a comparative assessment of zootherapeutic...

A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ZOOTHERAPEUTICREMEDIES FROM SELECTED AREAS IN ALBANIA, ITALY,

SPAIN AND NEPAL

Cassandra Leah Quave, Usha Lohani, Alonso Verde, Jose Fajardo, Diego Rivera,Concepcion Obon, Arturo Valdes and Andrea Pieroni

Zootherapy is the treatment of human ailments with remedies derived from animals and their

products. Despite its prevalence in traditional medical practices worldwide, research on thisphenomenon has often been neglected in comparison to medicinal plant research. Interviews

regarding zootherapeutic traditions were conducted with informants from Albania, Italy, Nepal and

Spain. We identified 80 species used in zootherapeutic remedies, representing 4 phyla in the animalkingdom: Annelida, Arthropoda, Chordata, and Mollusca. Remedies were ranked by consensus

indices. Our studies show that the selection of medicinal fauna is mediated by human subsistence

patterns. Concepts of health and disease differ among our study sites in the Mediterranean and Asia,

and these differences also play a substantive role in the selection and use of animal-based remedies.

Key words: zootherapy, ethnoveterinary, traditional medicine

La zooterapia es el tratamiento de las dolencias humanas con los remedios obtenidos de animales y

sus productos. A pesar de su incidencia en las practicas medicas tradicionales en todo el mundo, la

investigacion sobre este fenomeno a menudo ha estado descuidada en comparacion con lainvestigacion de las plantas medicinales. Las entrevistas respecto a las practicas de zooterapia se

llevaron a cabo con informantes de Albania, Italia, Nepal y Espana. Identificamos 80 especies usadas

en los remedios de zooterapia, representando 4 phyla en el reino animal: Annelida, Arthropoda,

Chordata, y Mollusca. Los remedios fueron clasificados mediante ındices de consenso. Hablamos unpoco de las semejanzas interculturales y las diferencias en el uso medicinal de las faunas locales.

Cassandra Leah Quave, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas forMedical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham St., Mail Slot 511, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA (e-mail: [email protected])

Usha Lohani, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, NEPAL Post Box-7844 (e-mail: [email protected])

Alonso Verde, Escuela de Magisterio, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Campus de Albacete, E-02007 Albacete, SPAIN (e-mail: [email protected])

Jose Fajardo, Escuela de Magisterio, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Campus de Albacete, E-02007 Albacete, SPAIN (e-mail: [email protected])

Diego Rivera, Dep. Biologıa Vegetal, Universidad de Murcia, Fac. de Biologıa, E-30100 Murcia, SPAIN(e-mail: [email protected])

Concepcion Obon, Dep. Biologıa Aplicada, Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Escuela PolitecnicaSuperior de Orihuela, Ctra Beniel km. 3,2, 03312 Orihuela, SPAIN (e-mail: [email protected])

Arturo Valdes, Escuela de Magisterio, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Campus de Albacete, E-02007 Albacete, Spain (e-mail: [email protected])

Andrea Pieroni, University of Gastronomic Sciences, Via Amedeo di Savoia 8, I-12060 Pollenzo/Bra,ITALY (e-mail: [email protected])

Journal of Ethnobiology 30(1): 92–125 Spring/Summer 2010

Introduction

The treatment of ailments with remedies made from animals and theirproducts is known as zootherapy (Alves and Rosa 2005). Animal-basedmedicines are generally derived from three sources: the whole or parts of theanimal body, metabolic products of the animal (secretions or excrement), andother things created by animals such as nests, cocoons, honey, and eggs (Costa-Neto 2005). Since ancient times, zootherapy has been integral to the traditionalpharmacopoeias of many cultures (Alves and Rosa 2006; Costa-Neto 1999; Lev2003; Mahawar and Jaroli 2007) and has comprised a fundamental element towell-known traditional medical systems, such as Ayurvedic medicine, Tradi-tional Chinese Medicine, and ancient Egyptian medicine. Records of themedicinal use of animals and their by-products date back to the invention ofwriting (Lev 2003, 2006). Today, animal products make up an important portionof modern pharmaceuticals; approximately 18% of prescription drugs used in theUSA have animal origins (WRI 2000). Yet, despite its continued prevalence intraditional medical practices around the globe and importance as a potentialsource of novel pharmaceutical agents, zootherapy appears in the literature muchless than studies of medicinal plant therapies.

Zootherapy is a vital component of traditional medicine (Alves and Rosa2007a, 2007b, 2007c). This is especially evident in rural communities where accessto modern healthcare is limited. Over centuries, the close interactions of ruralpopulations with the environment, often associated with an economic depen-dence on local natural resources, has fostered the accumulation of a wealth ofknowledge in this field. This knowledge of animal-based medicines, much likethat of medicinal plants, is usually passed down through the oral traditionstypical of many societies.

Loss of this traditional knowledge (TK) in the wake of rampant urbanizationin cultures across the globe instills a sense of urgency for ethnobiologists torecord and interpret this data before it is lost forever. In an effort to betterunderstand the role of zootherapy in traditional medicine today and to record TKof endangered medicinal practices, we have taken a cross-cultural approach toexamine data from our field sites located in four countries. We identify, describe,and compare zootherapeutic remedies used in the traditional pharmacopoeias ofrural communities in Albania, Italy, Spain, and Nepal (Figure 1). These fourregions were selected specifically for their disparate cultural and geographicdomains. We use data from the Mediterranean field sites in Albania, Italy, andSpain to compare zootherapeutic practices in locations that are characterized bydifferent cultures, but similar terrain and fauna. The Nepal data providezootherapeutic practices from a region with a different culture, environment, andnative fauna than that of the Mediterranean sites.

Cross-cultural studies of zootherapeutic practices are uncommon, yet theycan offer valuable insight into the dynamic relationship that we share with ourenvironment. In this paper, we aim to address the following questions: How doesculture mediate human-environment interactions as they relate to zootherapies?How do subsistence patterns and economic models influence human health and

Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 93

access to medicines? How can we use our understanding of traditional lifewaysand ethnomedical systems to promote biodiversity conservation?

Study Area

Albania

Albania has a predominantly mountainous terrain. Although a relativelysmall country, it has a high level of biodiversity, and 5.8% of the country isprotected as national parks and reserves (Hoda and Zotaj 2007). The nation’seconomy is based on agriculture and forestry. According to the AlbanianNational Institute of Statistics, 58% of Albanians live in rural areas andapproximately 20% of the population live in very poor conditions, 10% on lessthan US $2 per day (World Bank 2003). Albania is one of the poorest countries inEurope with an estimated Gross National Product of US $930 per capita.

Recent ethnobiological studies have been conducted in two remote villages–Lepushe and Theth–both located in the Shala Valley in the northern Albanian Alps(Pieroni 2008; Pieroni et al. 2005). The terrain in this area is mountainous and ischaracterized by alpine pastures and beech forests. The average temperature in thesummer is 16uC, and winter brings heavy snowfalls and an average temperature of23uC. Members of these communities survive on an economy of self-sufficiency;households care for a few livestock (usually one or two cows, pigs, and a fewsheep) and cultivate staple crops like potatoes and corn along with some additionalvegetables. Thus, due to the economic environment and physical isolation fromother populations, these communities maintain strong ties with their environmentand are actively involved in the collection of plant materials and animal productsfrom both wild and cultivated sources for food and medicine.

Italy

Italy’s Basilicata province lies in the south-central region of the country andis dominated by a rugged, mountainous terrain. This 9,992 km2 region has a

FIGURE 1. Map of the study area: Spain, Italy, Albania and Nepal.

94 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1

population of about 600,000 people. The local economy is based on small-scaleagriculture and agro-pastoral activities, although in the past decade it has shiftedtoward factory labor for both men and women. One prominent geographicalfeature of Basilicata is the dormant volcano, Monte Vulture (1,330 m a.s.l.). TheMonte Vulture area is home to both autochthonous (native) Italians and ethnicArbereshe Albanian communities who have been included in extensiveethnobiological studies (Pieroni et al. 2002; Quave and Pieroni 2005).

In addition to the Vulture area, ethnobiological field studies have beenconducted in the Lucanian Dolomite area –an isolated mountainous region nearthe province capital city of Potenza. The population is autochthonous Italian,with the exception of some eastern European migrants employed as householdhelpers. The remote location of these communities combined with their closeproximity to forests fosters a close relationship between people and theirenvironment. The tradition of collecting wild plants for food and medicine (bothfor human and animal consumption or use) still thrives, as does the similar use ofwild and domestic animals and their products (Pieroni et al. 2004). Some of thedomestic animals common to Basilicata include poultry, swine, cattle, goats, andsheep. Those who regularly participate in pastoral labor often use horses ordonkeys for transportation while herding the livestock. Thus, the health of theiranimals is of primary importance, and a rich tradition of ethnoveterinarypractices has been documented (Pieroni et al. 2004).

Spain

Castilla-La Mancha lies in the center (C-SE) of Spain, near Madrid. This79,463 km2 region has a population of almost 2 million people (Instituto Nacionalde Estadıstica 2009). The flat plains of La Mancha are almost entirely devoid ofnatural vegetation and are instead occupied by crops, mainly grape vines andcereals like barley, wheat, oat, and rye. Groves of olive and almond trees arecommon in the warmer climes.

From an ethnobiological point of view, the most interesting areas are theperipheral mountains, where the Mediterranean forests are filled with Quercusspp. and Pinus spp. in the highest mountains. There, people live in small villagesstill close to nature and the traditional way of life. The elders living in this regionremember old healing practices, now in disuse, but which were an important partof their lives in the past (Verde et al. 2008). A review of the Spanish literatureconfirms the importance of traditional remedies in the Spanish medical heritage(Blazquez 1989, 1991; Iniesta and Jordan 1991; Sanchez-Mınguez 1995).Zootherapy was commonplace in Spain in the second half of the 20th century,particularly in mountainous areas. In the Pyrenees (Alto Aragon), 48 animalspecies were used to treat up to 197 different ailments (Palacın-Latorre 1994;Palacın-Rodrıguez 1985). In the Cantabrian mountains Orense and Asturias, 12and 13 animal species respectively, were reported as medicinal resources (Rico-Avello 1974; Taboada 1948).

Like other Mediterranean countries, Spain has a rich diversity of reptiles andamphibians and many species of birds. Big mammals, however, are rare, andwolves are almost extinct in the region. Some game like deer and wild boar arestill common, and foxes are also easy to find, even near villages and towns.


Hunting is an important source of income, and the focus is mostly on small gamelike partridges, rabbits and hares and big game in some mountainous areas likethe Toledo Mountains, Morena Range, and Cuenca Range.

Livestock, particularly sheep and goats used for their milk and meat, are alsovery important in La Mancha. Some areas are dedicated to breeding bulls forcorridas (bull-fighting). Cattle are frequently found in the mountains. Swine andrabbits are bred for meat, and poultry are raised as a source of meat and eggs.Horses and donkeys were very common in the past, but are now rare in thecountryside, although some remain in the mountain villages.

Nepal

Nepal has a distinctive topography that contributes to its rich biological andcultural diversity. Rugged terrain forms specific niches harboring uniqueassemblages of flora and fauna. Further, because of its location, the countryencompasses two zoogeographical regions: the Palearctic in the north and theOriental in the south. The country, though small, is rich in fauna of both therealms. The narrow middle strip of the country from east to the west is the mainregion of faunal mixing. Historic and current economic factors have promotedhuman interaction with biological resources in Nepal resulting in a rich body oftraditional knowledge concerning resource utilization, management and conser-vation (for example Nanhoe and Ouboter 1987; Rajbhandari 2001; Shah and Giri1992; Shrestha 2003), but Lohani et al. (2008) emphasize a strong need forcomprehensive ethnozoological studies.

In this study we document ethnozoological knowledge in Majhi communitiesfrom the central mountainous region of Nepal. Majhi communities are usuallyscattered along the river banks in the Inner Terai and lower mountainousregions. These are river people who constitute about 0.32% of the totalpopulation of the country (CBS 2001). The nearby ancient Tharu peopledepended only upon wild forest products for their livelihood while ancientMajhi were engaged in fishing and farming (Bista 2000). In the wake of moderndevelopment efforts, modern Majhi are now engaged in other economic activitiessuch as wage labor and business.

Materials and Methods

Our research methods included participant observation, semi-structuredinterviews, and focus groups. Although field research was conducted in each ofthe four study sites by different ethnobiologists, similar interview techniques anddata collection methods were employed. Prior informed consent was obtainedbefore conducting interviews, and ethical guidelines adopted by the InternationalCongress of Ethnobiology/International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE 2007) werefollowed. Interviewees were questioned in their native language about themedicinal uses of the local fauna. Study participants were asked to free-list anyknown zootherapeutic remedies. Informants were prompted by asking aboutremedies for different common health problems, such as remedies for respiratoryailments, skin infections, diarrhea, women’s health, stomach problems, pain, andwounds. When possible, informants were also interviewed using a focus group


format, and dialogue between the participants was encouraged while theresearcher(s) recorded references to zootherapeutic remedies. Details regardingthe local names of animals and the use and collection of animal products arepresented in Table 1. The consensus index uses how often a certain remedy wascited to provide a relative measure of the knowledge of remedies within eachstudy location.

For Albania, Pieroni conducted field research in the upper Shala Valley in thenorthern Albanian Alps from 2004 to 2007. Snowball sampling methods (Bernard2002) were used to recruit 38 study participants, primarily among elderlymembers of the community who had lived in the area for all or most of theirlives. Albanian fauna were identified using the Libri i kuq i faunes shqiptare [RedBook of Albanian Fauna] (Misja 2006).

Field research was conducted in the Basilicata Province of southern Italy byQuave and Pieroni from 2000 to 2008. Random sampling techniques wereemployed to recruit 112 interview subjects. Interviewees were equally stratifiedby gender and four age groups (21–35, 36–50, 51–70, 71+ years). Italian faunawere identified using the Checklist of Italian Fauna (Stoch 2009).

