a di erential introduction to elliptic curves and modular...

A Differential Introduction To Elliptic Curves And Modular

Forms

Hossein Movasati

December 17, 2014

Contents

0 Introduction 3

1 Rudiments of Algebraic Geometry of curves 5

1.1 Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3 Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.4 Singular and smooth curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.5 Discriminant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.6 The main property of the discriminant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.7 Descriminant of projective curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.8 Curves of genus zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.9 Curves of genus bigger than one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Elliptic curves in Weierstrass form 13

2.1 Elliptic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2 Elliptic curves in Weierstrass form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.3 Real geometry of elliptic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.4 Complex geometry of elliptic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.5 The group law in elliptic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.6 Divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.7 Riemann-Roch theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.8 Weierstrass form revised . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.8.1 Moduli of elliptic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3 Congruent numbers 21

3.1 Congruent numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2 Finite fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.3 Elliptic curves over finite fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4 Mordell-Weil theorem 25

4.1 Mordell-Weil Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4.2 Zeta functions of elliptic curves over finite fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4.3 Nagell-Lutz Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5 Mazur theorem 29

5.1 Mazur theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5.2 One dimensional algebraic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5.3 Reduction of elliptic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

1

2 CONTENTS

5.4 Zeta functions of curves over Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315.5 Hasse-Weil conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315.6 Birch Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325.7 Congruent numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325.8 p-adic numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6 Modular forms 356.1 Elliptic integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356.2 Weierstrass uniformization theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356.3 Poincare metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376.4 Picard-Lefschetz theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376.5 Schwarz function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386.6 CM elliptic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386.7 Full modular forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396.8 Fourier series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406.9 The algebra of modular forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406.10 The discriminant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416.11 The j function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416.12 Hecke operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426.13 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

7 Other topics 457.1 Some modular forms obtaind from Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

8 Riemann zeta function 478.1 Riemann zeta function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478.2 The big Oh notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488.3 Gamma function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488.4 Mellin transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498.5 Analytic extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508.6 Functional equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518.7 Second proof for functional equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518.8 Zeta and primes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528.9 Other zeta functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538.10 Dedekind Zeta function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Chapter 0

Introduction

Modular forms and elliptic curves are firmly rooted in the fertil grounds of number theory.As a proof of the mentioned fact and as an introduction to the present text we mentionthe followings: For p prime, the Fermat last theorem ask for a non-trivial integer solutionfor the Diophantine equation

ap + bp + cp = 0

For a hypothetical solution (A,B,C) = (ap, bp, cp) of the Fermat equation, Gerhart Freyconsidered the elliptic curve

EA,B,C : y2 = x(x−A)(x+B)

From this one construct a modular form fA,B,C and a Galois representation with certainproperties and then one proves that such objects does not exist. During this passageone encounters the Modularity conjecture which claims that every elliptic curve over Qis modular. Roughly speaking this means that every elliptic curve over Q appears in theJacobian of of a modular curve of level N . Another formulation of modularity property isby using L functions which generalizes the famous Riemann zeta function

ζ(s) :=∞∑n=1

1

ns

Riemann hypothesis claims that all the non-trivial zeros of ζ lies on <(s) = 12 and it has

strong consequences on the growth of prime number. For the L functions associated toelliptic curves one has the Birch-Swinnerton Dyer conjecture which predicts the rank ofan elliptic curve to be the order of vanishing of the corresponding L-function at s = 1.

It is assumed that the reader has a basic knowledge in algebraic geometry of curvesand complex analysis in one variable.

3

4 CHAPTER 0. INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1

Rudiments of Algebraic Geometryof curves

Throughout the present text we work with a field k of arbitrary characteristic and notnecessarily algebraically closed. By k we mean the algebraic closure of k. The mainexamples that we have in mind are

k = Q,R,C,Fp :=ZpZ, k(t)

and a number field. A number field k is a field that contains Q and has finite dimension,when considered as a vector space over Q. A function field k(t) = k(t1, t2, . . . , ts) over

a field k is the field of rational functions a(t1,t2,··· ,ts)b(t1,t2,...,ts)

, where a and b are polynomials in

indeterminates t1, t2, . . . , ts and with coefficients in k. Later, we will also use the field ofp-adic numbers.

1.1 Curves

Let k be a field and k[x, y] be the space of polynomial in two variables x, y and withcoefficients in k. The n dimensional affine space over k is by definition

An(k) = k× k× · · · × k, n times

and the projective n dimensional space is

Pn(k) := An+1(k)− {(0, 0, · · · , 0)}/ ∼

a ∼ b if and only if ∃λ ∈ k, a = λb

We will consider the following inclusion

An(k)→ Pn(k), (x1, x2, · · · , xn) 7→ [x1;x2; · · · ;xn; 1]

and call Pn the compactification of An. The projective space at infinity is defined to be

Pn−1∞ (k) = Pn(k)− An(k) = {[x1;x2; · · · ;xn;xn+1] | xn+1 = 0}.

For simplicity, in the case n = 1, 2 and 3 we use x, (x, y) and (x, y, z) instead of x1, x2, . . ..

5

6 CHAPTER 1. RUDIMENTS OF ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY OF CURVES

Any polynomial f ∈ k[x, y] defines an affine curve

C(k) := {(x, y) ∈ k2 | f(x, y) = 0}.

The most famous Diophantine curve is give by f = xn + yn − 1. We denote it by Fn.

Remark 1.1. The set C(k) may be empty, for instance take k = Q, f = x2 + y2 + 1.This means that the identification of a curve with its points in some field is not a goodtreatment of curves. One of the starting points of the theory of schemes is this simpleobservation.

For f ∈ k[x, y] we define the homogenization of f

F (x, y, z) = zdf(x

z,y

z), d := deg(f).

F defines a projective plane curve in P2(k):

C(k) := {[x; y; z] ∈ P2(k) | F (x, y, z) = 0}.

Note that∀c ∈ k, (x, y, z) ∈ k3, F (cx, cy, cz) = cdF (x, y, z).

One has the injectionC(k)→ C(k), (x, y) 7→ [x; y; 1]

and for this reason one sometimes says that C(k) is the compactification of C(k). Letg be the las homogeneous piece of the polynomial f . By definition it is a homogeneouspolynomial of degree d. The points in

C(k)− C(k) = {[x; y] ∈ P1∞ | g(x, y) = 0}

are called the points at infinity of C(k). The set of points at infinity of Fn is empty if nis even and it is {[1;−1]} if n is odd.

1.2 Charts

From now on we use the notation C to denote the curve C in the previous section. Wesimply say that the curve C in an affine chart is given by f(x, y) = 0. The projectivespace P2 is covered by three canonical charts:

αi : A2(k) ↪→ P2(k)

α1(x, y) = [x; y; 1], α2(x, z) = [x; 1; z], α3(y, z) = [1; y; z].

and the curve in each chart is repectively given by

f1(x, y) := F (x, y, 1) = 0, f2 := F (x, 1, z) = 0, and f3 := F (1, y, z) = 0.

We are also going to use the notion of an arbitrary curve over k from algebraic geometryof schemes. Roughly speaking, a curve C over k means C over k and the ingredientpolynomials of C are defined over k. The reader who is not familiar with those generalobjects may follow the text for affine and projective curves as above. The set C(k) is nowthe set of k-rational points of C.

1.3. SCHEMES 7

1.3 Schemes

We defined P2(k) and C(k) without defining P2 and C. In this section we fill this gap andwe explain the rough idea behind the definition of the schemes P2 and C.

