may lead to new forms of social stratification or reinforce existing patterns of stratification in new ways. Inventories may be introduced as a result of conflict. For instance

-Conflict between workers and owners/controllers of production, led to the social invention of trade union.

-Wars between societies led to the development of new techniques of warfare. It was the same phenomenon of war that led to the social invention regarding peace keeping institutions, namely United Nations.

Social conflict as a consequence of social change:


60


Due to social change, various changes take place in societal structure and framework. New classes come into existence and new class relations develop. Such new forces tend to challenge old order which provides space for conflict in society.

For example- Industrialisation and subsequent rise of capitalism and imperialism had resulted in competition for colonial possessions. Such a scenario had resulted into conflicts among colonial powers which ultimately culminated into world wars.

The phenomenon of social conflict is closely interlinked with the phenomenon of social change, social order and social control. Social conflict is both a cause as well as a consequence of social change. The conflict theorists insist that society can be best understood and analysed in terms of struggles and strife that occur over the control and acquisition of power, authority, wealth, prestige and other scarce and desirable resources in society.


61



Examine the social dimensions of displacement induced by development.(2013)(150 words)

Model Answer

Our present development process is the one which looks at environment and poor people as drag on the development process. According to Amartya Sen, we must see development as the process to increase freedom of human beings.

Tribals and people in rural areas are the ones who are most affected by displacement induced by development. Various development projects which induce displacement are dams, roads, industries, mining etc. The problem is not only displacement but also the failure of rehabilitating them. A study by Walter Fernandes shows that only 18% of tribal people were rehabilitated. Out of total displaced people, around 50% are tribals. In many cases, they got the land on paper but not in practice because of local dominance of higher castes.

The life of tribal people is intrinsically linked with environment and forests. Once they are displaced, these people lose their natural setting of rivers, forests and are devoid of minor forest produce. Instead they are pushed into informal sector where they feel totally alienated. Similar is the case with poor people.

This is not an inclusive development and would lead to further conflicts in future. Environment protection itself is a way to increase human freedom. Integrating this in the developmental process would make it people friendly and all inclusive in nature.


62



"Education helps in perpetuating social and economic inequalities."Critically examine the statement.(2015)(250 words)

Model Answer

Education is an important mechanism engaged in transmission of societal culture from one generation to other and also cherishing new values demanded by the social situation and thereby contributing for social equilibrium and social change.

Theoretically all societies advocate equality of opportunity for education irrespective of the caste, creed, sex or class of the individual. However, the extent to which this is put into practice differs in reality. The new economic policy in terms of the process of globalisation, liberalization and privatisation has added to the reproduction of social, economic and educational inequalities and disadvantages rather than equality of opportunity. Moreover, ruling class tends to control education as an ideological state apparatus. It transmits ruling class ideology and justifies as well as legitimises the capitalist system. Such a situation leads to further perpetuation of inequalities.

However, functionalists and liberal scholars do not agree with this. Liberal perspective considers education as an instrument which develops personality of an individual and inculcates physical, emotional, mental and social talent. They state that education could be a solution to reduce inequality in society. Educated people are well aware of their rights and would be in better position to exercise them. By getting proper education, people can rise from working class to middle class and may be to upper class also. For this to happen, there has to be availability, affordability and accessibility of quality education amongst every section of society. The role of State is crucial to ensure this. Moreover, education should not only remain confined to bookish knowledge. Emphasis should also be on imparting skills to the people so that they can get suitable employment opportunities in the job market.


90 days upsc mains optional answer writing initiative · neostencil – live online classes -...

Documents