Fajardo, Verde, Rivera, and Obon conducted field research in Castilla-LaMancha Spain from 2000 to 2008. More than 600 study participants wereinterviewed, 170 of which were knowledgeable of local ethnobiologicalapplications of fauna. Fauna were identified using the Fauna Iberica (Ramos 2009).

Field research was conducted in the Inner Terai and Lower Mountainousregions of Nepal by Lohani from 2004 to 2006. A total of 38 informants wereinterviewed, 17 of whom were 18–29 years old, 10 were 30–49, and 11 were olderthan 50. Nepali fauna were identified using several taxonomic keys (Grimmet etal. 2003; Shah and Tiwari 2004; Shrestha 1981; Shrestha 2003).

Results

Our research in three countries in the Mediterranean (Albania, Italy, and Spain)and one in Asia (Nepal) gathered information on 80 animal species used in 232traditional zootherapeutic remedies for either human or animal health (Figure 1). Adetailed description of these remedies is provided in Table 1, including popularuse, preparation and application, and. a consensus index system.

Animals from 4 phyla (Annelida, Arthropoda, Chordata, and Mollusca) werereported as sources of medicinal remedies, with the majority (62 species, 77.5%)Chordata, followed by Arthropoda (13 species, 16.3%), Mollusca (4 species, 5%)and Annelida (1 species, 1.3%). Of the animal classes, most reported species comefrom the Mammalia (27 species, 33.8%), followed by the Aves (12 species, 15%) –both in the phylum Chordata. As to orders, the Artiodactyla from the classMammalia had the most species represented (8 species, 10%), followed by theCarnivora of class Mammalia and order Squamata of class Reptilia, both of whichhad 7 species (8.8%) represented (Table 2).

Correlation of Remedies to Fauna

A total of 232 zootherapeutic remedies were reported. More remedies werereported from species belonging to certain orders. There were 52 remedies


TA

BL

E1.

Po

pu

lar

use

so

fan

imal

sas

zoo

ther

apeu

tic

rem

edie

sin

Alb

ania

,It

aly

,N

epal

and

Sp

ain

.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Ph

ylu

m:

An

nel

ida

Cla

ss:

Cli

tell

ata

Ord

er:

Hir

ud

inea

Hir

ud

om

edic

inal

is(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Eu

rop

ean

Med

ical

Lee

chsa

ng

uij

uel

as

[S]

hea

lco

ntu

sio

nA

wh

ole

liv

ean

imal

isp

lace

dd

irec

tly

ov

erth

ew

ou

nd

tosu

cku

pth

eb

loo

d.

(M)

xx

x

am

ign

att

ola

[I]

amu

let

agai

nst

skin

dis

ease

Aw

ho

leli

ve

anim

alis

app

lied

toth

esk

inas

anam

ule

tag

ain

sta

no

nd

escr

ipt

skin

illn

ess.

Itis

con

sid

ered

ag

oo

do

men

ifth

ean

imal

surv

ives

the

trea

tmen

t.(M

R)

x

ush

un

jz[A

]h

eal

mu

scu

lar

pai

ns

Ali

ve

anim

alis

app

lied

exte

rnal

lyto

reli

eve

mu

scu

lar

pai

ns

(‘‘t

hey

suck

the

bad

blo

od

’’).

(M)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Art

hro

po

da

Cla

ss:

Ara

chn

ida

Ord

er:

Ara

nea

eu

nk

no

wn

Sp

ider

[A]

hae

mo

stat

icA

spid

erw

ebis

app

lied

toth

ela

cera

tio

n.

(M)

xT

egen

aria

dom

esti

ca(C

lerc

k,

1757

)H

ou

seS

pid

era

ran

as

[S]

vu

lner

ary

;h

eal

con

tusi

on

Asp

ider

web

isap

pli

edto

wo

un

ds

and

bru

ises

.In

Cam

po

de

Cal

atra

va

(Ciu

dad

Rea

l)it

ism

ixed

wit

hd

ried

gro

un

dre

dp

epp

eran

du

sed

asa

dre

ssin

gar

ou

nd

the

inju

ries

.(M

)

xx

Ph

ylu

m:

Art

hro

po

da

Cla

ss:

Ara

chn

ida

Ord

er:

Sco

rpio

nes

Bu

thu

soc

cita

nu

s(A

mo

reu

x,

1789

)C

om

mo

nE

uro

pea

nS

corp

ion

ala

cra

n,

ara

cra

n,

esco

rpio

n[S

]an

ti-o

titi

cO

ne

wh

ole

sco

rpio

nis

frie

din

oli

ve

oil

.D

rop

so

fth

efi

lter

edo

ilar

ein

stil

led

into

the

ear.

(M)

xx

Tw

oo

rth

ree

wh

ole

sco

rpio

ns

are

frie

din

oli

ve

oil

wit

hru

e(R

uta

angu

stif

olia

Per

s.).

Dro

ps

of

the

filt

ered

oil

are

pu

tin

the

affe

cted

ear(

s).

(M)

x

anti

-cy

stit

ico

rag

ain

stu

rete

ro

bst

ruct

ion

inm

ule

s

Tw

oo

rth

ree

wh

ole

sco

rpio

ns

are

frie

din

oli

ve

oil

wit

hla

ure

l(L

auru

sn

obil

isL

.)le

aves

.T

he

filt

ered

oil

isg

iven

toth

em

ule

tod

rin

k.

(MF

,E

V)

x

vu

lner

ary

for

bu

rns

An

ole

oli

teis

pre

par

edb

yso

akin

g5

or

6w

ho

leli

ve

anim

als

ina

jar

of

ho

to

liv

eo

il.

Th

eo

ilis

left

tose

ttle

for

sev

eral

day

s,fi

lter

ed,

and

app

lied

tob

urn

s.(M

)

x

anti

-cy

stit

icW

ho

leli

ve

anim

als

are

soak

edin

aja

ro

fal

coh

ol

and

left

tose

ttle

for

sev

eral

day

s.T

he

filt

ered

alco

ho

lis

rub

bed

on

toth

elo

wer

abd

om

en.

(M)

x


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Eu

scor

piu

ssp

p.

(Th

ore

ll,

1876

)S

corp

ion

[I/

A]

anti

-oti

tic

Aw

ho

lean

imal

isso

aked

ino

liv

eo

ilto

crea

tean

ole

oli

tein

fusi

on

.T

his

oil

isth

enin

stil

led

inth

ein

fect

edo

rp

ain

ful

ear.

(M)

#

Ph

ylu

m:

Art

hro

po

da

Cla

ss:

Inse

cta

Ord

er:

Co

leo

pte

raA

nn

obiu

mp

un

cta-

tum

(De

Gee

r,17

74)

Co

mm

on

Fu

rnit

ure

Bee

tle

po

lver

ini

[I]

hea

ld

iap

er-r

ash

or

hea

tra

shin

infa

nts

Wo

od

po

wd

er(s

awd

ust

)cr

eate

db

yth

isw

oo

d-b

ori

ng

bee

tle

isap

pli

edto

the

rash

.(M

)x

hea

lin

fan

tile

seb

orr

hei

cd

erm

atit

is(c

rad

le-c

ap)

Wo

od

po

wd

er(s

awd

ust

)cr

eate

db

yth

isw

oo

d-b

ori

ng

bee

tle

isru

bb

edo

nth

ein

fan

t’s

scal

p.

(M)

x

dru

ik

alb

ete

[I/

A]

hae

mo

stat

icW

oo

dp

ow

der

crea

ted

by

the

wo

od

-bo

rin

gb

eetl

eis

app

lied

.(M

)#

anti

-mas

titi

cW

oo

dp

ow

der

crea

ted

by

this

wo

od

-bo

rin

gb

eetl

eis

app

lied

toth

eaf

fect

edb

reas

t.(M

)#

Sca

rab

aeid

ae(s

ev-

eral

gen

era)

Sca

rab

Bee

tles

esca

rab

ajo

s[S

]h

eal

mo

uth

sore

so

ru

lcer

sA

no

leo

lite

isp

rep

ared

by

fry

ing

7o

r9

wh

ole

liv

eb

eetl

esin

oli

ve

oil

.T

he

filt

ered

oil

isap

pli

edto

the

sore

s.(M

)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Art

hro

po

da

Cla

ss:

Inse

cta

Ord

er:

Hem

ipte

raC

icad

idae

(sev

eral

gen

era)

Cic

ada

chic

ha

rra

s[S

]v

uln

erar

yfo

rb

urn

sA

no

leo

lite

isp

rep

ared

by

soak

ing

5o

r6

liv

ean

imal

sin

aja

ro

fo

liv

eo

il.

Th

eo

ilis

left

tose

ttle

for

sev

eral

day

s,fi

lter

ed,

and

app

lied

tob

urn

s.(M

)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Art

hro

po

da

Cla

ss:

Inse

cta

Ord

er:

Hy

men

op

tera

Ap

isce

ran

a(F

abri

-ci

us,

1793

);A

.d

orsa

ta(F

abri

ciu

s,17

93);

A.

dor

sata

labo

rios

a(S

mit

h,

1871

);A

.fl

orea

(Fab

rici

us,

1793

)

Asi

atic

Ho

ney

Bee

;G

ian

tH

on

eyB

ee;

Him

alay

anH

on

eyB

ee;

Dw

arf

Ho

ney

Bee

ma

hu

ri[N

]an

ti-p

har

yn

git

ic;

anti

-rh

init

ic;

anti

-gas

trit

icH

on

eyis

eate

n.

(MF

)x

A.

mel

life

ra(L

inn

ae-

us,

1758

)an

do

ther

spp

.

Eu

rop

ean

Ho

ney

Bee

ab

eja

s[S

]an

ti-p

har

yn

git

ic;

anti

-rh

init

ic;

anti

-la

ryn

git

icH

on

ey(m

ele)

isea

ten

alo

ne

or

mix

edw

ith

ho

tte

a.(M

F)

xx

x

Ho

ney

ism

ixed

wit

hle

mo

nju

ice

(Cit

rus

lim

on(L

.)O

sbec

k)

and

eate

n.

(MF

)x

xx


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Ho

ney

isad

ded

asa

swee

ten

erin

her

bal

tea

mix

ture

sco

nta

inin

gin

gre

die

nts

fro

mso

me

pla

nts

such

asSp

anis

hsa

ge

(Sal

via

lava

ndu

lifo

lia

Vah

l.)an

dIt

alia

nb

uck

tho

rn(R

ham

nu

sal

ater

nu

sL

.).

(MF

)

xx

x

hea

lso

reey

es;

anti

-co

nju

nct

ivit

icD

rop

so

fh

on

eyar

ep

lace

dd

irec

tly

inth

eey

es.

(M)

xx

vu

lner

ary

for

bu

rns

Ho

ney

isto

pic

ally

app

lied

toth

eb

urn

wo

un

d.

(M)

xx

[I]

emo

llie

nt

for

chap

ped

nip

ple

sH

on

ey(m

iele

)is

app

lied

toth

en

ipp

leb

etw

een

bre

ast-

feed

ing

sess

ion

s.(M

)x

[A]

anti

-oti

tic

Bee

sw

ax(d

yll

)is

liq

uef

ied

and

arra

ng

edo

nth

eto

po

fa

smal

lp

iece

of

clo

thth

atis

inse

rted

(sti

llw

arm

)in

toth

eea

r.(M

)

x

hea

lm

ou

thin

flam

mat

ion

sH

on

eyis

top

ical

lyap

pli

edto

the

mu

cosa

.(M

)x

anti

-par

oti

tic

(mu

mp

s)H

on

eyis

app

lied

exte

rnal

lyu

nd

erth

eea

r.(M

)x

po

st-p

artu

mre

con

stit

uen

tH

on

eyis

dis

solv

edin

ho

tw

ater

and

mil

kan

dd

run

k.

(MF

)x

Ph

ylu

m:

Art

hro

po

da

Cla

ss:

Inse

cta

Ord

er:

Lep

ido

pte

raB

omby

xm

ori

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)S

ilk

wo

rman

ti-w

art

Asi

lkri

bb

on

isb

ou

nd

aro

un

dth

ew

art.

(MR

)x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Act

ino

pte

ryg

iiO

rder:

An

gu

illi

form

esA

ng

uil

labe

ng

alen

sis

ben

gal

ensi

s(G

ray

,18

31)

Ind

ian

Mo

ttle

dE

elra

jab

am

[N]

pro

mo

teex

pu

lsio

no

fp

lace

nta

An

eel’

sta

ilis

use

dto

tou

chth

eh

ead

of

aw

om

and

uri

ng

chil

db

irth

tofa

cili

tate

exp

uls

ion

of

the

pla

cen

taaf

ter

chil

db

irth

and

pre

ven

tco

mp

lica

tio

ns.

(MR

)

xx

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Act

ino

pte

ryg

iiO

rder:

Clu

pei

form

esS

ard

ina

pil

char

dus

(Wal

bau

m,

1752

)E

uro

pea

nP

ilch

ard

sard

ina

s[S

]h

eal

foo

tb

list

ers

and

sore

sH

ead

san

dg

uts

of

salt

ysa

rdin

esar

eru

bb

edo

nth

eaf

fect

edfe

et.

(M)

x

dig

esti

ve

aid

for

liv

esto

ckA

mix

ture

of

hea

ds

of

salt

edsa

rdin

esw

ith

fod

der

salt

isg

iven

toli

ves

tock

toea

tw

hen

suff

erin

gfr

om

ind

iges

tio

n.

(MF

,E

V)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Act

ino

pte

ryg

iiO

rder:

Cy

pri

nif

orm

esS

chiz

oth

orax

pla

gio

stom

as(H

eck

el,

1838

);S

.ri

char

dso

nii

(Gra

y,

1832

)

Sn

ow

tro

ut

sun

asa

la[N

];b

uch

ea

sala

[N]

vu

lner

ary

for

bu

rns

anti

-leu

cod

erm

aB

ile

juic

ean

dfi

sho

ilar

eap

pli

edto

bu

rns.