By the affine scheme A2 we simply think of the ring k[x, y]. Open subsets of A2 aregiven by the localization of k[x, y]. We will need two open subsets of A2 given respectivelyby

k[x, y,1

y] and k[x, y,

1

x]

By the projective scheme P2 we mean three copies of A2, namely

k[x, y], k[x, z], k[y, z]

together with the isomorphism of affine subsets:

(1.1) k[x, y,1

y] ∼= k[x, z,

1

z], x 7→ x

z, y 7→ 1

z

k[x, y,1

x] ∼= k[y, z,

1

z], x 7→ 1

z, y 7→ y

z

k[x, z,1

x] ∼= k[y, z,

1

y], x 7→ 1

y, z 7→ z

y

The best way to see these isomorphisims is, for instance: we look at an element of k[x, y]as a function on the first chart A2(k) and for (a, b) in this chart we use the identities

[a; b; 1] = [a

b; 1;

1

b] = [1;

b

a;

1

a].

We think of the the scheme C in the same way as P2, but replacing k[x, y] with k[x, y]/〈f1〉and so on. Here 〈f1〉 is the ideal k[x, y] generated by a single element f1. We can also thinkof C in the same way as P2 but with the following additional relations between variables:

f1(x, y) = 0 in k[x, y]

f2(x, z) = 0 in k[x, z]

andf3(y, z) = 0 in k[y, z].

Remark 1.2. The above discssion does not use the fact that k is a field. In fact, we canuse an arbitrary ring R instead of k. In this way, we say that we have an scheme C overthe ring R.

The function field of the projective space P2 is defined to be

k(P2) := k(x, y) ∼= k(x, z) ∼= k(y, z).

where the isomorphisms are given by (1.1). The field of rational function on the curve Cis the field of fractions of the ring k[x, y]/〈f1〉. Using the isomorphism (1.1), this definitiondoes not depend on the chart with (x, y) coordinates. We can also think of k(C) as k(x, y)but with the relation f1(x, y) = 0 between the variables x, y. Any f ∈ k(C) induces a map

C(k)→ k

that we denote it by the same letter f .


1.4 Singular and smooth curves

Definition 1.1. We say that an affine curve given by f(x, y) = 0 is singular if there is apoint (a, b) ∈ k2 such that

f(a, b) = fx(a, b) = fy(a, b) = 0.

where fx is the derivation of f with respect to x and so on. The point (a, b) is calleda singularity of the affine curve. A projective curve is singular if one of its affine chartsis singular. For a curve C, affine or projective, we denote by Sing(C) ⊂ C(k) the set ofsingular points of C.

1.5 Discriminant

Let R be a ring and k be the field of fractions of k.

Definition 1.2. Let us be given a polynomial f ∈ R[x, y, . . .], where (x, y, . . .) is a multivariable. The discriminant ideal of f contains all element ∆ ∈ R such that

∆ = fa1 + fxa2 + fya3 + · · · , for some a1, a2, . . . ∈ R[x, y, . . .].

When the discriminant ideal is principal we denote by ∆ its generator and we call itthe discriminant of the polynomial f . It is defined up to units of the ring R, and hencein the case R = Z it is defined up to sign. In this case we fix this ambiguity by assumingthat ∆ is positive.

Exercise 1.1. For

(1.2) f = y2 − x3 − t4x− t6, t4, t6 ∈ R;

show that the discriminant ideal is generated by

∆ = 2(4t34 + 27t26),

The corresponding a1, a2 and a3 in this case are given by

a1 = 2(27x3 − 27y2 + (27t4)x+ (−27t6)),

a2 = 2(−9x4 + (−15t4)x2 + (−4t24)), a3 = −54x3y + 27y3 + (−54t4)xy.

In this case, ∆ is the resultant of the polynomials P (x) and Px(x), where P = x3 +t4x+t6.

In all the case below, the discriminant ideal is principal and we have calculated itsgenerator.

(1.3) f = y2 − x3 − t4x− t6 − t2x2 + t1xy + t3y.

∆ = (t61t6 − t

51t3t4 + t

41t2t

23 + 12t

41t2t6 − t

41t

24 − 8t

31t2t3t4 − t

31t

33 − 36t

31t3t6 + 8t

21t

22t

23 + 48t

21t

22t6 − 8t

21t2t

24

+30t21t

23t4 − 72t

21t4t6 − 16t1t

22t3t4 − 36t1t2t

33 − 144t1t2t3t6 + 96t1t3t

24 + 16t

32t

23 + 64t

32t6 − 16t

22t

24

−72t2t23t4 − 288t2t4t6 + 27t

43 + 216t

23t6 + 64t

34 + 432t

26).

a1 = 432x3 − 432y

2+ (−432t1)xy + (432t2)x

2+ (−432t3)y + (432t4)x + (−t61 − 12t

41t2 + 36t

31t3 − 48t

21t

22

+72t21t4 + 144t1t2t3 − 64t

32 + 288t2t4 − 216t

23 − 432t6)

1.6. THE MAIN PROPERTY OF THE DISCRIMINANT 9

a2 = −144x4

+ (−48t21 − 192t2)x

3+ (−t41 − 8t

21t2 − 120t1t3 − 16t

22 − 240t4)x

2+ (−t51)y + (6t

41t2 − 20t

31t3+

24t21t

22 − 40t

21t4 − 80t1t2t3 + 32t

32 − 160t2t4)x + (t

41t4 + 4t

31t2t3 + 8t

21t2t4 − 16t

21t

23

+8t1t22t3 − 64t1t3t4 + 16t

22t4 − 64t

24).

a3 = −432x3y + 216y

3+ (−144t1)x

4+ (324t1)xy

2+ (54t

21 − 432t2)x

2y + (−3t

31 − 120t1t2 − 216t3)x

3+

(324t3)y2

+ (108t1t3 − 432t4)xy + (−t51 + 4t31t2 − 21t

21t3 + 8t1t

22 − 96t1t4 − 216t2t3)x

2+ (t

61 + 6t

41t2 − 18t

31t3 + 24t

21t

22

−36t21t4 − 72t1t2t3 + 32t

32 − 144t2t4 + 162t

23)y + (−t51t2 + t

41t3 + 2t

31t4 + 4t

21t2t3 + 8t1t2t4 − 27t1t

23 − 216t3t4)x

+(−t51t4 + t41t2t3 − 4t

31t2t4 − t

31t

23 + 8t

21t

22t3 + 14t

21t3t4 − 8t1t

22t4 − 36t1t2t

23 + 32t1t

24 + 16t

32t3 − 72t2t3t4 + 27t

33);

This modulo 2 is:

∆ = t41t2t23 + t51t3t4 + t61t6 + t31t

33 + t41t

24 + t43

a1 = t61, a2 = t41x2 + t51y + t41t4

a3 = t51x2 + t31x

3 + t61y + t51t2x+ t41t3x+ t21t3x2 + t41t2t3 + t51t4 + t31t

23 + t1t

23x+ t33

For the case

(1.4) f = y2 − x3 − t4x− t6 − t2x2.

we have

∆ = 2(4t32t6 − t22t24 − 18t2t4t6 + 4t34 + 27t26);

a1 = 2(27x3 − 27y2 + (27t2)x2 + (27t4)x+ (−4t32 + 18t2t4 − 27t6));

a2 = 2(−9x4 + (−12t2)x3 + (−t22 − 15t4)x2 + (2t32 − 10t2t4)x+ (t22t4 − 4t24));

a3 = −54x3y + 27y3 + (−54t2)x2y + (−54t4)xy + (4t32 − 18t2t4)y;

Modulo 3 this is:

∆ = t22t24 − t32t6 − t34

a1 = t32, a2 = t22x2 + t32x+ t2t4x− t22t4 + t24, a3 = t32y.