(M)

Mil

t(s

emin

alfl

uid

)o

fth

efi

shis

smea

red

on

the

skin

.(M

)

xx

xx


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Act

ino

pte

ryg

iiO

rder:

Sy

nb

ran

chif

orm

esM

onop

teru

scu

chia

(Ham

ilto

n,

1822

)M

ud

Eel

ba

mm

acc

ha

[N]

pro

mo

teex

pu

lsio

no

fp

lace

nta

An

eel’

sta

ilis

use

dto

tou

chth

eh

ead

of

aw

om

and

uri

ng

chil

db

irth

tofa

cili

tate

exp

uls

ion

of

the

pla

cen

taaf

ter

chil

db

irth

and

pre

ven

tco

mp

lica

tio

ns.

(MR

)

xx

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Am

ph

ibia

Ord

er:

An

ura

Bu

fobu

fo(L

inn

ae-

us,

1758

)C

om

mo

nT

oad

sap

o,

za

mp

on

o[S

]ta

bo

oT

her

eis

ab

elie

fth

atto

uch

ing

the

skin

of

ato

adca

nd

amag

eth

esk

in.

(MR

)x

Paa

lieb

igii

(Gu

n-

ther

,18

60)

Sp

iny

-Arm

edF

rog

ma

np

ah

a[N

]re

con

stit

uen

tn

utr

aceu

tica

lC

oo

ked

and

eate

nto

trea

tp

erso

nw

ith

ap

rolo

ng

edil

lnes

s.(M

F)

x

Ran

ap

erez

i(S

eoan

e,18

85)

Per

ez’s

Fro

gra

na

[S]

wo

un

dcl

ean

sin

g;

dis

infe

ctan

tT

he

bel

lyo

fa

wh

ole

liv

ean

imal

issl

ito

pen

and

app

lied

dir

ectl

yto

the

wo

un

d.

(M)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Am

ph

ibia

Ord

er:

Cau

dat

aS

alam

and

rasa

lam

and

ra(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Fir

eS

alam

and

ersa

lam

an

dra

[S]

tab

oo

Th

ere

isa

bel

ief

that

tou

chin

gth

esk

ino

fth

esa

lam

and

erca

nd

amag

eth

esk

in.

(MR

)x

Sal

aman

dra

sp.

Tw

o-H

ead

edS

alam

and

era

sala

gre

ca[I

]au

gu

ry(g

oo

do

men

)T

he

hea

dis

cut

off

and

sto

red

inal

coh

ol.

(MR

)x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Av

esO

rder:

Cic

on

iifo

rmes

Ard

eap

urp

ure

a(L

inn

aeu

s,17

66).

Pu

rple

Her

on

ga

rza

[S]

hae

mo

stat

icT

he

ches

td

ow

nfe

ath

ers

are

use

dto

sto

pb

leed

ing

inla

cera

tio

ns

or

wo

un

ds.

(M)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Av

esO

rder:

Co

lum

bif

orm

esC

olu

mba

liv

ia(G

mel

in,

1789

);C

.oe

nas

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

);C

.p

alu

mbu

s(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Ro

ckP

igeo

n;

Sto

ckP

igeo

n;

Wo

od

Pig

eon

Pig

eon

pa

lom

a;

pa

lom

az

uri

ta;

pa

lom

ab

rav

ia;

pa

lom

ato

rca

z[S

]

anti

-on

ych

ocr

yp

tosi

c(i

ng

row

nn

ail)

;an

ti-a

cne

Fec

esar

em

ixed

wit

hb

read

cru

mb

san

dap

pli

ed.

(M)

x

Col

um

bia

spp

.(G

mel

in,

1789

)u

pic

cio

ne

[I]

po

st-p

artu

mh

eali

ng

;re

con

stit

uen

tS

ou

pm

ade

wit

hp

igeo

nm

eat

isp

rep

ared

(oft

enas

ag

ift)

for

wo

men

reco

ver

ing

fro

mch

ild

bir

thto

eat.

Itis

also

eate

nas

ag

ener

alre

con

stit

uen

td

uri

ng

illn

ess.

(MF

)

xx

gal

acta

go

gu

eP

igeo

nm

eat

sou

pis

eate

n.

(MF

)x

xx


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

pa

rew

a[N

]au

gu

ry(g

oo

do

men

)V

illa

ger

sse

tth

ep

igeo

nfr

eeto

free

them

selv

esfr

om

un

tow

ard

hap

pen

ing

s,fo

rth

eir

pea

cean

dg

ener

alw

ell-

bei

ng

.It

isb

elie

ved

that

the

fly

ing

pig

eon

tak

esaw

ayal

lk

ind

so

fd

isea

ses

and

bad

luck

.(M

R)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Av

esO

rder:

Co

raci

ifo

rmes

Cor

acia

sbe

ng

hal

ensi

s(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Ind

ian

Ro

ller

theu

wa

[N]

anti

-oti

tic

Th

eco

ok

edfl

esh

isea

ten

.(M

F)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Av

esO

rder:

Cu

culi

form

esC

ucu

lus

can

oru

s(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Co

mm

on

Cu

cko

ou

cucc

he

[I]

aug

ury

(go

od

om

en)

Hea

rin

gth

eb

ird

sin

gin

gis

con

sid

ered

ag

oo

do

men

for

life

.(M

R)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Av

esO

rder:

Gal

lifo

rmes

Gal

lus

gal

lus

Ch

ick

eng

ali

na

s[S

]v

uln

erar

yfo

rb

urn

sE

gg

wh

ite

isap

pli

edd

irec

tly

toth

eb

urn

.(M

)x

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)an

ti-o

ny

cho

cry

pto

sic

(in

gro

wn

nai

l)T

he

affe

cted

fin

ger

or

toe

isp

lace

din

ag

lass

wit

ha

raw

egg

toso

akfo

ra

few

min

ute

s.(M

)x

x

amu

let

agai

nst

infa

nti

lep

aral

ysi

sT

he

egg

sla

ido

nG

oo

dF

rid

ayar

ek

ept

asam

ule

tsto

pro

tect

infa

nts

fro

mth

isd

isea

se.

(MR

)

x

anti

-an

emic

Raw

egg

s(w

ith

thei

rsh

ell)

are

bea

ten

wit

hle

mo

nju

ice

and

sug

aran

dle

ftto

mac

erat

efo

ra

few

day

sto

tak

ean

asp

ect

of

pu

ree

(in

clu

din

gm

old

).T

his

pu

ree

isea

ten

by

chil

dre

nan

dad

ult

s.(M

F)

x

ku

kh

ura

[N]

vu

lner

ary

for

bu

rns

Ch

ick

enfa

tis

top

ical

lyap

pli

edto

the

bu

rn.

(M)

xx

hea

lb

rok

enb

on

esSm

all

chic

ken

sar

eg

rou

nd

into

ap

aste

that

isu

sed

asa

pla

ster

ing

mat

eria

lto

set

the

bo

ne.

(M)

xx

ble

ssin

gfo

rh

eali

ng

Fai

thh

eale

rsp

rese

nt

liv

eh

ens

toth

eh

eali

ng

die

tyw

hen

trea

tin

gw

om

enan

dth

eyp

rese

nt

aro

ost

erto

the

dei

tyw

hen

hea

lin

gm

en.

(MR

)

xx

[A]

trea

tk

idn

eyst

on

esT

he

mem

bra

ne

of

the

mu

scu

lar

sto

mac

h(m

ull

isp

ule

)o

fa

hen

isre

mo

ved

and

dri

ed,

then

gro

un

dan

dm

ade

into

ad

eco

ctio

n.

x

po

iso

nan

tid

ote

Aw

ho

leeg

gis

eate

nra

was

anan

tid

ote

.(M

F)

Th

isis

also

use

dto

trea

tca

ttle

and

shee

p.

(EV

)

xx

x


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

hea

lst

om

ach

ach

eE

gg

sar

eco

ok

ed(b

oil

ed)

and

eate

n.

(MF

)x

hea

lg

ener

alp

ain

s/an

alg

esic

Ari

tual

cere

mo

ny

isp

erfo

rmed

inw

hic

ha

raw

egg

isp

ut

on

ap

iece

of

raw

wo

ol

wh

ich

isad

her

edto

the

bo

dy

wit

hth

eh

elp

of

oil

.T

he

egg

mo

ves

on

the

wo

ol

and

wh

ere

the

yo

lkst

op

s,th

ey

olk

‘‘ta

kes

the

pai

naw

ay’’

and

com

eso

ut

of

the

mem

bra

ne.

Th

ew

ho

letr

eatm

ent

last

atle

ast

on

eh

ou

r.(M

R)

xx

ag

ad

din

a[I

]an

ti-a

bsc

ess;

anti

-fu

run

cle

Eg

gy

olk

ism

ixed

wit

hth

ey

east

fro

mfr

esh

pas

tad

ou

gh

and

app

lied

.(M

)x

hea

lb

rok

eno

rb

ruis

edb

on

esE

gg

wh

ite

isb

eate

nw

ell,

and

then

use

dto

coat

hem

p(C

ann

abis

sati

va

L.)

fib

erto

mak

ea

har

dca

stfo

rse

ttin

gb

on

es.

(M)

+

hea

lg

ener

alsi

ckn

ess

Ch

ick

enm

eat

sou

pis

eate

nas

are

con

stit

uen

t.(M

F)

xx

[I],

[I/

A]

hea

lco

ntu

sio

nT

he

egg

alb

um

en(b

ard

he

vej

te[I

/A

])is

scra

mb

led

and

soak

edu

pw

ith

eith

erco

tto

n,

wh

eat

bra

n,

or

acl

oth

and

app

lied

toth

eb

ruis

ew

ith

salt

.(M

)

#[I

/ A];

xx[I

]

po

st-p

artu

mh

eali

ng

Ch

ick

enm

eat

sou

p(m

ish

tap

ulj

e[I

/A

])is

pre

par

edan

dfe

dto

mo

ther

ssh

ort

lyaf

ter

chil

db

irth

asa

reco

nst

itu

ent

and

po

st-p

artu

md

epu

rati

ve.

(MF

)

xx[I

];xx

[I/

A]

[A],

[I]

anti

-dia

rrh

eic

Eg

gs

are

coo

ked

(bo

iled

)(u

fe[I

])an

dea

ten

.(M

F)

x[A

];xx

[I]

Pav

ocr

ista

tus

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)In

dia

nP

eafo

wl

ma

yo

or

[N]

mag

ical

amu

let

Hea

lers

use

sin

gle

or

mu

ltip

lefe

ath

ers

arra

ng

edin

fan

sin

mag

ico

-rel

igio

us

hea

lin

gce

rem

on

ies.

(MR

)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Av

esO

rder:

Pas

seri

form

esH

iru

nd

oru

stic

a(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Bar

nS

wal

low

go

lon

dri

na

[S]

anti

-ph

ary

ng

itic

Tw

oo

rth

ree

swal

low

sar

efr

ied

and

the

resu

ltin

go

ilis

filt

ered

and

kep

tin

ag

lass

jar.

Th

eo

ilis

app

lied

exte

rnal

lyto

the

thro

at.

(M)

x

My

opho

nu

sca

erle

us

(Sco

po

li,

1786

)B

lue-

Wh

istl

ing

Th

rush

ka

lch

au

de

[N]

anti

-ast

hm

a;an

ti-g

ou

tE

ith

erco

ok

edfl

esh

or

blo

od

isea

ten

.(M

F)

xx


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Stu

rnu

ssp

p.

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)S

tarl

ing

ssa

rau

n[N

]an

ti-o

titi

c;an

ti-a

sth

ma

Co

ok

edfl

esh

isea

ten

.(M

F)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Mam

mal

iaO

rde

r:A

rtio

dac

tyla

Ax

isax

is(E

rxle

ben

,17

77)

Ch

ital

chit

al,

mri

ga

[N]

fert

ilit

yai

dIn

fert

ile

wo

men

eat

the

blo

od

and

bil

eto

bec

om

ep

reg

nan

t.(M

F)

xx

evil

-ey

eam

ule

tA

nam

ule

t(b

uti

)is

mad

eo

fb

on

ean

du

sed

top

rote

ctch

ild

ren

fro

mev

il-e

ye.

(MR

)x

x

anti

-dy

sen

teri

cB

loo

dis

dru

nk

.(M

F)

xx

Bos

tau

rus

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)C

attl

e[I

],[A

]v

uln

erar

yfo

rb

urn

sF

resh

cow

fece

s(a

rum

ata

da

va

cch

e)ar

eap

pli

edto

the

wo

un

d.

(M)

x[I

]; x[A

][A

]v

uln

erar

yF

resh

chee

se(d

iath

)is

app

lied

tow

ou

nd

sto

pro

mo

teh

eali

ng

.(M

)x

xx

lip

emo

llie

nt

Mil

kcr

eam

(ma

sa)

isap

pli

edto

chap

ped

lip

s.(M

)x

anti

-par

oti

tic

(mu

mp

s)C

ow

’sm

ilk

isd

run

kv

ery

ho

t.(M

F)

xan

ti-d

iarr

hei

c;st

ren

gth

enth

est

om

ach

Fre

shch

eese

(dia

th)

isea

ten

coo

lo

rco

ok

edw

ith

flo

ur

and

eate

nh

ot.

(MF

)x

xx

hea

lin

test

inal

pai

n;

po

iso

nan

tid

ote

Co

w’s

mil

kis

dru

nk

totr

eat

inte

stin

alp

ain

san

dp

ois

on

ing

s(e

spec

iall

yin

chil

dre

n,

and

also

inan

imal

s).

(MF

,E

V)

xx

hea

lse

ver

ed

iges

tiv

ep

rob

lem

sin

liv

esto

ckR

enn

et(f

rom

the

calf

abo

mas

us)

isd

ried

and

add

edin

toth

ean

imal

feed

.(M

F,

EV

)x

va

cch

e[I

]an

ti-p

ertu

ssic

Sm

elli

ng

cow

fece

sin

the

mo

rnin

g.

(M)

xh

eal

skin

infl

amm

atio

ns

(fo

rin

fan

ts)

Fer

men

ted

mil

kcr

eam

(ub

uti

rre)

isap

pli

edas

anem

oll

ien

t.(M

)x

anti

-fu

run

cle

Co

ok

edcr

eam

(pa

nn

aco

tte)

isap

pli

ed.

(M)

xtr

eat

faci

alw

rin

kle

s;fa

cial

emo

llie

nt

Fre

shco

w’s

mil

k(u

latt

efr

esch

e)is

use

dto

was

hth

efa

ce.

(M)

x

ga

i[N

]an

ti-d

iarr

hei

c;an

ti-v

om

itin

gB

ile

isd

run

k.

(MF

)x

pro

tect

ive

amu

let

Th

eg

allb

lad

der

and

bil

ear

eu

sed

tom

ake

char

ms.

(MR

)x

Cap

raae

gag

rus

hir

cus

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)G

oat

cap

re[I

];ca

bri

to[S

];b

ok

a[N

]an

ti-t

uss

ive;

reco

nst

itu

ent

for

chil

dre

nH

ot

go

atm

ilk

(ula

tte

da

cap

re)

isd

run

kw

ith

ho

ney

.(M

F)

x

anti

-ast

hm

atic

Go

atfa

tis

hea

ted

into

ali

qu

idan

do

ne

spo

on

ful

isd

run

k.

(MF

)x


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

anti

-war

tW

hen

anan

imal

isk

ille

d,

afe

wd

rop

so

ffr

esh

blo

od

are

app

lied

toth

ew

art(

s).

(M)

xx

vu

lner

ary

for

bu

rns

Fat

isap

pli

edto

bu

rns.

(M)

xx

Cer

vu

sel

aphu

s(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Red

Dee

rv

ena

o,

cier

vo

[S]

amu

let

agai

nst

hea

rtfa

ilu

reA

dee

ris

kil

led

and

its

hea

rtre

mo

ved

.U

po

nd

ryin

g,

aca

rtil

agin

ou

sp

ort

ion

of

the

hea

rtth

atis

shap

edli

ke

acr

oss

isre

mo

ved

and

wo

rno

na

nec

kla

ceas

ap

rote

ctiv

eam

ule

t.(M

R)

x

hea

lsn

ake

bit

esT

he

shar

pti

ps

of

dee

rh

orn

sar

eu

sed

top

un

ctu

reth

esk

insu

rro

un

din

ga

snak

eb

ite

toh

elp

exp

elth

ev

eno

m.

(M)

x

Mos

chu

sch

ryso

gas

ter

(Ho

dg

son

,18

39)

Him

alay

anM

usk

Dee

rk

ast

uri

mri

ga

[N]

pro

tect

ive

amu

let

Ch

arm

sar

em

ade

fro

mth

em

usk

and

wo

rnb

ych

ild

ren

for

thei

rw

ell-

bei

ng

.(M

R)

x

Ovi

sam

mon

hod

gso

ni

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)T

ibet

anA

rgal

ib

hen

da

[N]

anti

-oti

tic

Dro

ps

of

uri

ne

are

inst

ille

din

the

affe

cted

ear.

(M)

x

Ovi

sar

ies

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)D

om

esti

cS

hee

pp

ech

ere

[I];

cord

ero

[S]

anti

-dia

rrh

eic;

gal

acta

go

gu

eP

asta

isco

ok

edan

dso

me

of

the

coo

kin

gw

ater

ism

ixed

wit

hd

ried

shee

pri

cott

a(a

rico

tta

tost

e)to

mak

ea

sau

cefo

rth

en

oo

dle

s.T

his

isth

enm

ixed

wit

hb

oil

edb

read

and

eate

n.

(MF

)

xx

anti

-dia

rrh

eic

Ric

ott

ach

eese

(gje

z)

isea

ten

asa

lig

ht

anti

-d

iarr

ho

eal.

(MF

)x

lax

ativ

eW

hey

(sir

[I/

A];

usj

recr

ud

e[I]

),th

eli

qu

idp

reci

pit

ate

rem

ain

ing

fro

mth

ech

eese

mak

ing

pro

cess

,is

dru

nk

asa

mil

dla

xati

ve.

(MF

)

xx

[I/ A];

xx

[I]

reco

nst

itu

ent;

pre

ven

tati

ve

for

man

yil

lnes

ses

Fre

shsh

eep

mil

kis

bo

iled

wit

hsa

ltto

pro

du

cea

den

sey

og

urt

-lik

ep

rod

uct

(ja

rdu

n)

that

isea

ten

.(M

F)

xx

x

lax

ativ

eS

hee

pm

ilk

(ula

tte

da

pec

her

e)is

dru

nk

.(M

F)

xd

iap

ho

reti

cA

spec

ial

sin

gle

t(k

rah

ol)

and

sock

sm

ade

fro

mra

ww

oo

lar

ew

orn

on

lyw

hen

affe

cted

by

hig

hfe

ver

.(M

)

xx

x

anti

-war

tW

hen

anan

imal

isk

ille

d,

afe

wd

rop

so

ffr

esh

blo

od

are

top

ical

lyap

pli

edto

the

war

t(s)

.(M

)

xx


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Su

ssc

rofa

dom

esti

ca(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Do

mes

tic

Pig

[I/

A]

anti

-ch

ilb

lain

sT

he

swin

e’s

gal

lb

lad

der

(fej

lli

der

ku

t)is

rem

ov

edan

dle

fto

uts

ide

ov

ern

igh

t.T

he

nex

td

ay,

itis

app

lied

toth

eaf

fect

edto

es.

(M)

#

ma

iale

[I]

emo

llie

nt

for

chap

ped

nip

ple

so

ru

dd

ers

Ag

edd

ors

alp

ork

fat

(su

gn

afr

aci

de)

isap

pli

edto

sore

chap

ped

nip

ple

s(f

or

bre

ast-

feed

ing

wo

men

)o

rto

chap

ped

skin

ing

ener

al.

(M)

Itis

also

app

lied

toth

eu

dd

ers

of

mil

kp

rod

uci

ng

liv

esto

ck(e

spec

iall

yca

ttle

).(E

V)

x

anti

-bro

nch

itic

Lay

ero

fag

edd

ors

alp

ork

fat

(su

gn

afr

aci

de)

isap

pli

edto

the

ches

t.T

his

isth

enco

ver

edw

ith

aw

arm

tow

el.

(M)

x

lax

ativ

eP

ork

lard

(l’u

nte

)is

pre

par

edin

aso

up

.(M

F)

xan

ti-f

uru

ncl

e;v

uln

erar

y(f

or

lace

rati

on

s);

anti

-ab

sces

s;su

pp

ura

tiv

e

Ath

inla

yer

of

aged

do

rsal

po

rkfa

t(s

ug

na

fra

cid

e)is

pla

ced

on

affe

cted

area

of

skin

,an

dth

enco

ver

edw

ith

fres

hR

ubu

su

lmif

oliu

sS

cho

tt.

leav

es.

(M)

xx

vu

lner

ary

for

bu

rnw

ou

nd

san

dan

imal

wo

un

ds

Po

rkla

rd(l

ard

od

im

aia

le)

isb

oil

ed,

coo

led

,an

dap

pli

edto

bu

rns.

(M)

Lar

dis

also

rub

bed

on

toli

ves

tock

wo

un

ds

and

lace

rati

on

sto

coat

and

pro

tect

wo

un

ds

and

pro

mo

teh

eali

ng

.(E

V)

x

coch

ino

,g

orr

ino

,g

ua

rro

,m

arr

an

o[S

]

emo

llie

nt

for

chap

ped

han

ds

Po

rkla

rdis

use

das

the

exci

pie

nt

inm

any

dif

fere

nt

trad

itio

nal

med

ical

reci

pes

and

isth

eb

ase

of

man

yo

intm

ents

.It

isap

pli

edto

the

han

ds.

(M)

xx

x

anti

-mas

titi

cfo

rco

ws

Po

rkla

rdis

app

lied

toth

eu

dd

ers

of

cow

s.(M

,E

V)

x

anti

-dep

ress

ant

Po

rkla

rdis

mix

edw

ith

ho

ney

and

spre

ado

nb

read

tob

eea

ten

by

peo

ple

suff

erin

gfr

om

dep

ress

ion

.(M

F)

x

hea

lab

do

min

alp

ain

sP

ork

lard

ism

ixed

wit

hch

op

ped

cele

ry(A

piu

mgr

aveo

len

sL

.)an

dp

lace

do

nth

eb

elly

.(M

)x

x

vu

lner

ary

Bil

e(e

ith

eral

on

eo

rm

ixed

wit

hal

coh

ol)

isap

pli

edto

wo

un

ds.

(M)


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

[A]

hea

lw

olf

bit

ein

liv

esto

ck;

anti

-ery

sip

elas

inp

igs

Po

rkla

rdis

hea

ted

and

app

lied

exte

rnal

ly.

Itis

use

das

vet

erin

ary

pre

par

atio

nto

hea

lw

olf

bit

es(i

nca

ttle

,sh

eep

,g

oat

s),

and

for

trea

tin

gsk

inin

flam

mat

ion

sd

ue

toer

ysi

pel

as(E

rysi

pelo

thri

xrh

usi

opat

hia

e)in

pig

s.(M

,E

V)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Mam

mal

iaO

rder:

Car

niv

ora

Can

isau

reu

s(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Go

lden

Jack

alsy

al

[N]

anti

-go

ut;

anti

-art

hri

tic

Jack

alm

eat

ism

ixed

wit

hm

ille

to

rlo

call

yp

rod

uce

dce

real

and

yea

stto

pro

du

ceal

coh

ol,

wh

ich

istr

app

edth

rou

gh

ad

isti

llat

ion

pro

cess

.T

he

alco

ho

lic

bev

erag

esy

alk

ora

ksi

isv

ery

po

pu

lar

and

has

ah

igh

med

icin

alv

alu

e.G

ou

tan

dar

thri

tis

are

trea

ted

by

eith

erm

assa

gin

gth

eaf

fect

edar

eaw

ith

this

alco

ho

lo

rd

rin

kin

git

.(M

)

xx

x

bad

om

enH

eari

ng

the

jack

alh

ow

lis

ab

ado

men

for

the

com

mu

nit

y.

(MR

)x

xx

Can

islu

pus

fam

ilia

ris

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)D

og

qen

i[I

/A

]an

ti-f

uru

ncl

eD

og

sali

va

(lek

on

qen

i)is

app

lied

asan

anti

sep

tic

and

inth

etr

eatm

ent

of

furu

ncl

es.

(M)

#

cua

ne

[I]

vu

lner

ary

for

bu

rns

Do

gfe

ces

(aru

ma

tad

ucu

an

e)ar

eap

pli

ed.

(M)

xev

il-e

ye

amu

let

Lea

ther

mad

efr

om

the

skin

of

bla

ckd

og

(ucr

igiu

led

ucu

an

en

eure

)is

wo

rnas

anam

ule

tag

ain

stth

eE

vil

-ey

e(m

alo

cch

io).

(MR

)

x

[I],

[A]

hea

ld

og

bit

eA

hai

rfr

om

the

do

gth

atb

ity

ou

isap

pli

edto

the

bit

e.(M

R)

x[I

];x

[A]

per

ro[S

]re

con

stit

uen

tfo

rm

aln

ou

rish

edch

ild

ren

Do

gfe

ces

are

exp

ose

dto

op

enai

ro

ver

nig

ht

and

then

bo

iled

.T

his

wat

eris

filt

ered

and

giv

ento

mal

no

uri

shed

chil

dre

nto

dri

nk

.(M

F)

x

anti

-rh

init

icD

og

fece

sar

ep

rep

ared

ina

tea

wit

hd

ryfi

gs

(Fic

us

cari

caL

.),

ears

of

corn

(Zea

may

sL

.),

snak

esk

inan

dh

on

ey.

(MF

)

x

rab

ies

ind

og

sH

air

fro

ma

rab

idd

og

isfr

ied

ino

liv

eo

ilan

dth

eo

ilis

use

dto

was

hth

ew

ou

nd

on

the

sam

ed

og

.(M

,E

V)

xx


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Mel

esm

eles

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)E

uro

pea

nB

adg

erta

jon

,te

jon

,ta

son

[S]

evil

-ey

eam

ule

tB

adg

erh

airs

are

use

dw

ith

oth

erm

ater

ials

tocr

eate

asc

apu

lar

that

isw

orn

for

pro

tect

ion

.(M

R)

x

Mel

urs

us

urs

inu

s(S

haw

,17

91)

Slo

thB

ear

ruk

hb

ha

lu[N

]an

ti-h

yd

roce

le(s

cro

tal

swel

lin

g)

Bil

eis

dru

nk

.(M

)x

x

pro

tect

ive

amu

let

Ch

arm

sar

em

ade

fro

mb

on

es.

(MR

)x

xP

anth

era

tigr

isti

gris

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)B

eng

alT

iger

ba

gh[N

]p

rote

ctiv

eam

ule

tW

his

ker

s,p

iece

so

fb

on

es,

teet

h,

and

claw

sar

em

ade

into

char

ms

that

are

wo

rnto

war

do

ffev

ilsp

irit

san

dfr

igh

ten

the

enem

y.

(MR

)

xx

x

mag

ical

pro

tect

ion

Bo

ne

isb

urn

tin

the

cow

shed

top

rod

uce

smo

ke.

Itis

bel

iev

edth

atth

esm

ok

ed

riv

esaw

ayd

isea

seca

usi

ng

elem

ents

and

evil

spir

its.

(MR

)

xx

Pri

onai

luru

sbe

ng

alen

sis

(Ker

r,17

92)

Leo

par

dC

atk

alo

bir

alo

[N]

hea

lg

ener

alsi

ckn

ess

Bil

eis

dru

nk

totr

eat

man

yil

lnes

ses.

(M)

x

Vu

lpes

vu

lpes

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)R

edF

ox

zo

rro

,z

orr

a[S

]an

ti-r

hin

itic

;an

ti-p

neu

mo

nia

Dri

edfo

xli

ver

isad

min

iste

red

asan

infu

sio

no

ras

ap

ow

der

add

edto

sou

ps.