1.6 The main property of the discriminant

The main property of the singular ideal is

Proposition 1.1. Let I be any maximal ideal of R and so R/I is a field. The affinevariety f = 0 is singular over R/I if and only if the discriminant ideal is a subset of I.

Let us describe our main examples for the above theorem.

1. R = k and so I = {0}.

2. R = Z. This is a principal ideal domain and so the discriminat ideal is generated bysome ∆ ∈ N and I is generated by some prime p ∈ N. In this case, f = 0 is singularover Fp if and only if p | ∆.

3. R = k[t] and for a ∈ ks, I is the ideal of R generate by ti−ai, i = 1, 2, . . . , s. Let alsoassume that the discriminant ideal is generated by ∆. In this case, the curve f = 0with the evaluation of the parameters t = a is singular if and only if ∆(a) = 0.

Proof. We can assume that R = k is a field.


1.7 Descriminant of projective curves

Let C ⊂ P2 be a curve over the ring R. We define its discriminant ideal to be the idealgenerated by all discriminant ideals of C in some affine coordinates.

Exercise 1.2. Let us take the curve y2z − x3 − 17z3 = 0 over Z. Its discriminant in theaffine coordinates z = 1, respectively y = 1, is 2 · 3 · 172, respectively 24. Its discriminantis 24 · 3 · 72 (see the tex file of this text for the corresponding Singular code).

1.8 Curves of genus zero

Let f ∈ k[x, y] and let C be the curve induced by f = 0 in P2. Let us assume that f isof degree 2 and it is irreducible over k. Further, assume that C(k) has at least one pointP . Note that if we look C in an affine chart then this point can be a point at infinity.The following procedure finds all the points of C(k). We fix a line L in P2, for instancetake y = 0. For any point X ∈ L(k), we connect X to P by a line L′ and find the secondintersction f(X) of L′ with L. Since P ∈ C(k), we have f(X) ∈ C(k) and we get abijection

f : L(k)→ C(k)

Exercise 1.3. Use the above geometric argument and find all k-rational points of theDiophantine equation

tx2 + sy2 = t+ s.

for some s, t ∈ k.

The argument discussed in the previous paragraph works if f ∈ k[x, y] is irreducibleover k and has degree 3 and the induced curve C in P2 is singular. In this case, we canprove that the singularity P of C is defined over k, that is P ∈ C(k), and it is unique.This point serves us as the point with the same name in the previous paragraph.

Exercise 1.4. Find all the k-rationa points of the Diophantine equation

y2 − x3 − t4x− t6 = 0

for some t4, t6 ∈ k with 4t34 + 27t26 = 0.

1.9 Curves of genus bigger than one

Let C/Q be a smooth projective curve of degree d in P2, i.e. its defining polynomial is ofdegree d. Its genus is by definition

g(C) :=(d− 1)(d− 2)

2

The main objective of the Diophantine theory is to describe the set C(Q) for the curvesdefined over Q. The most famous example is the Fermat curve given by the polynomialf = xn+yn−1. The machinery of algebraic geometry is very useful to distinguish betweenvarious types of Diophantine equations. For instance, one can describe the rational pointsof genus zero curves. Genus one curves are called elliptic curves and the study of theirrational points is the objective of the present text. For higher genus we have a conjectureof Mordell around 1922 which is proved by Faltings in 1982:

1.9. CURVES OF GENUS BIGGER THAN ONE 11

A non-singular projective curve of genus> 1 and defined over Q has only finitely manyQ-rational points.

In fact, the above theorem is true even for number fields. For instance the above theoremsays that the Fermat curve Fn has a finite number of Q-rational points. However, it doesnot say something about the nature of Fn(Q). Mordell’s conjecture for function fields wasproved by Y. Manin in 1963, see [13] .

Chapter 2

Elliptic curves in Weierstrass form

In this chapter, we define what is an elliptic curve over a field k, we describe the Weierstrassformat of an elliptic curve and we define the group structure of an elliptic curve. If thereader is not familiar with the notion of an a curve over a field, he can use the curves inp2 which we worked out in the previous section.

2.1 Elliptic curves

We are ready to give the definition of an elliptic curve:

Definition 2.1. An elliptic curve over k is a pair (E,O), where E is a genus one completesmooth curve and O is a k-rational point of E, that is, O ∈ C(k).

Therefore, by definition an elliptic curve over k has at least one k-rational point. Asmooth projective curve of degree 3 is therefore an elliptic curve if it has a k-rational point.For instance, the Fermat curve

F3 : x3 + y3 = z3

is an elliptic curve over Q. It has Q-rational points [0, 1, 1] and [1, 0, 1]. However

E : 3x3 + 4y3 + 5z3 = 0

has not Q-rational points and so it is not an elliptic curve defined over Q. It is an interestingfact to mention that E(Qp) for all prime p and E(R) are not empty. This example is dueto Selmer (see [3, 22]).

2.2 Elliptic curves in Weierstrass form

An elliptic curve in the Weierstrass form E is the affine curve given by the polynomial

Et2,t3 : y2 − x3 − t2x− t3, t2, t3 ∈ k,

∆ := 2(4t32 + 27t23) 6= 0,

and in particular k is not of charachteristic 2. In homogeneous coordinates it is written inthe form

zy2 − x3 − t2xz2 − t3z3 = 0.

13

14 CHAPTER 2. ELLIPTIC CURVES IN WEIERSTRASS FORM

It has only one point at infinity, namely [0; 1; 0], which is considered as the marked pointin the definition of an elliptic curve. It is in fact a smooth point of E which is tangentto the projective line at infinity of order 3 and [0; 1; 0] is the only intersection point ofthe line at infinity with E. If char(k) = 2 then the curve Et2,t3 is always singular. Wehave already seen in Proposition 1.1 that ∆ = 0 if and only if the corresponding curve issingular.

2.3 Real geometry of elliptic curves

For a projective smooth curve C defined over R the set C(R) has many connected com-ponents, all of them topologically isomorphic to a circle. We call each of them an oval.

For an elliptic curve E defined over R we want to analyze the topology of E(R). Forsimplicity (in fact because of Proposition 2.2 which will be presented later) we assumethat E = Et2,t3 is in the Weierstrass form. For (t2, t3) ∈ R2 let ∆ = 2(4t32 + 27t23) be thediscriminant of the elliptic curve E. We have:

1. If ∆ < 0 then E(R) has two connected components, one is a closed path in R2, whichwe call it an affine oval, and the other a closed path in P2(R). We call it a projectiveoval.

2. If ∆ > 0 then E(R) has only one component which is a projective oval.

3. If ∆ = 0 and t3 < 0 then E(R) is an α-shaped path in R2 (∞-shaped path in P2(R)).In this case, we say that E has a real nodal singularity.

4. If ∆ = 0 and t3 > 0 then E(R) is a union of a point and a projective oval. In thiscase, we say that E has a complex nodal singularity.

5. If t2 = t3 = 0 then E(R) look likes a broken line in R2. In this case, we say that Ehas a cuspidal singularity.

Note that E(R) intersects the line at infinity only at [0; 1; 0]. To see/prove all the topo-logical statements above, it is enough to take an example in each class and draw thecorresponding E(R). Note that in the (t2, t3)-space each set defined by the above itemsis connected and the topology of E(R) does not change in each item (see Figure 2.1 and2.2, the correspondence between the values of t2, t3 and Et2,t3(R) are done by colours).

2.4 Complex geometry of elliptic curves

Let C be a smooth projective curve of genus g over a subfield k of C. It can be shownthat C(C) is a compact (Riemann) surface with g(C) wholes (a sphere with g handles).

Exercise 2.1. Give a proof of the above statement using the followings. 2. Any compactRiemann surface is diffeomorphic to a sphere with some handles. 2. Riemann-Hurwitzformula.

In genus one case, therefore, the set C(C) is torus.

Exercise 2.2. For a smooth elliptic curve E over R and in the Weierstrass form describethe real curves E(R) inside the torus (Hint: Use the Riemann-Hurwitz formula).

2.5. THE GROUP LAW IN ELLIPTIC CURVES 15

-2.4 -1.6 -0.8 0 0.8 1.6 2.4

-1.6

-0.8

0.8

1.6

Figure 2.1: Elliptic curves: y2 − x3 − t2x− t3 = 0

-5 -2.5 0 2.5 5

-2.5

2.5

Figure 2.2: The discriminant curve 4t32 + t23 = 0

2.5 The group law in elliptic curves

Let C be a smooth cubic curve in P2. Let also P,Q ∈ C(k) and L be the line in P2

connecting two points P and Q. If P = Q then L is the tangent line to C at P . The line Lis defined over k and it is easy to verify that the third intersection R := PQ of C(k) withL(k) is also in C(k). Fix a point O ∈ C(k) and call it the zero element of C(k). Define

P +Q = O(PQ)

For instance, for an elliptic curve in the weierstrass form take O = [0; 1; 0] the point atinfinity. By definition O +O = O.

Theorem 2.1. The above construction turns C(k) into a commutative group.

Proof. The only non-trivial piece of the proof is the associativity property of +:

(P +Q) +R = P + (Q+R)

The proof constitute of three pieces:

1. Let Pi = [xi; yi; zi] be 8 points in P2(k) such that the vectors (x3i , · · · , z3

i ) ∈ k10ofmonomials of degree 3 in xi, yi, zi are linearly independent. A cubic polynomial F passing


through all Pi’s corresponds to a vector a ∈ k10 such that Pi · a = 0 and so the space ofsuch cubic polynomials is two dimensional. This means that there is two cubic polynomialF and G such that any other cubic polynomial passing through Pi’s is of the form λF+µGand so it crosses a ninth point too.

2. We apply the first part to the eight points O,P,Q,R, PQ,QR,P + Q,Q + R andconclude that (P +Q)R = P (Q+R). Note that from these 8 points it crosses there cubicpolynomials: C, the product of lines through (0, PQ, P+Q), (R,Q,QR), (P (Q+R), P,Q+R) and the product of the lines (0, QR,Q+R), (PQ,Q, P ), (P +Q,R, (P +Q)R): P +Q PQ O

R Q QR(P +Q)R,P (Q+R) P Q+R

(each column or row corresponds to aline).

3. The morphisms C × C × C → C, (P,Q,R) 7→ (P +Q) + R,P + (Q+ R) coincidesin a Zariski open subset and so they are equal.

Exercise 2.3. ([24] p. 60) On the elliptic curve

E : y2 = x3 + 17

over Q. We have points

P1 = (−2, 3), P2 = (−1, 4), P3 = (2, 5), P4 = (4, 9), P5 = (8, 23)P6 = (43, 282)

P7 = (52, 375), P8 = (5234, 378661)

verify:P5 = 2P1, P4 = P1 − P3, 3P1 − P3 = P7,

Prove that E(Q) is freely generated by P1 and P3 and there are only 16 integral points±Pi, i = 1, 2, . . . , 8 (see [20]).

Exercise 2.4. [10], p. 35, Problem 4b: For the elliptic curve En : y2 = x3 − n2x find anexplicit formula for the x coordinates of inflection points.

Exercise 2.5. [10], p. 36, Problem 7: How many elements of En(R) or of order 2, 3 and4? Describe geometrically where these points are located.

Exercise 2.6. [10], p. 36, Problem 9: For an elliptic curve over R prove that E(R) (as agroup) is isomorphic to R/Z or R/Z× Z/2Z.

Exercise 2.7. [10], p. 36, Problem 11:

2.6 Divisors

Let E/k be an elliptic curve over a field k. A divisor in E and defined over k is a formalfinite sum D :=

∑i nipi, ni ∈ Z, pi ∈ E(k) such that it is invariant under the Galois

group Gal(k/k), that is,σ(D) = D, ∀σ ∈ Gal(k/k)

whereσ(∑i

nipi) :=∑i

niσ(pi)

2.7. RIEMANN-ROCH THEOREM 17

The set of divisors over k, let us denote it by Div(E/k) form an abelian group in a naturalway. For any rational function f ∈ k(E) we define

div(f) :=∑i

nipi

where f is of order ni at pi. It is a divisor defined over k. The set of such divisors form anabelian group which we denote it by Div(k(E)). The Picard-Group of E is defined to be

Pic(E) := Div(E)/Div(k(E)).

The Chern class map is defined in the following way

c : Pic(E)→ Z, c(∑i

nipi) :=∑i

ni

we definePic0(E) := ker(Pic(E)→ Z)

We have a canonial map

(2.1) E(k)→ Pic0(E), P 7→ P −O

Proposition 2.1. The map 2.1 is an isomorphism of groups.

Proof. First of all we notice that it is a group morphism. Just for this proof we denoteby ⊕ the addition structure in E(k). Let L1, respectively L2, be the equation of the linein P2 passing through P,Q, PQ, respectively O,PQ,P ⊕Q. We have L1

L2∈ k(E) with the

divisorP +Q+ PQ−O − PQ− P ⊕Q

and so in Pic0(E) we have P −O +Q−O = P ⊕Q−O.

2.7 Riemann-Roch theorem

Definition 2.2. We say that a divisor D =∑

i nipi is positive and write D ≥ 0 if allcoefficients ni are non negative integers. In a similar way we define D ≤ 0.

For a divisor D on a curve C/k define the linear system

L(D) = {f ∈ k(C), f 6= 0 | div(f) +D ≥ 0} ∪ {0}

andl(D) = dimk(L(D)).

Theorem 2.2. (Riemann-Roch theorem) Let C be a smooth curve over k.

l(D)− l(K −D) = deg(D)− g + 1,

where K is the canonical divisor and g is the genus of C.

We only need to know that the canonical divisor satisfies:

deg(K) = 2g − 2

and so for deg(D) > 2g − 2, equivalently deg(K −D) < 0, we have

(2.2) l(D) = deg(D)− g + 1.


2.8 Weierstrass form revised

In this section we prove that any elliptic curve can be realized as a certain curve in P2.The following proposition is proved in [24], III, Proposition 3.1.

Proposition 2.2. Let E be an elliptic curve over a field k. There exist functions x, y ∈k(E) such that the map

E → P2, a 7→ [x(a); y(a); 1]

give an isomorphism of E/k onto a curve given by

y2 + a1xy + a3y = x3 + a2x2 + a4x+ a6, a1, · · · , . . . , a6 ∈ k

sending O to [0; 1; 0]. If further char(k) 6= 2, 3 we can assume that the image curve is givenby

y2 = 4x3 − t2x− t3, t2, t3 ∈ k, t32 − 27t23 6= 0.

We call x and y the weierstrass coordinates of of E.

Proof. Using Riemann-Roch theorem and in particular (2.2) with g = 1 and D = nO weget l(D) = n. For n = 2 we can choose x, y ∈ k(E) such that 1, x form a basis of L(2O)and 1, x, y form a basis of L(3O). The function x (resp. y) has a pole of order 2 (resp. 3)at O. Now L(6O) has dimension 6 and 1, x, y, x2, xy, y2, x3 ∈ L(6O). It follows that thereis a relation

ay2 + a1xy + a3y = bx3 + a2x2 + a4x+ a6, a1, · · · , . . . , a6, a, b ∈ k.