(MF

)x

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Mam

mal

iaO

rder:

Eri

nac

eom

orp

ha

Eri

nac

eus

euro

paeu

s(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Eu

rop

ean

Hed

geh

og

ricc

io[I

]ca

lmcr

yin

gb

abie

sB

ile

of

afr

esh

lyk

ille

dh

edg

eho

g(b

ile

de

ricc

e)is

fed

tob

abie

sth

atw

on

’tst

op

cry

ing

.(M

F)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Mam

mal

iaO

rder:

Per

isso

dac

tyla

Equ

us

asin

us

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)D

on

key

asi

no

,ci

ucc

ie[I

]h

eal

win

dil

lnes

s(s

kin

infl

amm

atio

n)

Ab

raid

edro

pe

mad

eo

fh

air

fro

ma

do

nk

ey’s

tail

(la

sc)

isu

sed

asa

ritu

alo

bje

ctin

the

mag

ical

hea

lin

go

fw

ind

illn

ess

(ma

lv

jnt)

.T

he

bu

nd

leo

fh

air

isd

ipp

edin

tore

dw

ine

and

use

dto

pai

nt

the

win

eo

nto

the

area

of

the

skin

wh

ere

infl

amm

atio

ns

occ

ur.

(MR

)

x

reco

nst

itu

ent

for

chil

dre

nD

on

key

mil

k(u

latt

ed

uci

ucc

ie)

isd

run

k.

(MF

)x

xx

[A]

anti

-tu

ssiv

eF

resh

do

nk

eym

ilk

isd

run

kto

hea

lco

ug

hs

inth

eel

der

ly.

(MF

)x

x

bu

rro

,b

orr

ico

[S]

pro

mo

tep

lace

nta

exp

uls

ion

Ad

on

key

’sfe

ces

isb

oil

edan

dth

eli

qu

idis

dru

nk

by

wo

men

afte

rg

ivin

gb

irth

.(M

)x

vu

lner

ary

for

bu

rns

Old

do

nk

eyb

on

esar

eb

urn

t(w

ith

ou

tb

eco

min

gco

mp

lete

lych

arre

d)

and

gro

un

din

toa

po

wd

erth

atis

app

lied

tob

urn

s.(M

)

x


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Equ

us

caba

llu

s(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Ho

rse

gja

ku

ka

ljt

[I/

A]

anti

-an

emic

Fre

shh

ors

eb

loo

dis

dru

nk

.(M

F)

#

Rhi

noc

eros

un

icor

nis

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)In

dia

nR

hin

oce

ros

ga

ind

a[N

]h

eal

sick

liv

esto

ckU

rin

eis

giv

ento

aili

ng

liv

esto

ckto

dri

nk

.(E

V)

xx

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Mam

mal

iaO

rder:

Pri

mat

esH

omo

sap

ien

ssa

pie

ns

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)H

um

an[I

/A

]ev

il-e

ye

amu

let

Hu

man

hai

ris

coll

ecte

dto

use

inan

amu

let

that

pro

tect

so

ne

fro

mE

vil

-ey

e(m

alo

cch

io).

(MR

)#

uo

mo

[I]

aug

ury

(go

od

om

en)

Th

ep

erso

n’s

hai

ris

cut

(aci

occ

ad

eca

ped

di)

on

the

firs

tF

rid

ayin

Mar

chas

ap

rote

ctio

nag

ain

sth

ead

ach

e.(M

R)

x

hea

lp

uru

len

tsk

inab

sces

s;su

pp

ura

tiv

eC

eru

men

(uce

rum

e),

ear

wax

,is

app

lied

top

uru

len

tsk

inab

sces

ses

cau

sed

by

bei

ng

pri

cked

by

pla

nt

tho

rns.

(M)

x

hea

lin

fan

tile

seb

orr

hei

cd

erm

atit

is(c

rad

le-c

ap)

Bre

ast

mil

kis

exp

ress

edan

dru

bb

edo

nto

anin

fan

t’s

scal

p.

Th

enth

eh

air

isb

rush

edto

rem

ov

eth

efl

aky

scal

es.

(M)

x

anti

-mas

titi

sN

urs

ing

mo

ther

sw

ith

mas

titi

sm

ust

bre

ast-

feed

thei

rin

fan

tsu

sin

gth

e‘‘

rev

erse

’’o

r‘‘

foo

tbal

l’’

po

siti

on

(la

tte

all

are

ver

se).

(MR

)

xx

vu

lner

ary

Hu

man

swea

tth

ath

asso

aked

into

the

inn

erri

mo

fa

hat

isap

pli

edto

the

wo

un

d.

(M)

x

hae

mo

stat

ic;

dis

infe

ctan

tH

um

anu

rin

e(u

pis

ce)

isu

sed

tori

nse

fres

hb

leed

ing

lace

rati

on

s.(M

)x

x

anti

-co

nju

nct

ivit

icF

resh

bre

ast

mil

k(u

latt

ed

afe

min

eo

rla

tte

de

ma

ma

)is

exp

ress

edin

toth

ein

fect

edey

eso

fb

abie

s(a

lso

som

etim

esfo

rad

ult

s).

So

me

stat

eth

em

ilk

mu

stb

efr

om

am

oth

erw

ho

nu

rses

aso

n.

Oth

ers

say

the

mil

km

ust

be

fro

ma

mo

ther

nu

rsin

gh

erfi

rst

bo

rnch

ild

.L

ess

com

mo

nly

,fr

esh

mil

kfr

om

am

ule

or

go

atis

use

d.

(M)

xx

x

Th

efi

rst

uri

ne

of

the

day

isu

sed

tow

ash

the

affe

cted

eyes

.(M

)x

emo

llie

nt

for

chap

ped

nip

ple

sB

reas

tm

ilk

isex

pre

ssed

and

rub

bed

on

toth

en

ipp

le.

(M)

x


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

ho

mb

re[S

]em

oll

ien

tfo

rch

app

edh

and

sU

rin

eis

use

dto

was

hth

eh

and

s.(M

)x

x

anti

-oti

tic

Hu

man

bre

ast

mil

kis

exp

ress

edan

din

stil

led

inth

eaf

fect

edea

r(s)

.(M

)x

xx

trea

tsc

orp

ion

stin

gA

few

dro

ps

of

men

stru

alb

loo

dar

eap

pli

edto

the

sco

rpio

nb

ite

area

.(M

)x

anti

-war

tA

few

dro

ps

of

men

stru

alb

loo

dar

eap

pli

edto

the

war

t(s)

.(M

)x

x

[A]

trea

tsn

ake

bit

eF

resh

fece

sar

eap

pli

edto

the

snak

eb

ite.

(M)

xM

acac

aas

sam

ensi

s(M

cCle

llan

d,

1840

);M

.m

ula

tta

(Zim

mer

man

n,

1780

)

Ass

amM

acaq

ue;

Rh

esu

sM

acaq

ue

ba

nd

ar

[N]

nu

trac

euti

cal

for

TB

pat

ien

tsT

he

dri

edli

ver

and

gal

lb

lad

der

are

eate

nb

yth

ep

erso

nsu

ffer

ing

fro

mtu

ber

culo

sis

for

afe

wd

ays

for

no

uri

shm

ent.

Peo

ple

also

eat

the

mea

tfo

rn

ou

rish

men

t.(M

F)

x

Pre

sby

tis

ente

llu

s(D

ufr

esn

e,17

97)

Han

um

anL

ang

ur

lan

gu

r[N

]n

utr

aceu

tica

lfo

rT

Bp

atie

nts

Per

son

ssu

ffer

ing

fro

mtu

ber

culo

sis

eat

the

mea

t(r

awo

rco

ok

ed)

for

no

uri

shm

ent.

Th

ism

eat

isp

refe

rred

toth

ato

fM

acac

asp

p.

(MF

)

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Mam

mal

iaO

rder:

Pro

bo

scid

eaE

laph

asm

axim

us

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)A

sian

Ele

ph

ant

ha

thi

[N]

anti

-gas

trit

icB

ile

isd

run

k.

(MF

)x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Mam

mal

iaO

rder:

Ro

den

tia

Mu

sm

usc

ulu

sH

ou

seM

ou

seu

sorc

e[I

]an

ti-e

nu

resi

s(b

edw

etti

ng

)A

mo

use

isco

ok

edo

rb

oil

edan

dea

ten

.(M

F)

xx

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)ra

ton

[S]

anti

-oti

tic

Sev

eral

liv

en

ewb

orn

mic

ear

ep

lace

din

aja

ro

fo

liv

eo

ilth

atis

left

op

ento

air

for

sev

eral

mo

nth

s.T

his

oil

isth

enfi

lter

edan

dk

ept

ina

gla

ssja

r.A

few

dro

ps

of

the

oil

are

inst

ille

din

the

affe

cted

ear(

s).

(M)

x

Hys

trix

ind

ica

(Ker

r,17

92)

;H

.br

ach

yura

(Lin

nae

us,

1758

)

Ind

ian

Cre

sted

Po

rcu

pin

e;H

imal

ayan

Po

rcu

pin

e

du

msi

[N]

anti

-ast

hm

a;tr

eat

dif

ficu

lty

pas

sin

gu

rin

ean

ti-a

bsc

ess

Th

eal

imen

tary

can

alw

ith

its

con

ten

tsis

bo

iled

and

eate

nas

aso

up

.(M

F)

Th

esp

ines

are

use

das

nee

dle

sto

pu

nct

ure

pu

rule

nt

absc

esse

sto

allo

wd

rain

ing

of

pu

s.(M

)

x x


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Ost

eich

thy

esO

rder:

Cy

pri

nif

orm

esT

orto

r(H

amil

ton

,18

22)

Riv

erC

arp

sah

ar

[N]

vu

lner

ary

for

bu

rns

Fis

ho

ilan

db

ile

are

app

lied

tob

urn

s.(M

)x

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Rep

tili

aO

rder:

Sq

uam

ata

Ela

phe

quat

uor

lin

eata

(Wag

ler,

1833

)F

ou

r-S

trip

edS

nak

ea

serp

ece

rvo

ne

[I]

anti

-rh

eum

atic

Snak

efa

t(a

sun

ze)

isex

trac

ted

wh

ile

the

snak

eis

aliv

ean

dap

pli

edas

ano

intm

ent.

(M)

xx

Lac

erta

lep

ida

(Dau

din

,18

02)

Oce

llat

edL

izar

da

rda

cho

,ja

rda

cho

,la

ga

rto

[S]

anti

-co

ntu

sio

n;

anti

-in

flam

mat

ory

inli

ves

tock

Ali

ve

liza

rdis

hu

ng

fro

mth

ece

ilin

go

fth

est

able

of

the

wo

un

ded

anim

al(l

ives

tock

).(M

R,

EV

)

x

vu

lner

ary

;d

isin

fect

ant

Liz

ard

fat

isap

pli

edto

wo

un

ds.

(M)

xh

eal

ing

uin

alh

ern

iaT

he

blo

od

of

the

anim

alis

use

dto

rub

or

sco

ur

the

gro

inre

gio

n(l

oca

tio

no

fth

eh

ern

ia).

At

the

end

of

this

pro

cess

,th

ew

ho

led

ead

anim

alis

laid

on

the

gro

inre

gio

nfo

ra

few

min

ute

s.(M

)

x

Mal

pol

onm

onsp

essu

lan

us

(Her

man

n,

1804

)

Mo

ntp

elli

erS

nak

ecu

leb

ra,

bic

ha

[S]

anti

-rh

init

icT

he

snak

esk

inis

adm

inis

tere

din

dif

fere

nt

her

bal

teas

mix

edw

ith

pla

nts

such

asar

nic

a(C

hili

aden

us

glu

tin

osu

sF

ou

rr.)

,d

ried

gig

s(F

icu

sca

rica

L.)

,p

enn

yro

yal

(Men

tha

pule

giu

mL

.),

corn

cob

s(Z

eam

ays

L.)

and

mar

shm

allo

w(A

ltha

eaof

fici

nal

isL

.).

(MF

)

xx

x

anti

-tu

ssiv

eT

he

dry

snak

esk

inis

gro

un

din

toa

po

wd

eran

dm

ixed

wit

hb

read

cru

mb

sto

mak

ea

po

rrid

ge

that

isea

ten

.(M

F)

xx

diu

reti

cfo

rk

idn

eyst

on

esT

he

snak

esk

inis

tak

enas

anh

erb

alte

am

ixed

wit

hA

lger

ian

tea

(Par

onyc

hia

arge

nte

aL

am.)

and

eld

erb

erry

(Sam

bucu

sn

igra

L.)

.T

he

trea

tmen

tco

nti

nu

esu

nti

lth

ep

ain

dis

app

ears

.(M

F)

x

blo

od

dep

ura

tiv

e;an

ti-s

cab

ies

Sn

ake

mea

tis

frie

din

oli

ve

oil

and

eate

n.

(MF

)x

dis

infe

ctan

tfo

rw

ou

nd

sS

nak

em

eat

isfr

ied

wit

ho

liv

eo

il.

Th

eco

ole

dfi

lter

edo

ilis

app

lied

toth

ew

ou

nd

.(M

)x

trea

tco

lds

and

sick

nes

sin

mu

les

Dry

snak

esk

inis

gro

un

dan

dm

ixed

wit

hst

raw

that

isg

iven

asfo

dd

erto

mu

les.

(MF

,E

V)

xx

x


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Pod

arci

shi

span

icu

s(S

tein

dac

hn

er,

1870

).

Iber

ian

Wal

lL

izar

dre

lan

tija

,la

ga

rtij

a[S

]an

ti-p

ertu

ssic

Ali

ve

anim

alis

pla

ced

insi

de

the

ho

llo

wst

emo

fth

eg

ian

tre

ed(A

run

dodo

nax

L.)

and

the

reed

ish

un

go

nth

esi

ckp

erso

n’s

nec

kas

an

eck

lace

.(M

R)

xx

anti

-war

tT

he

wh

ole

liv

ean

imal

isru

bb

edd

irec

tly

on

the

war

t.(M

)x

anti

-co

nju

nct

ivit

ic(a

ller

gy

asso

ciat

ed)

Ali

ve

anim

alis

pla

ced

insi

de

the

ho

llo

wst

emo

fth

eg

ian

tre

ed(A

run

do

don

ax)

and

the

reed

ish

un

go

nth

esi

ckp

erso

n’s

nec

kas

an

eck

lace

.(M

R)

xx

Rhi

nec

his

scal

aris

Lad

der

Sn

ake

cule

bra

,b

ich

a[S

]an

ti-s

cab

ies

Snak

em

eat

isfr

ied

ino

liv

eo

ilan

dea

ten

.(M

F)

x(S

chin

z,18

22)

vu

lner

ary

;w

ou

nd

dis

infe

ctan

tS

nak

em

eat

isfr

ied

ino

liv

eo

il.

Th

eco

ole

dfi

lter

edo

ilis

app

lied

toth

ew

ou

nd

.(M

)x

trea

tco

lds

and

sick

nes

sin

mu

les

Dry

snak

esk

inis

gro

un

dan

dm

ixed

wit

hst

raw

that

isg

iven

asfo

dd

erto

mu

les.

(MF

,E

V)

xx

x

anti

-tu

ssiv

eT

he

dry

snak

esk

inis

gro

un

din

toa

po

wd

eran

dm

ixed

wit

hb

read

cru

mb

sto

mak

ea

po

rrid

ge

that

isea

ten

.(M

F)

xx

anti

-rh

init

icT

he

snak

esk

inis

adm

inis

tere

din

dif

fere

nt

her

bal

teas

mix

edw

ith

pla

nts

asar

nic

a(C

hili

aden

us

glu

tin

osu

s),

dri

edfi

gs

(Fic

us

cari

ca),

pen

ny

roy

al(M

enth

apu

legi

um

),co

rnco

bs

(Zea

may

s)an

dm

arsh

mal

low

(Alt

haea

offi

cin

alis

).(M

F)

xx

x

Tri

mer

esu

rus

spp

.A

sian

Pit

Vip

ers

ha

reu

[N]

anti

-ph

ary

ng

itic

Ali

ve

snak

eis

coo

ked

and

its

fles

his

top

ical

lyap

pli

edto

the

sore

thro

at.

Snak

efa

tis

also

top

ical

lyap

pli

edto

the

thro

atfo

rq

uic

kre

lief

.(M

)

x

Vip

era

lata

stei

(Bo

sca,

1878

)L

atas

te’s

Vip

erv

ibo

ra[S

]an

ti-t

oo

thac

he

Ad

ead

vip

eris

pla

ced

insi

de

ap

iece

of

clo

thth

atis

laid

on

the

face

ov

erth

ep

ain

ful

area

.A

fter

trea

tmen

t,th

ev

iper

isd

ried

and

sto

red

for

futu

reu

se.

(M)

x


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Rep

tili

aO

rde

r:T

estu

din

esE

my

sor

bicu

lari

s(L

inn

aeu

s,17

58)

Eu

rop

ean

Po

nd

Tu

rtle

ga

lap

ag

o,

To

rtu

ga

[S]

anti

-rh

eum

atic

;an

ti-

infl

amm

ato

ryA

sou

pis

pre

par

edb

yb

oil

ing

som

etu

rtle

sw

ith

ram

hea

dan

dle

g(O

vis

arie

s)w

ith

rose

mar

y(R

osm

arin

us

offi

cin

alis

L.)

,Sp

anis

hw

ild

mar

jora

m(T

hym

us

mas

tich

ina

L.)

,sp

anis

hla

ven

der

(Lav

andu

last

oech

asL

.),

and

Teu

criu

mgn

apha

lode

sL

’Her

.(M

F)

x

Ind

otes

tud

oel

ong

ata

(Bly

th,

1854

)E

lon

gat

edT

ort

ois

ek

acc

hu

wa

,th

ota

ri[N

]am

ule

tT

he

bo

ne

and

shel

lar

eu

sed

tom

ake

mag

ico

-rel

igio

us

amu

lets

by

fait

hh

eale

rs.

(MR

)

xx

reco

nst

itu

ent;

nu

trac

euti

cal

Th

em

eat

isea

ten

asa

sou

rce

of

pro

tein

.(M

F)

xx

anti

-tu

ssiv

e;an

ti-r

hin

itic

;tr

eatm

ent

for

resp

irat

ory

trac

tin

fect

ion

s

Th

esh

ell

isru

bb

edag

ain

sta

bo

uld

erw

ith

wat

erto

crea

tea

thic

kp

aste

that

isad

min

iste

red

ora

lly

toch

ild

ren

asa

pre

ven

tiv

em

easu

reag

ain

stco

ug

h,

cold

and

oth

erre

spir

ato

rytr

act

infe

ctio

n.

(M)

xx

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Sau

rop

sid

aO

rder:

Tes

tud

ines

Mau

rem

ys

lepr

osa

(Sch

wei

gg

er,

1812

).

Med

iter

ran

ean

Po

nd

Tu

rtle

ga

lap

ag

o,

tort

ug

a[S

]an

ti-r

heu

mat

ic;

anti

-in

flam

mat

ory

Aso

up

isp

rep

ared

by

bo

ilin

gso

me

turt

les

wit

hra

mh

ead

and

leg

(Ovi

sar

ies)

wit

hro

sem

ary

(Ros

mar

inu

sof

fici

nal

is),

Span

ish

wil

dm

arjo

ram

(Thy

mu

sm

asti

chin

a),

Sp

anis

hla

ven

der

(Lav

andu

last

oech

as),

and

Teu

criu

mgn

apha

lode

s.(M

F)

x

un

kn

ow

nsp

ecie

sT

urt

lean

ti-t

uss

ive

Tu

rtle

mea

tis

coo

ked

and

eate

nto

trea

tco

ug

hs

inth

eel

der

ly.

(MF

)x

Ph

ylu

m:

Ch

ord

ata

Cla

ss:

Tel

eost

om

iO

rde

r:C

yp

rin

ifo

rmes

Neo

liss

och

ilu

sh

exag

onol

epis

(McC

lell

and

,18

39)

Co

pp

erM

ahse

erk

atl

e[N

]an

ti-m

asti

tic

Fis

hb

loo

dis

giv

ento

ala

ctat

ing

mo

ther

tore

liev

eb

reas

tp

ain

.(M

)x

x

Ph

ylu

m:

Mo

llu

sca

Cla

ss:

Gas

tro

po

da

Ord

er:

Eu

pu

lmo

nat

aA

rion

hor

ten

sis

(Fer

rusa

c)G

ard

enS

lug

uv

av

ali

cea

ran

ud

e,m

arr

ucu

le,

lum

ma

che

sen

za

gu

scio

[I]

anti

-war

tT

he

slim

ysl

ug

mu

cou

sis

rub

bed

on

toth

ew

art.

Th

isp

roce

du

rem

ust

be

carr

ied

ou

tw

hil

eth

efu

llm

oo

nis

dec

reas

ing

.A

fter

the

trea

tmen

t,th

esl

ug

ish

un

go

nan

elm

leaf

bla

ckb

erry

(Ru

bus

ulm

ifol

ius

Sch

ott

.)th

orn

.W

hen

the

slu

gd

ries

up

,th

ew

arts

wil

ld

isap

pea

r.(M

R)

xx

x


TA

BL

E1.

Co

nti

nu

ed.

Sci

enti

fic

Nam

eE

ng

lish

Co

mm

on

Nam

eV

ern

acu

lar

Nam

e[C

ou

ntr

y]

Po

pu

lar

Use

Pre

par

atio

nan

dA

pp

lica

tio

n*

C.I

.{

anti

-ulc

er(s

tom

ach

ulc

er);

anti

-gas

trit

icA

liv

esl

ug

issw

allo

wed

wh

ole

.(M

F)

xx

x

vu

lner

ary

;an

ti-d

erm

atit

ic;

anti

-in

flam

mat

ory

Mu

cou

sfr

om

ali

ve

slu

gis

rub

bed

on

tosk

in.

(M)

xx

anti

-cal

lus

Mu

cou

sfr

om

ali

ve

slu

gis

rub

bed

on

tosk

in.

(M)

x

anti

-acn

e;fa

cial

emo

llie

nt

Mu

cou

sfr

om

ali

ve

slu

gis

rub

bed

on

tosk

info

rfa

cial

clea

nsi

ng

.(M

)x

Ari

onsp

.B

lack

Slu

gch

iple

kir

a[N

]h

eal

bro

ken

bo

nes

Afe

wsl

ug

sar

em

ixed

wit

h‘‘

sisn

u’’

–th

ero

ot

of

stin

gin

gn

ettl

e(U

rtic

ad

ioic

aL

.)an

da

wh

ole

yo

un

gch

ick

and

gro

un

dto

mak

efi

ne

pas

te.

Th

ep

aste

isth

enap

pli

edat

the

site

of

frac

ture

asp

last

erin

gm

ater

ial.

(M)

xx

Ph

ylu

m:

Mo

llu

sca

Cla

ss:

Gas

tro

po

da

Ord

er:

Pu

lmo

nat

aH

elix

asp

ersa

(O.

F.

Mu

ller

,17

74)

Gar

den

Sn

ail

cara

col,

za

mp

on

a,

cara

col

sap

enco

,ca

raco

ld

ela

hu

erta

[S]

anti

-war

t;an

ti-c

allu

sM

uco

us

fro

ma

liv

esn

ail

isap

pli

ed.

(M)

xx

Lim

axsp

.G

rey

Slu

gch

iple

kir

a[N

]h

eal

bro

ken

bo

nes

Afe

wsl

ug

sar

em

ixed

wit

h‘‘

sisn

u’’

–th

ero

ot

of

stin

gin

gn

ettl

e(U

rtic

ad

ioic

a)an

dy

ou

ng

chic

ken

and

gro

un

dto

mak

efi

ne

pas

te.

Th

ep

aste

isth

enap

pli

edat

the

site

of

frac

ture

asp

last

erin

gm

ater

ial.

(M)

xx

Cou

ntr

yab

brev

iati

ons:

A:

Alb

ania

;I:

Ital

y;

I/A

:A

rber

esh

(eth

nic

Alb

ania

n)

com

mu

nit

ies

inIt

aly

;N

:N

epal

;S

:S

pai

n.

* Type

ofm

edic

alap

pli

cati

on:

M:

med

icin

e;M

F:

med

icin

alfo

od

;M

R:

mag

ico

-rel

igio

us;

C:

Co

smet

ic;

EV

:E

thn

ov

eter

inar

yre

med

y.

{ C.I

.:C

on

sen

sus

Ind

ex.

The

con

sen

sus

index

refl

ects

the

spon

tan

eou

squ

otat

ion

freq

uen

cies

for

diff

eren

tre

med

ies:

#:

dis

app

eare

du

sein

the

last

dec

ades

;x

:u

seq

uo

ted

by

less

than

10%

of

the

info

rman

ts;

xx

:u

seq

uo

ted

by

mo

reth

an10

%an

dle

ssth

an40

%o

fth

ein

form

ants

;x

xx

:u

seq

uo

ted

by

mo

reth

an40

%o

fth

ein

form

ants

.


TA

BL

E2.

Dis

trib

uti

on

of

fau

na

and

corr

esp

on

din

gre

med

ies

by

cou

ntr

y.

Nu

mb

ers

inco

lum

ns

for

each

spec

ific

cou

ntr

yin

dic

ate

the

nu

mb

ero

fd

iffe

ren

tsp

ecie

so

rre

med

ies

cite

dfo

rth

ere

spec

tiv

eco

un

try

.T

ota

lsin

bo

ldin

dic

ate

the

tota

ln

um

ber

of

dif

fere

nt

spec

ies

or

rem

edie

sci

ted

inal

lco

un

trie

s.If

the

sam

esp

ecie

so

rre

med

yw

asci

ted

inm

ore

than

on

eco

un

try

,th

isis

cou

nte

do

nly

on

cein

the

tota

lco

lum

n.

Fo

rex

amp

le,

inth

eo

rder

Hir

ud

inea

,th

ree

cou

ntr

ies

rep

ort

edth

eu

seo

fth

eE

uro

pea

nM

edic

inal

Lee

ch.

Sin

ceth

en

um

ber

1as

sig

ned

toea

chco

un

try

rep

rese

nts

the

sam

esp

ecie

s,o

nly

1g

oes

into

the

tota

lco

lum

nin

bo

ld.

Ho

wev

er,

this

spec

ies

isu

sed

ind

iffe

ren

tw

ays

inth

ed

iffe

ren

tco

un

trie

s,so

each

rem

edy

wil

lb

eco

un

ted

on

cean

dth

eto

tal

nu

mb

ero

fre

med

ies

is3.

Ph

ylu

mC

lass

Ord

er

An

imal

Sp

ecie

s(N

580

)R

emed

ies

(N5

232)

Alb

ania

Ital

yN

epal

Sp

ain

To

tal

Alb

ania

Ital

yN

epal

Sp

ain

To

tal

No

.N

o.

No

.N

o.

No

.%

No

.N

o.

No

.N

o.