Note that ab 6= 0, otherwise every term would have a different pole order at O and soall the coefficients would vanish. Multiplying x, y with some constants and dividing thewhole equation with another constant, we get the desired equation. The map induced byx and y is the desired map (check the details).

If char(k) 6= 2, 3 we make the change of variables x′ = x, y′ = y− a1x2 and we eliminate

xy term. A change of variables x′ = x− a23 , y

′ = y − a32 will eliminate x2 and y terms.

Exercise 2.8. Write the following elliptic curves in the Weierstrass form:

y2 = x4 − 1, O = [0; 1; 0]

x3 + y3 = 1, O = [0; 1; 1]

2.8.1 Moduli of elliptic curves

Now we can state what is the moduli of elliptic curves.

Proposition 2.3. Assume that char(k) 6= 2, 3. Two elliptic curves Et2,t3 and Et′2,t′3 areisomorphic if and only if there exists λ ∈ k, λ 6= 0 such that

t′2 = λ4t2, t′3 = λ6t3

The isomorphism is given by

(x, y) 7→ (λ2x, λ3y).

2.8. WEIERSTRASS FORM REVISED 19

Proof. Let (x, y) and (x′, y′) be two sets of Weierstrass coordinate functions on an ellipticcurve Et2,t3 . It follows that {1, x} and {1, x′} are both bases of L(2O), and similarly{1, x, y} and {1, x′, y′} are both bases for L(3O). Writing x′, y′ in terms of x, y andsubstituting in the equation of Et′2,t′3 we get the first affirmation of the proposition. Thesecond affirmation is easy to check.

Combining Proposition 2.2 and Proposition 2.3 we conclude that the moduli space ofelliptic curves over a field of characteristic 6= 2, 3 is

M1(k) :=(A2(k)− {(t2, t3) | 4t32 + 27t23 = 0}

)/ ∼

where(t2, t3) ∼ (t′2, t

′3) if and only if ∃λ ∈ k, λ 6= 0, (t′2, t

′3) = (λ4t2, λ

6t3).

If k is algebraically closed then this is the set of k-rational points of the weighted projectivespace P2,3(k) mines a point induced in P2,3 by ∆ = 0. In this case the j-invariant of ellipticcurves

j :M1(k)→ A(k), j[t2; t3] =1728 · 4t324t32 + 27t23

is an isomorphism and so the moduli of elliptic curves over k is A1(k). However, note thatif k is not algebraically closed then j has non-trivial fibers. For instance, all the ellipticcurves

y2 = x3 − t3, t3 ∈ Q

are isomorphic over Q but not over Q.If j0 6= 0, 1728 consider the elliptic curve:

Ej0 : y2 + xy = x3 − 36

j0 − 1728x− 1

j0 − 1728.

It satisfies j(E) = j0.

Chapter 3

Congruent numbers

3.1 Congruent numbers

A natural number n is said to be congruent if it is the area of a right triangle whose sideshave rational length. In other words we are looking for the Diophantine equation:

Cn : x2 + y2 = z2, n =1

2xy

in Q, where x, y and z are the sides of the triangle. Consider the affine curve Cn/Q in A3

defined by the above equations. It intersects the projective space at infinity in 4 points:

[x; y; z;w] = [0;±1; 1; 0], [±1; 0; 1; 0].

Let

C : y2 = x4 − n2, En : y2 = x3 − n2x.

We have morphisms

Cn → C, (x, y, z) 7→ (z

2,x2 − y2

4)

and

C → En, (x, y) 7→ (x2, xy)

defined over Q.

Proposition 3.1. A necessary and sufficient condition for the point (x, y) ∈ En(Q) be inthe image of Cn(Q)→ En(Q) is that

1. x to be a square and that

2. its denominator be divisible by two

3. and its numerator has no common factor with n.

The proof is simple and is left to the reader (see [10]).

Exercise 3.1. Let Cn be the projectivization of Cn in P3. Is Cn smooth? If yes determineits genus.

Exercise 3.2. Ex. 1,2,3,4 of Koblitz, page 5.

21

22 CHAPTER 3. CONGRUENT NUMBERS

3.2 Finite fields

A finite field, as its name indicates, is a field with finite cardinality. By definition of afield and finiteness property, the characteristic of a finite field is a prime number p > 1.Finite fields are completely classified as follows:

1. The order of a finite field of characteristic p is pn for some n ∈ N.

2. There is a unique (up to isomorphism of fields) finite field with pn, n ∈ N elements.

3. For a prime number the finite field with cardinality p is simply the quotient

Fp :=ZpZ.

4. For q = pn, n ∈ N the finite field with cardinality pn is denoted by Fq. It is thespliting field of the polynomial xq − x over Fp.

5. Every finite integral domain is a field and in particular

6. Let f(T ) be a monic irreducible polynomial of degree n in Fp[T ]. Then the quotientFq[T ]/〈f〉 is a finite field with pn elements.

7. Let f(x, y) ∈ Fp[x, y] be a polynomial and I be a non zero prime ideal of R :=Fp[x, y]/〈f〉. Then the quotient R/I is a finite field.

For more on finite fields the reader is referred to [7].

3.3 Elliptic curves over finite fields

In this section we want to analyze the torsion points of

En : y2 = x3 − n2x

By definition of the group structure of En we know that

O, (0, 0), (0,±n)

are 2-torsions of En. Following the lines of [10] p. 44 Proposition 4, we want to prove:

Proposition 3.2. We have

En(Q)tors = {O, (0, 0), (0,±n)}

and so #En(Q)tors = 4.

Proof. Let us first give the strategy of the proof. Let E/Q be an a elliptic curve in theWeierstrass form and let p > 2 be a prime number which does not divide the discriminantof E. By a linear change of variable (x, y) 7→ (a2x, a3y) we can assume that the ingredientcoefficients of E are in Z. Let E/Fp be the elliptic curve obtained from E by consideringthe coefficients of E modulo p. The main ingredient of the proof is the reduction map

E(Q)→ E(Fp),

3.3. ELLIPTIC CURVES OVER FINITE FIELDS 23

which is a group homomorphism. Note that by our assumption on p, E/Fp is not singular.This is an injection of E(Q)tors inside E(Fp) for all but finitely many p and so for suchprimes m := #E(Q)tors divides #E(Fp). In fact, we have not yet proved that E(Q)torsis finite (a corollary of Mordell-Weil theorem). Therefore, we take a finite subgroup Gof #E(Q)tors and prove that the reduction map restricted to G is an injection and som := #G divides #E(Fp). From another side, we prove that for E = En:

(3.1) #En(Fp) = p+ 1, ∀p prime p ≡ −1 mod 4

Therefore, for all but finitely many primes p ≡ −1 mod 4 we have p ≡ −1 mod m. Thisimplies that m = 4. Therefore, every finite subgroup of E(Q)tors is of order 4. Since allthe elements of E(Q)tors are torsion, we conclude that #En(Q)tors = 4.

Now let us prove that the reduction map induces an injection in a finite subgroup Gof E(Q)tors . Two points P = [x; y; z], Q = [x′; y′; z′] ∈ E(Q) are the same after reductionif and only if

(3.2) xy′ − x′y, xz′ − x′z, yz′ − y′z

are zero modulo p. For all pairs P,Q in G, the number of numbers (3.2) is finite and sothere are finitely many primes dividing at least one of them. For all other primes p, wehave the injection of G in E(Fp) by the reduction map. The proof of (3.1) is done in thenext proposition.

Proposition 3.3. Let q = pf , p 6 |2n. Suppose that q ≡ −1 mod 4. Then there are q + 1Fq points on the elliptic curve En : y2 = x3 − n2x.