No

.%

An

nel

ida

Cli

tell

ata

Hir

ud

inea

11

11

1.3

11

13

1.3

Art

hro

po

da

Ara

chn

ida

Ara

nae

11

22

.51

23

1.3

Sco

rpio

nes

11

22

.51

56

2.6

Inse

cta

Co

leo

pte

ra1

12

2.5

41

52

.2H

emip

tera

11

1.3

11

0.4

Hy

men

op

tera

14

15

6.3

42

34

13

5.6

Lep

ido

pte

ra1

11

.31

10

.4C

ho

rdat

aA

ctin

op

tery

gii

An

gu

illi

form

es1

11

.31

10

.4C

lup

eifo

rmes

11

1.3

22

0.9

Cy

pri

nif

orm

es2

22

.52

20

.9S

yn

bra

nch

ifo

rmes

11

1.3

11

0.4

Am

ph

ibia

An

ura

12

33

.83

36

2.6

Cau

dat

a1

12

2.5

11

20

.9A

ves

Cic

on

iifo

rmes

11

1.3

11

0.4

Co

lum

bif

orm

es1

13

45

.03

11

52

.2C

ora

ciif

orm

es1

11

.31

10

.4C

ucu

lifo

rmes

11

1.3

11

0.4

Gal

lifo

rmes

11

21

22

.57

54

41

98

.2P

asse

rifo

rmes

21

33

.84

15

2.2

Mam

mal

iaA

rtio

dac

tyla

44

54

81

0.0

1421

99

52

22

.4C

arn

ivo

ra1

14

37

8.8

14

86

18

7.8

Eri

nac

eom

orp

ha

11

1.3

11

0.4

Per

isso

dac

tyla

12

11

33

.81

31

27

3.0

Pri

mat

es1

13

14

5.0

112

34

20

8.6

Pro

bo

scid

ea1

11

.31

10

.4R

od

enti

a1

21

33

.81

31

52

.2O

stei

chth

yes

Cy

pri

nif

orm

es1

11

.31

10

.4R

epti

lia

Sq

uam

ata

11

57

8.8

11

222

41

0.3

Tes

tud

ines

11

22

.56

28

3.4

Sau

rop

sid

aT

estu

din

es1

12

2.5

12

31

.3T

eleo

sto

mi

Cy

pri

nif

orm

es1

11

.31

10

.4M

oll

usc

aG

astr

op

od

aE

up

ulm

on

ata

11

22

.59

11

04

.3P

ulm

on

ata

11

22

.51

23

1.3

TO

TA

L1

12

13

73

48

01

00

31

71

56

77

23

21

00


(22.4%) reported using animals from the order Artiodactyla. Other importantorders included Squamata (24 remedies, 10.3%), Primates (20, 8.6%), Galliformes(19, 8.2%), Carnivora (18, 7.8%), and Hymenoptera (13, 5.6%). The distribution offauna and remedies is reported by country in Table 2. The greatest number ofremedies was reported in Spain, with 77 remedies coming from 34 species. This isclosely followed by Italy, where 71 remedies were reported from 21 species.Nepal reported the most species used–37 species used in 56 remedies, andAlbania reported 11 species used in 31 remedies.

Etic Categories of Use

Our research found over 50 categories of medicinal remedies, includingapplications for the treatment of various forms of infection and illness, as well asmagical or spiritual protection from illness or misfortune (Figure 2). Vulneraryagents were most numerous (20 remedies), followed closely by protectiveamulets and blessings (15 remedies). Each study site had a concentration ofcertain types of remedies. In Spain, the majority of remedies were for vulnerary(9) and anti-rhinitic (6) applications, and ethnoveterinary remedies for the

FIGURE 2. Distribution of remedies by etic category. Remedies reported only once are not included:fertility aid, anti-hydrocele, anti-blister, anti-dysenteric, anti-wrinkle, diaphoretic, heal inguinalhernia, treatment for difficulty passing urine, anti-enuresis, anti-erysipelas, anti-chillbains and anti-leucoderma.


treatment of sick livestock (7). In Italy, the majority of remedies were for anti-dermatitic (6), vulnerary (5), and emollient (5) applications. In Nepal, mostremedies were for protective amulets and blessings (9), followed by vulnerary(5), and reconstituent or nutraceuctical (5) purposes. In Albania, the mostcommonly reported remedies were for treating animal bites (3)–such as wolf, dogor snake-bites and for nutraceutical or reconstituent purposes (3).

Animal Parts Used in Remedies

There were 36 source categories reported for remedies (Figure 3). The mostcommon sources included the whole animal (33 remedies), milk and milkproducts (21), meat/animal flesh (16), fat (15), honey (12), and eggs (11). Some ofthe more unusual remedies come from animal excrements, including feces (10),urine (3), and seminal fluid (1). Figure 4 illustrates the use of some of thesedifferent remedies in traditional Spanish medical applications.

Only two species were used as remedies in all four study sites–the domesticchicken (Gallus gallus) and domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus). Other than thesetwo, Nepal shared no common species with the Mediterranean study sites.People in Albania, Italy, and Spain used 7 of the same species for their

FIGURE 3. Animal parts used in traditional zootherapeutic remedies. Animal parts quoted in only oneremedy are not illustrated: bees wax, cerumen, claws, heart, horns, saliva, milt, musk, silk, spines,sweat and teeth.


zootherapeutic pharmacopoeias. These were mainly common livestock such asdonkeys, sheep, and swine and the honey bee, medicinal leech, and dog.

Discussion

It is not surprising that the fauna used in traditional zootherapeutic remediesin Nepal differ significantly from those in the Mediterranean study sites (Figure 5).

FIGURE 4. Zootherapeutic remedies from Spain. (A) Feeding a mule bread and a snake skin to curegeneral sickness. (B) Applying a spider web to seal a skin laceration and promote healing. (C) Puncturingthe skin with a tip of a deer horn to release the poison from a snake bite. (D) Preparing an oleolite bysoaking several newborn mice in a jar of olive oil. The oil is instilled in the ears to treat earache.

FIGURE 5. Intercultural correlation of fauna reported in zootherapeutic remedies. The fauna reportedin Nepal (a) are very different from those in the other countries. Other than Gallus gallus (chicken) andCapra aegagrus hircus (goat) - reported in all study sites - Nepal shares no other common species withthe other study sites. Albania, Italy, and Spain (b) share 7 species as zootherapeutics: sheep, swine,donkeys, honey bees, medicinal leeches, and dogs.


While Albania, Italy, and Spain vary somewhat in their respective wild fauna, theirdomestic livestock are similar, typical of the agro-pastoral economies of theMediterranean. The study area in Nepal, on the other hand, is home to a muchdifferent wild fauna, and the ethnic populations living in this region demonstrate astrong reliance on wild resources rather than livestock. The native fauna in theNepali environment includes monkeys, rhinoceroses, tigers, and elephants–noneof which are indigenous to the Mediterranean.

It is interesting to note that even when the same or similar species are used inthe different study sites, the actual part of the animal and the application oftendiverge. The only exception we found is that in all study sites honey, fromvarious species of bees, is reported as a popular remedy for colds and sore throatand is typically added to a hot tea and drunk or eaten alone.

To better describe this divergence in preparation and use of similar species,we discuss the example of pigeons. Various species of pigeon are used in three ofthe study sites, but different parts or products of the pigeon are used dependingon the country. In Spain, pigeon feces are used to treat ingrown toenails and acne,whereas in Italy the meat is eaten as a soup for galactagogue, reconstituent, andpost-partum healing purposes. On the other hand, in Nepal, a live pigeon is setfree as an augury and magical protection against misfortune (Table 1).

The medicinal use of the domestic chicken also differs based on the studysite: in Italy it is used to heal broken bones, to treat general sickness, for post-partum healing, as well as to treat abscess and furuncle; in Spain it is used as anamulet, an anti-anemic, and treatment for ingrown toenail; in Albania it is used totreat kidney stones and stomachache, as a poison antidote and analgesic; inNepal it is used for magical blessings, as a vulnerary, and to heal broken bones.While some applications are similar in more than one country, the animal partused differs. For example, people in both Spain and Nepal use the chicken as avulnerary, but the egg white is used in Spain while fat is used in Nepal. Only inItaly and Albania, where eating boiled eggs is a diarrhea remedy, do we find asimilar preparation and application of chicken.

Besides chickens, other domestic animals commonly used as a source oftraditional medicine include cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, donkeys, and horses.In fact, the largest portion of animal-based remedies reported in this study comefrom domestic animals, and this is likely due to their role in local subsistencepractices and the consequential ease of access and availability of these species tohumans. This is particularly evident in the Mediterranean study sites. While themedicinal use of these species was reported in several sites, once again, we notethat the actual animal part(s), application, and preparation of the remedies differbetween locations.

The use of wild fauna for traditional medicine is, of course, highly dependenton local availability and accessibility to wild resources. We would expect theclose proximity of communities to natural resource reservoirs such as forests orwater sources to be correlated with a greater use of wild fauna. Communities inthe Spanish study site are located near game preserves and hunting is a popularsport. The time spent in the forests perhaps gives this population a greater levelof access to wild fauna like snakes, foxes, badgers, and lizards–all of which werereported as popular zootherapeutic remedies. In Nepal, on the other hand, the


emphasis on water creatures–such as fish, eels and turtles, as well as snakes–perhaps relates to the Nepalese economy, which is based in large part on fishing.In Italy and Albania the heavier reliance on domestic, rather than wild fauna islikely associated with the agro-pastoral economy of these study sites.

In addition to looking to other species for medical remedies, certainethnomedical solutions come from humans themselves. These human-basedremedies are not derived from essential organs, but instead from humanexcrements and secretions, including breast milk, cerumen, sweat, menstrualblood, urine, and feces. Some of these remedies, such as the use of breast milk asan anti-conjunctivitic, may have a biomedical basis to them. For example, breastmilk has antibacterial properties that could be useful in treating an eye infection(De Souza, et al. 2002; Stevens et al. 2000). While all of the human-based remedieswere reported in the Mediterranean study sites, this does not necessarily excludethe use of such products in Nepal. It is probable that many more zootherapeuticremedies are still practiced (or were used in recent years), but were simply notreported by informants in these particular field studies.

Other studies conducted in countries like Brazil (Alves 2009) and India(Mahawar and Jaroli 2008) have documented the zootherapeutic use of 250 and 109animal species, respectively. In comparison with these studies, our documentationof 34 medicinal species in Spain, 21 in Italy, 11 in Albania, and 37 in Nepal, reflectsa rather small number of species. This may be a consequence of one or more ofseveral possible factors: 1) our study documents the zootherapeutic practices ofisolated communities in distinct regions of each country, and the data do not reflectthe TK of zootherapy for the entire country; 2) the conversion of wildland habitats(especially forests and wetlands) to accommodate grazing animals and crops hasbeen detrimental to the faunal populations of these regions and also reducescommunity access to these wild resources; 3) modernization efforts and economicshifts in each study region have contributed to a decline in human daily interactionwith the environment and a general abandonment of traditional lifeways; and 4)especially in contrast to NE Brazil (Alves and Rosa, 2006, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c), thebiodiversity of our field sites is relatively low, and this is reflected in the diversityof resources used by the communities we studied.

Local Perceptions of Animals as They Relate to Human Health

Local economies doubtlessly play an important role in the relationshipbetween human health and the environment. We have established thatcommunities with an agro-pastoral economy, like that of the Mediterraneanstudy sites, utilize more domestic animals (especially ungulates such as sheep,cattle, swine, donkeys, and goats) in the management of human health, whereasethnic communities in Nepal that subsist on a fishing economy utilize moreanimals associated with a riverine or wetland environment for their medical care.These trends underline the implicit link between human subsistence behaviorsand the traditional healing praxis. While this general correlation is likelyassociated with ease of access to certain species, other distinct socioculturalfactors, such as religion, should also be taken into consideration.

Like other Nepalese ethnic groups, the Majhi believe in animism. The Majhiworship a family deity called Kulkulayan and sacrifice animals to appease the


deity. The Majhi also worship a forest goddess called Ban Devi, who protects theforest, an area essential for Majhi survival. This devotion to the forest goddessexplains the group’s attention to resource conservation. The forest is believed tobe governed by the deity and thus is considered sacred. The Mahji believe thatlife is influenced by the attitude of forest spirits, and many of the zootherapeuticremedies prepared by this group are utilized as protective amulets against badspirits and as tokens of good fortune. In this sense, religion influences the Majhiperceptions of health and illness and guides the selection of remedies forparticular disease states. This health epistemology where a preoccupation withillnesses of magico-spiritual or supernatural origin predominates greatly differsfrom that of the Mediterranean.

The people in the Mediterranean study sites are Catholic and overall have amore naturalistic perception of health and illness. In other words, theMediterranean informants believe that many illnesses are caused by exposureto natural elements such as changing temperatures, humidity, rain, wind, andother seasonal weather events. In addition, our informants in Italy and Spainhave greater access to allopathic medical care and, as a consequence, alsodemonstrate a greater understanding of biomedical principles of health andillness. Here, zootherapeutic remedies are selected to treat distinct symptoms ofdisease–such as the use of animal fat as an emollient for burns and wounds ordairy products in the treatment of intestinal disorders (diarrhea and constipa-tion). In some cases, however, spiritual or magical elements are thought to be thecausative factor in disease or misfortune (Quave and Pieroni 2005), and there aresome zootherapeutic remedies, such as evil-eye amulets made from dog hide,which are used as a mode of spiritual protection.

Threats to these Medicinal Fauna

Eleven of the species documented in these field studies are included on theIUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Many of these species are threatened as aconsequence of human development and the associated loss of natural habitats.In the Mediterranean sites, medicinal reptiles are most at risk–the European pondturtle is listed as lower risk/near threatened (Tortoise & Freshwater TurtleSpecialist Group 1996), the four-lined snake is listed as near threatened (Romanoand Jelic 2008), and Lataste’s viper is listed as vulnerable (Mateo et al. 2008) Inaddition to the threat from loss of habitat, these two snakes are also subjected tohuman attack throughout their respective ranges. The European medicinal leech,whose use for phlebotomy has been documented over the centuries, is listed aslower risk/near threatened (World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1996). Themajor threats to this species are over-collection for medicinal purposes and theloss of their primary habitat from the conversion of grazing marshes to arableland.

In Nepal, four of the medicinal species documented in our study are listedunder endangered status: elongated tortoise (Asian Turtle Trade Working Group2000), Asian elephant (Choudhury et al. 2008), Himalayan musk deer (Wang andHarris 2008), and Bengal tiger (Ahmad et al. 2008). The sloth bear (Garshelis et al.2008) and Indian rhinoceros (Talukdar et al. 2008) are listed as vulnerable species.The Assam macaque is listed as a near threatened species (Boonratana et al.