Proof. Consider the mapf : Fq → Fq, f(x) = x3 − n2x

f is an odd function, i.e. f(−x) = −f(x), and −1 is not in its image (this follows fromthe hypothesis on p). It follows that the index of the multiplicative group F2

q − {0} inFq − {0} is two and so for all x ∈ Fq − {0} exactly one of x or −x is square and sofor all x ∈ Fq − {0, n,−n} exactly one of f(x) or f(−x) is square. Each such a pair(x, y), y = f(x) gives us two points (x, y), (x,−y) ∈ En(Fq) and so in total we have3 + 2 q−1

2 points in En(Fq).

Proposition 3.4. The natural number n is congruent if and only if En(Q) has non-zerorank.

Proof. If n is a congruent number then by Proposition 3.1, En has Q-rational point withx-coordinate in (Q+)2. The x coordinates of 2-torsion points in the affine chart x, y are0,±n. The fact that n is square free and Proposition 3.2 implies that such a rational pointis of infinite order.

Conversely, suppose that P is a rational point of infinite order in En. Then by Exercise3.3, the One can

Exercise 3.3. ([10], p. 35, Ex. 2c) If P is a point not of order 2 in En(Q), thenthe x-coordinate of 2P is a square of rational number having an even denominator. ByProposition 3.1, 2P comes from a point in Cn(Q) and hence n is a congruent number.

Exercise 3.4. ([10], p. 49-50) Ex. 4,5,6, 7,9.

24 CHAPTER 3. CONGRUENT NUMBERS

Chapter 4

Mordell-Weil theorem

4.1 Mordell-Weil Theorem

We have seen that for an elliptic curve over Q the set E(Q) is an abelian group and so

E(Q)/E(Q)tors

where

E(Q)tors := {x ∈ E(Q) | nx = 0, for some n ∈ N},

is a freely generated Z-module.

Theorem 4.1. For an elliptic curve E over a number field k the group E(k) of k-rationalpoints is finitely generated abelian group.

The above theorem for k = Q was proved by Mordell. Its generalization for an arbitrarynumber field was proved by Andre Weil and it is known as the Mordell-Weil theorem. Forthe proof see [11, 6].

Let us take k = Q. The above theorem implies that the set of torsion points E(Q)torsof E(Q) is finite and there is a number r ∈ N such that

E(Q) ∼= Zr ⊕ E(Q)tors.

The non-negative integer r is called the rank of E(Q).

4.2 Zeta functions of elliptic curves over finite fields

Let V be an affine or projective variety defined over Fq. The zeta function of V is definedto be the formal power series in T :

Z(V, T ) = exp(

∞∑r=1

#V (Fqr)r

T r)

Theorem 4.2. Let E be an elliptic curve defined over Fp. Then

(4.1) Z(E, T ) =1 + 2aET + pT 2

(1− T )(1− pT ).

25

26 CHAPTER 4. MORDELL-WEIL THEOREM

where aE is an integer depending only on E. Moreover, the Riemann hypothesis holds forE, i.e. the only zeros of

ζ(C, s) := Z(E, q−s)

are in the line <(s) = 12 .

Let1− 2aET + qT 2 = (1− αT )(1− βT )

and so

(4.2) α+ β = 2aE , αβ = q

Note that α and β are algebraic integers:

α, β = aE ±√a2E − q.

We take the logarithmic derivative of both sides of (4.1) and one easily finds the equalities

#E(Fpr) = pr + 1− αr − βr, r = 1, 2, 3, . . .

For r = 1 we obtain#E(Fp) = p+ 1− 2aE

We conclude that for elliptic curves over a finite field Fq the number of Fq-rational pointsdetermine the number of Fqr -rational points.

Concerning the Riemann hypothesis, we note that it is equivalent to the inequality:

(4.3) |#E(Fp)− p− 1| < 2√p.

The Riemann hypothesis holds if and only if |α| = |β| = p12 . If these equalities happen

then|#E(Fp)− p− 1| = |2aE | = |α+ β| < 2

√p.

(the equality cannot occur because p is prime). Conversely, if (4.3) happens then a2E−p < 0

and so the roots of the polynomial 1− 2aET + qT 2 are complex conjugate, β = α and so|α| = |β| = p

12 .

The general reuslt as in (4.1) was conjectured by Andre Weil [27] and was proved byP. Deligne (see for instance [9] for an exposition of Deligne results).

Let us now state the result for the elliptic curve En related to the congruent numbers.The Legendre symbol is defined for integers a and positive odd primes p by

(a

p

)=

0 if p divides a1 for some x ∈ Z, a ≡ x2 mod p−1 otherwise

Proposition 4.1. In the zeta function of En : y2 = x3 − n2x defined over Fp, p a primep 6 |2n, we have:

α =

{i√p if p ≡ 3( mod 4) in this case aEn = 0

2k +(np

)+ 2ki if p ≡ 1( mod 4) in this case aEn = 2k +

(np

)In the second case k is determined by the fact that αα = p

4.3. NAGELL-LUTZ THEOREM 27

Exercise 4.1. ([17], Ex. 19.12) Let E be the elliptic curve

E : y2 = x3 − 4x2 + 16

Consider also the formal power series given by

F (q) = q∞∏n=1

(1− qn)2(1− q11n)2 = q − 2q2 − q3 + 2q4 + · · ·

1. Compute Np = #E(Fp) for all primes 3 ≤ p ≤ 13.

2. Calculate the coefficient of Mn of qn in F (q) for n ≤ 13.

3. Compute the sum Mp +Np for p prime p ≤ 13.

4. Formulate a conjecture on the sum Mp + np. Can you prove it?.

4.3 Nagell-Lutz Theorem

In this section we state Nagell-Lutz theorem which gives a finite set of of possibilities fora torsion point of an elliptic curve.

Theorem 4.3. (Nagell-Lutz Theorem) Let E be an elliptic curve with the Weierstrassequation:

y2 = x3 + t2x+ t3, t2, t3 ∈ Z,∆ := 4t32 + 27t23 6= 0.

Then for all non-zero torsion points P = (a, b) ∈ E(Q) we have:

1. The coordinates of P are in Z, i.e. a, b ∈ Z.

2. If P is of order greater than 2, then b2 divides ∆.

3. If P is of order 2 then b = 0 and a3 + t2a+ t3 = 0.

A proof can be found in [24], p. 221 or in [25] p.56.

Exercise 4.2. [17], Exercise 8.11. For four of the following elliptic curves compute thetorsion subgroup.

y2 = x3 + 2, · · ·

See the reference above for the list of elliptic curves.

28 CHAPTER 4. MORDELL-WEIL THEOREM

Chapter 5

Mazur theorem

5.1 Mazur theorem

Theorem 5.1. (Mazur, [14, 15]) Let E be an elliptic curve over Q. Then the torsionsubgroup E(Q)tors is one of the following fifteen groups:

Z/NZ, 1 ≤ N ≤ 10, or N = 12

Z/2Z× Z/2NZ, 1 ≤ N ≤ 4

Note that the above theorem implies that for an elliptic curve over Q we have always:

#(E(Q)tors) ≤ 16.

It is natural to conjecture that: If E is an elliptic curve over a number field k, the order ofthe torsion subgroup of E(k) is bounded by a constant which depends only on the degreeof k over Q. This is known uniform boundedness conjecture (UBC). It is proved by S.Kamienny in [8] for all quadratic fields and by L. Merel in [16] for all number fields.

For the proof of all the statements above one needs the notion of modular curves X0(N)and modular forms which will be introduced in the forthcoming chapters.

5.2 One dimensional algebraic groups

We follow [17] p. 23. When elliptic curves degenerate we find the following algebraicgroups:

1. The additive group Ga := (A1(k),+).

2. The multiplicative group Gm := (A(k), ·).

3. Twisted multiplicative group Gm[a].

Exercise 5.1.

Gm[a] ∼= Gm[ac2], a, c ∈ k− 0,

Exercise 5.2.

Gm[a](Fq) = q + 1.

29

30 CHAPTER 5. MAZUR THEOREM

By Bezout theorem a cubic curve E in P2 has a unique singular point (if there are twosingularities then the line connecting that points meets the curve in 4 points counted withmultiplicities). The singular point is defined over k because it is fixed under the action ofthe Galois group Gal(k/k). Let S be the singular point of of E and

Ens(k) := E(k)\{S}.

The same definition of group law for elliptic curves applies for Ens and it turns out thatEns as a group and:

Exercise 5.3. If the elliptic curve E is given by the Weierstrass form

y2 = x3 + t4x+ t6, t2, t3 ∈ k,∆ = 2(4t34 + 27t26) = 0.

then Ens is isomorphic to the three one dimensional group described above:

Ens(k) ∼= Gm(k) or Gm[c](k), or Ga(k)

mentioned in the lectures. Does we need char(k) 6= 2, 3?

Exercise 5.4. For char(k) = 3 (resp. char(k) = 2) we have to consider the case (1.4)(resp. (1.2)). Discuss the reduction modulo 2 and 3 in such cases.

5.3 Reduction of elliptic curves

We take an elliptic curve in the Weierstrass form

y2 = x3 + t4x+ t6, t2, t3 ∈ Q,∆ := 2(4t34 + 27t26) 6= 0.

and by change of coordinates (x, y) 7→ (c2x, c3y), c ∈ Q we assume that |∆| is minimal.For p prime different from 2 and 3 we have the curve E/Fp and the reduction map

E(Q)→ E(Fp).

1. Good reduction. If p does not divide ∆ then E/Fp is an elliptic curve.

2. Cuspidal reduction/additive reduction. The reduced curve E/Fp has a cusp as asingularity and so its non-singular part is an additive group. If char(k) 6= 2, 3 thiscase happens if and only if p | ∆, and p | 2t4t6.

3. Nodal reduction/split multiplicative. The reduced curve Ens/Fp is a multiplicativegroup.

4. Nodal reduction/nonsplit multiplicative. The reduced curve Ens/Fp is a twistedmultiplicative group.

Exercise 5.5. Reduction moulo 3 of the above elliptic curve in Weierstrass form is singularif and only if t4 = 0. In the singular case it is always a cusp. In reduction modulo 2 theelliptic curve E/F2 is always singular and its singular point is S = (t4, t6). Find the fourgroups Ens(F2) corresponding to the four choice of (t4, t6).

Exercise 5.6. Let E/Q : y2 + y = x3 − x2 + 2x − 2. Show that 1. the primes of badreduction for E are p = 5 and 7. 2. The reduction at p = 5 is additive, while the reductionat p = 7 is multiplicative. 3. NE/Q = 175.

5.4. ZETA FUNCTIONS OF CURVES OVER Q 31

5.4 Zeta functions of curves over Q

We follow [17] p. 102. The non-complete zeta function of a smooth curve E : f(x, y) =0, f ∈ Z[x, y] is defined to be

ζS(E, s) =∏p 6∈S

ζ(E/Fp, s).

where S is a finite number of prime numbers such that E/Fp is singular.

Exercise 5.7. Can you justify the definition of the zeta function of a variety over Q byinterpreting it as a Euler product, the one similar to (8.11).

In the case of elliptic curves it is natural to define

LS(E, s) :=∏p 6∈S

1

1 + (#(E(Fp))− p− 1)ps + p1−2s

and so we have

ζS(E, s) =ζS(s)ζS(s− 1)

LS(E, s)

Proposition 5.1. The product ζS(E, s) and hence LS(E, s) converges for <(s) > 32

Proof. It is direct consequence of the Riemann hypothesis for elliptic curves over finitefields and the convergence of the Riemann zeta function(see [17] p.102).

We we want to define the complete L function by adding bad prime numbers p ∈ S.We define

Lp(T ) =

1 + (#(E(Fp))− p− 1)T + pT 2 p good1− T modulo p we have split multiplicative reduction1 + T modulo p we have non-split multiplicative reduction1 modulo p we have additive reduction

We have defined this in such a way that

Lp(p−1) =

#Ens(Fp)p

Now we define the L-function of an elliptic curve E over Q:

L(E, s) =∏p

1

Lp(p−s).

5.5 Hasse-Weil conjecture

The conductor of an elliptic curve over Q is defined to be

NE/Q =∏p bad

pfp

where fp = 1 if E has multiplicative reduction at p, fp = 2 if p 6 |2, 3 and E has additivereduction at p. For the case in which we have additive reduction modulo p = 2, 3 we havefp ≥ 2, fp ∈ N and fp depends on wild ramification in the action of the inertia group atof Gal(Q/Q) on the Tate module of E.


Exercise 5.8. Discuss the case p = 2, 3 in the above definition. [17] is also talking about aformula of Ogg fp = ordp∆+1−mp using Neron models. Can you obtain some informationon this.

DefineΛ(E, s) := N

s2

E/Q(2π)−sΓ(s)L(E, s)

Theorem 5.2. (Hasse-Weil conjecture for elliptic curves) The function Λ(E, s) can beanalytically continued to a meromorphic function on the whole C and it satisfies the func-tional equation

Λ(E, s) = ±Λ(E, 2− s).

This theorem was first proved for CM elliptic curves by Deuring 1951/1952. It isproved in its generality by the works of Eichler and Shimura, Wiles, Taylor, Diamond andothers.

5.6 Birch Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture

For the functional equation of L the value s = 1 is in the middle, i.e. it is the fixed pointof s 7→ 2− s.

Conjecture 5.1. (BSD conjecture) For an elliptic curve E over Q, the function L(E, s)is holomorphic at s = 1 and its order of vanishing at s = 1 is the rank of the elliptic curveE.

A weak form of this conjecture is not also proved:

Conjecture 5.2. (weak BSD conjecture) L(E, 1) = 0 if and only if E has infinitely manyrational points.

For papers on BSD conjecture see [4, 1, 2, 26, 12] [23], [18].

5.7 Congruent numbers

The bad prime numbers for the elliptic curve En : y2 = x3 − nx are those which divide2n. For p | 2n, p 6= 2 or p = 2, 2|n we have an additive reduction. For p = 2 and p 6 |nwe have apparently a multiplicative reduction: y2 = x3 + x. The singular point in thiscase is S = (1, 0) and Ens(F2) = {O, (0, 0)} which is isomorphic to (A(F2),+) and so it isadditive.

The conductor of En is:

NEn/Q =

{24n2 if n is even25n2 if n is odd

In Theorem 5.2 the root number ± is determined in the following way:{+1 if n ≡ 1, 2, 3 (8)−1 if n ≡ 5, 6, 7 (8)

Reformulating Proposition 4.1 and using Exercise 8.8 we have:

(1− T )(1− pT )Z(En/Fp, T ) =∏p|〈p〉

(1− (αpT )deg(p))

5.8. P -ADIC NUMBERS 33

where

αp =

i√p if p = 〈p〉

a+ ib if p splits, where a+ ib is the unique generator of pwhich is congruent to (np ) mod 2 + 2i.

0 p | 2n

The L function of En is

L(En, s) =∏

p⊂Z[i] prime

(1− (αp)deg(p)(Np)−s)−1

Now Z[i] is a Dedekind domain and so we can define a unique map χ from the ideals of

Z[i] to C such that χn(p) = αdeg(p)p . Therefore

L(En, s) =∏

p⊂Z[i] prime

(1− χ(p)(Np)−s)−1 =∑a⊂Z[i]

χn(a)(Na)−s

where the sum is taken over all non-zero ideals.