2008). Populations of the listed species above are declining due to a combinationof habitat loss and poaching/hunting. Moreover, obtaining medicinal productsfrom these species oftentimes requires killing the animal, which also contributesto the population decline.

Loss of habitat is not the only negative environmental factor instigated bypeople; reduced habitat quality also severely impacts these threatened species.The conversion of land for agriculture leads to the invasion of nonnative plantspecies and grazing by domestic livestock. Indian rhinoceros populations, inparticular, have been affected by such a reduction in habitat quality (Talukdar etal. 2008). Likewise, the Assam macaque is threatened by both a loss of habitat anddecline in the quality of habitat as a result of selective logging. They are alsotrapped for sport, food, medicine, and the pet trade (Boonratana et al. 2008).

Conclusion

We have found that while animal-based remedies constitute an importantfacet of traditional medicine in each study site, the actual application andpreparation of animal products differs noticeably among sites. In addition, thepopularity, or consensus of use, is dependent to a large degree on theaccessibility or availability of the animals to these communities. Moreover, ourstudies show that the selection of medicinal fauna is mediated by humansubsistence patterns. In other words, people are more likely to utilize medicinalproducts from animals with which they are in regular contact. This is why themost popular zootherapeutic remedies in the Mediterranean come from domesticanimals (especially ungulates), whereas in Nepal, communities rely more heavilyon wild fauna. In this sense, economic models play an important role intraditional healthcare practices by influencing the selection of particularmedicines.

Concepts of health and disease differ among our study sites in theMediterranean and Asia, and these differences play a substantive role in theselection and use of animal-based remedies. In Nepal, where a magical orspiritual medical epistemology is predominant, amulets are popularly used toward off bad spirits and to bring good fortune. Powerful and even feared animalssuch as the Bengal tiger provide a ‘‘strong’’ medicine. The same is true in Spainwith the medicinal use of venomous snakes. The difficulty of obtaining productsfrom rare (vulnerable and endangered) species is often associated with the‘‘potency’’ of the particular remedy. The sociocultural value assigned tothreatened species that are considered to be ‘‘powerful’’ due to their rarity orthe peril associated with their collection should be taken into consideration whendesigning biodiversity conservation measures.

In both the Mediterranean and Asia, populations of wild fauna are in a stateof decline due to over-hunting, habitat loss, and reduced habitat quality. Threatsposed to endangered and vulnerable wild fauna by poaching, which is alsodriven by their use in traditional medicine, must be acknowledged andaddressed. The resulting loss of biodiversity is detrimental not only to theimmediate wildlife affected, but also to local ecosystems and humans in general.Depletion of the variety of natural resources in our environment diminishes the


potential for the discovery of new and much needed drugs. Thus, biodiversity iscritical to current and future human health. A thorough understanding of humancognition of animal utility in folk medical systems is necessary for the creationand implementation of appropriate biodiversity conservation measures.

Acknowledgements

This project was supported by grant numbers F31AT004288 and F32AT005040 fromthe National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. The content is solelythe responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily reflect the official views of theNational Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine or the National Institutes ofHealth. Additional support for C. Quave was provided by Botany in Action and the AnneChatham Fellowship in Medicinal Botany. Financial support for U. Lohani was providedby the University Grant Commission, Nepal. Support for A. Verde, D. Rivera, C. Obon,and A. Valdes was provided by the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla La Mancha (PBC-05-011-2. Estudio etnobiologico de las areas de montana y humedales de Castilla-LaMancha and PAC-08-173-4838. Etnobiologıa de la Flora Medicinal De Castilla La Mancha).Support for A. Pieroni’s fieldwork in northern Albania was provided by EU Commission(RUBIA project, ICA3-2002-10023, http://www.rubiaproject.net/, 01.01.2003-31.12.2005).

References Cited

Ahmad, J., D.P. Mallon, and R.J. Chundawat

2008 Panthera tigris ssp. tigris. IUCN Red

List of Threatened Species, Version 2009.1.

Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/

(Verified 31 January 2010).

Alves, R.R.N.

2009 Fauna used in popular medicine in

Northeast Brazil. Journal of Ethnobiology and

Ethnomedicine 5:1.

Alves, R.R.N. and I.L. Rosa

2005 Why study the use of animal products

in traditional medicines? Journal of Ethno-

biology and Ethnomedicine 1:5.

2006 From cnidarians to mammals: The use

of animals as remedies in fishing communi-

ties in NE Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharmacol-

ogy 107(2):259–276.

2007a Biodiversity, traditional medicine and

public health: where do they meet? Journal of

Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 3:14.

2007b Zootherapeutic practices among fish-

ing communities in North and Northeast

Brazil: A comparison. Journal of Ethnophar-

macology 111:82–103.

2007c Zootherapy goes to town: The use of

animal-based remedies in urban areas of NE

and N Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

113:541–555.

Asian Turtle Trade Working Group

2000 Indotestudo elongata. IUCN Red List

of Threatened Species, Version 2009.1.


(Verified 31 August 2010).

Blazquez, J.

1989 Eros y Tanatos. Brujerıa, hechicerıa y super-

sticion en Espana. Editorial Arcano, Madrid.

1991 Castilla-La Mancha: Magia, Supersticion y

Leyenda. Everest, Leon.

Bernard, H.R.

2002 Research Methods in Anthropology:

Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Alta-

Mira Press, Walnut Creek.

Boonratana, R., M. Chalise, J. Das, S. Htun, and

R.J. Timmins

2008 Macaca assamensis. IUCN Red List of

Threatened Species, Version 2009.1. Avail-

able at http://www.iucnredlist.org/ (Veri-

fied 31 January 2010).

Bista, D.B.

2000 People of Nepal. Ratna Pustak Bhandar,

Kathmandu.

Central Bureau of Statistics

2001 National Population Census 2001, Nepal.

Central Bureau of Statistics, National Plan-

ning Commission, Kathmandu.

Choudhury, A., D.K. Lahiri Choudhury, A.

Desai, J.W. Duckworth, P.S. Easa, A.J.T. John-

singh, P. Fernando, S. Hedges, M. Gunawar-

dena, F. Kurt, U. Karanth, A. Lister, V. Menon,

H. Riddle, A. Rubel, and E. Wikramanayake

2008 Elaphus maximus. IUCN Red List of



able at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/ (Veri-fied 31 January 2010).

Costa-Neto, E.M.1999 Healing with animals in Feira de

Santana City, Bahia, Brazil. Journal of Ethno-

pharmacology 65(3):225–230.

2005 Animal-based medicines: biologicalprospection and the sustainable use ofzootherapeutic resources. Anais da Academia

Brasileira de Ciencias 77(1):33–43.

De Souza, R.C., V.M. Quintina, and E. Medina-Acosta

2002 Prevalent transfer of human colostralIgA antibody activity for the enteropatho-genic Escherichia coli bundle-forming pilusstructural repeating subunit A in neonates.Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease

44(4):331–336.

Garshelis, D.L., S. Ratnayeke, and N.P.S. Chauhan2008 Melursus ursinus. IUCN Red List of

Threatened Species. Version 2010.1. Availableat http://www.iucnredlist.org/ (Verified 31March 2010).

Grimmet, R., C. Inskipp, T. Inskipp, and H.S.Baral

2003 Nepalka Charaharu. Bird ConservationNepal, Kathmandu.

Hoda, P. and A. Zotaj2007 Data on Albanian biodiversity and map-

ping. European Centre for Nature Conser-vation. Available at: http://www.ecnc.nl/file_handler/documents/original/download/103/Albania.ppt/. (Verified 31 January 2010).

Iniesta, J.A. and J.F. Jordan1991 Ritos magicos y tradiciones populares de

Hellın y su entorno. Diputacion de Albacete yAyuntamiento de Hellın, Murcia.

Instituto Nacional de Estadıstica2009 Webpage available at: http://www.

ine.es/ (Verified 31 January 2010).

International Society of Ethnobiology2007 The Code of Ethics of the International

Society of Ethnobiology. Available at: http://www.ethnobiology.net/global_coalition/ethics.php (Verified 31 January 2010).

Lev, E.2003 Traditional healing with animals

(zootherapy): medieval to present-day Le-vantine practice. Journal of Ethnopharmacol-

ogy 85(1):107–118.

2006 Healing with animals in the Levantfrom the 10th to the 18th century. Journal of

Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2:1.

Lohani, U., K. Rajbhandari, and S. Katre2008 Need for systematic ethnozoological

studies in the conservation of ancient

knowledge systems of Nepal - a review.Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 7(4):634–637.

Mahawar, M. and D.P. Jaroli2007 Traditional knowledge on zoothera-

peutic uses by the Saharia tribe of Rajasthan,India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomed-

icine 3(1):25.

2008 Traditional zootherapeutic studies inIndia: a Review. Journal of Ethnobiology and

Ethnomedicine 4:17.

Mateo, J.A., M. Cheylan, M.S. Nouira, U. Joger,P. Sa-Sousa, V. Perez-Mellado, and I. Martınez-Solano

2008 Vipera latastei. IUCN Red List ofThreatened Species, Version 2009.1. Avail-able at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/ (Veri-fied 31 January 2010).

Misja, K.2006 Libri i kuq i faunes shqiptare [Red Book of

Albanian Fauna]. Pyjeve dhe Administrimitte Ujrave Tirane (ALB), Ministria e Mjedisit.

Nanhoe, L.M.R. and P.E. Ouboter1987 The distribution of Reptiles and Amphib-

ians in the Annapurna-Dhaulagiri Region

(Nepal). Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke His-torie te Leiden, Vol. 240. ZoologiscjheVerhandelingen, Leiden.

Palacın-Latorre, J.M.1994 La ‘‘Medicina popular’’: fuentes para

su estudio y metodo de trabajo. Metodologıa

de la investigacion cientıfica sobre fuentes

aragonesas 9:363–417.

Palacın-Rodrıguez, M.L.1985 Influencia del reino animal en la

medicina popular del Alto Aragon. Thesis(Licenciatura), Universidad de NavarraPamplona, Spain.

Pieroni, A.2008 Local plant resources in the ethnobot-

any of Theth, a village in the NorthernAlbanian Alps. Genetic Resources and Crop

Evolution 55:1197–1214.

Pieroni, A., B. Dibra, G. Grishaj, I. Grishaj, and S.Gjon Macai

2005 Traditional phytotherapy of the Alba-nians of Lepushe, Northern Albanian Alps.Fitoterapia 76(3–4):379–399.

Pieroni, A., C.L. Quave, S. Nebel, and M.Heinrich

2002 Ethnopharmacy of the ethnic Alba-nians (Arbereshe) of northern Basilicata,Italy. Fitoterapia 73(3):217–241.

Pieroni, A., C.L. Quave, and R.F. Santoro2004 Folk pharmaceutical knowledge in the

territory of the Dolomiti Lucane, inland


southern Italy. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

95(2–3):373–384.Quave, C. and A. Pieroni

2005 Folk illness and healing in ArberesheAlbanian and Italian communities of Luca-nia, southern Italy. Journal of Folklore Re-search 42(1):57–97.

Rajbhandari, K.R.2001 Ethnobotany of Nepal. Ethnobotanical

Society of Nepal, Kathmandu.Ramos, M.A.

2009 Fauna Iberica: Museo Nacional de Cien-cias Naturales (CSIC). Available at: http://www.fauna-iberica.mncn.csic.es/ (Verified 31January 2010).

Rico-Avello, C.1974 El bable y la medicina. Instituto de

Estudios Asturianos, Diputacion de Oviedo,Oviedo.

Romano, A. and D. Jelic2008 Elaphe quatuorlineata. IUCN Red List

of Threatened Species, Version 2009.1.Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/(Verified 31 January 2010).

Sanchez-Mınguez, D.1995 Medicina y veterinaria popular. Plan-

tas medicinales alcarrenas. Cuadernos de

etnologıa de Guadalajara 27:9–64.Shah, K.B. and M.K. Giri

1992 Some amphibians and their local usesin Arun Basin. Journal of Natural History

Museum 13(1–4):9–17.Shah, K.B. and S. Tiwari

2004 Herpetofauna of Nepal- A Conservation

Companion. International Union for Conser-vation of Nature, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Shrestha, J.1981 Fishes of Nepal. Tribhuvan University

Curriculum Development Centre, Kath-mandu.

Shrestha, T.K.2003 Wildlife of Nepal, 2nd Ed. Bimala

Shrestha, Kathmandu.Stevens, C.R., T.M. Millar, J.G. Clinch, J.M.Kanczler, T. Bodamyali, and D.R. Blake

2000 Antibacterial properties of xanthine

oxidase in human milk. The Lancet 356(9232):

829–830.

Stoch, F.

2009 Checklist of the Italian Fauna, Version

2.0. Italian Ministry of Environment. Avail-

able at: http://www.faunaitalia.it/checklist/


Taboada, J.

1948 La Medicina popular en el Valle de

Monterrey (Orense). Revista de Dialectologıa y

Tradiciones Populares 3:31–57.

Talukdar, B.K., R. Emslie, S.S. Bist, A. Choudh-

ury, S. Ellis, B.S. Bonal, M.C. Malakar, B.N.

Talukdar, and M. Barua

2008 Rhinoceros unicornis. IUCN Red List




Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group

1996 Emys orbicularis. IUCN Red List of


able at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/ (Veri-


Verde, A., D. Rivera, J. Fajardo, C. Obon, and F.

Cebrian

2008 Guıa de las Plantas Medicinales de

Castilla-La Mancha (y otros recursos tradicio-

nales de uso medicinal). Altaban, Zaragoza.

Wang, Y. and R.B. Harris

2008 Moschus chrysogaster. IUCN Red List




World Bank

2003 Albania poverty assessment, Report

No. 26213-AL. World Bank, Washington.

World Conservation Monitoring Centre

1996 Hirudo medicinalis. IUCN Red List of


able at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/ (Veri-


World Resources Institute

2000 World Resources Report (2000–2001).

People and ecosystems: the fraying web of life.

World Resources Institute, Washington.


a comparative assessment of zootherapeutic...

Documents