5.8 p-adic numbers

By definition a p-adic integer is an element in the inverse limit of

· · · → Z/p3Z→ Z/p2Z→ Z/pZ.

One can show that a p-adic integer is identified with a formal series

a1p+ a2p2 + a3p

3 + · · · , ai ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , p− 1}.

The set of p-adic integers is denoted by Zp:

Zp := lim∞←n

Z/Zpn.

Zp is a ring without zero divisor, i.e. if ab = 0, a, b ∈ Zp then either a = 0 or b = 0. Thefield Qp of p-adic numbers is the quotient field of Zp. The ring Z of integers is a subringof Zp in a natural way and so Qp is a field extension of Q, Q ⊂ Qp.

Exercise 5.9. Show that the Diphantine equation x3 + y3 − 3 = 0 has not a solution inQ3 and hence it has not a solution in Q.

There is another way to define p-adic numbers. Any non-zero rational number a canbe expressed in the form a = pr mn with m,n ∈ Z and not divisable by p. We define

ordp(a) := r, |a|p :=1

pr, |0|p := 0

We have

1.

|a|p = 0 if and only if a = 0


2.|ab|p = |a|p|b|p, a, b ∈ Q.

3.|a+ b|p ≤ max{|a|p, |b|p} and so ≤ |a|p + |b|p

Therefore,dp(a, b) := |a− b|p

is a metric on Q. The field Qp of p-adic numbers is the completion of Q with respect todp. We have a cononical matric, call it again dp, on Qp which extends the previous oneon Q ⊂ Qp (this inclusion is given by sending a ∈ Q to the constant Cauchy sequencea, a, . . .). The same construction with the usual norm of Q, i.e. d(a, b) = |a− b| yields tothe field of real numbers R.

Exercise 5.10. Prove that the two definitions of Qp presented above are equivalent. Provealso

Zp = {a ∈ Qp | |a|p ≤ 1} = the closure of Z in Qp

Chapter 6

Modular forms

The objective of this chapter is to introduce modular forms and their relations with ellipticcurves.

6.1 Elliptic integrals

We follow partially [24] Chapter VI §1.

Let us take t2, t3 ∈ C in such a way that the polynomial f(x) := 4x3 − t2x − t3 hasthree distinct roots. In other words 27t32− t23 6= 0. During the history the mathematiciansunderstood that the elliptic integral∫

I

dx√4x3 − t2x− t3

,

where I is a path connecting two roots of f , for generic numbers t2, t3 is a new integraland cannot be calculated by previusly known numbers. For simplicity one can take t2 andt3 real numbers in such a way that f has three real roots. Then one can take I the intervalbetween two roots of f . One can write them, up to ±1, in a modern way as∫

δ

dx

y, δ ∈ H1(Et,Z)

where Et : y2 = 4x3 − t2x− t3 is an elliptic curve (see the introduction of [19]).

Exercise 6.1. Justify the topological cycle δ ∈ H1(Et,Z) described in the course.

Exercise 6.2. By algebraic geometric methods show that dxy restricted to Et has no poles

even at infinity.

6.2 Weierstrass uniformization theorem

We follow partially [24] Chapter VI §3. A lattice Λ in C is a Z-submodule of Z generatedby two R-linear independent elements ω1 and ω2 in C. Without loss of generality we canassume that =(ω1

ω2) > 0. For a lattice Λ ⊂ C the Weierstrass ℘-function is

℘(z,Λ) =1

z2+

∑ω∈Λ, ω 6=0

(1

(z − ω)2− 1

ω2)

35

36 CHAPTER 6. MODULAR FORMS

and the Eisenstein series of weight 2k are

G2k(Λ) =∑

ω∈Λ, ω 6=0

1

ω2k

Proposition 6.1. Let Λ ⊂ C be a lattice. The Eenstein series G2k is absolutely convergentfor all k > 1. The Weierstrass ℘-function converges absolutely and uniformely on everycompact subset of C− Λ.

Proof. See Theorem 3.1 of [24].

Exercise 6.3. Show that∑

ω∈Λ, ω 6=01

(z−ω)2 does not converge.

Let L be the space of lattices Λ = Zω1 + Zω2 ⊂ C.

Exercise 6.4. Show that L has a natural structure of a complex manifold. More precisely,show that L can be obtained by a quotient of a complex manifold by SL(2,Z).

Theorem 6.1. (Weierstrass uniformization theorem) Let

Et : y2 = 4x3 − t2x− t3, t32 − 27t23 6= 0.

The map given by

p : C2\{t32 − 27t23 = 0} → L

(t2, t3) 7→∫H1(Et,Z)

dx

y

is well-defined and it is a biholomorphism which satisfies

p(t2λ−4, t3λ

−6) = λp(t2, t3).

Its inverse is given by the Eisenstein series:

Λ→ (g2(Λ), g3(Λ))

where

g2 := 60G4, g3 = −140G6

Moreover, for a fixed t2, t3 the Abel map given by

Et → C/Λ, a 7→∫ ∞a

dx

y

is a biholomorphism and homomorphism of groups and its inverse is given by

z 7→ [℘(z,Λ);℘′(z,Λ); 1],

where Λ = p(t).

Exercise 6.5. Ex. 6.2, 6.4,6.6,6.7,6.14 of [24].

6.3. POINCARE METRIC 37

6.3 Poincare metric

In the upper half plane H one usually use the Poincare metric:

ds =dx⊗ dx+ dy ⊗ dy

y= =(ω), ω :=

dz ⊗ dz=(z)

ω is called the Hermitian form.

Exercise 6.6. The Poincare metric is invariant under the action of SL(2,R). Hint: Showthat

d(Az)⊗ d(Az)

=(Az)=dz ⊗ dz=(z)

The volume form of the Poincare metric is given by the imaginary part of ω:

dV = =(ω) =−dx⊗ dy + dy ⊗ dx

y=dx ∧ dy

y=

1

−2i

dz ∧ dz=(z)

We use the Poincare metric to prove the convergency of Eisenstein series.

6.4 Picard-Lefschetz theory

We consider again the familly of elliptic curves

Et : y2 = 4x3 − t2x− t3, t32 − 27t23 6= 0.

Let us putT := C2 − {(t2, t3) ∈ C2 | t32 − 27t23 = 0}

By Ehresmann’s theorem the fibration Et, t ∈ T is a C∞ bundle over T , i.e. it is locallytrivial. This is the basic stone for the Picard-Lefschetz theory (see for instance [?] andthe references there). It gives us the following linear action:

π1(T, b)×H1(Eb,Z)→ H1(Eb,Z)

where b ∈ T is a fixed point In order to calculate it we proceed as follows: First we choosetwo cycles δ1, δ2 ∈ H1(Eb,Z). For the fixed parameter t2 6= 0, define the function f in thefollowing way:

f : C2 → C, (x, y) 7→ −y2 + 4x3 − t2x.

The function f has two critical values given by t3, t3 = ±√

t3227 . In a regular fiber Et =

f−1(t3) of f one can take two cycles δ1 and δ2 such that 〈δ1, δ2〉 = 1 and δ1 (resp. δ2)vanishes along a straight line connecting t3 to t3 (resp. t3). The corresponding anti-clockwise monodromy around the critical value t3 (resp t3) can be computed using thePicard-Lefschetz formula:

δ1 7→ δ1, δ2 7→ δ2 + δ1 ( resp. δ1 7→ δ1 − δ2, δ2 7→ δ2).

It is not hard to see that the canonical map π1(C\{t3, t3}, b)→ π1(T, t) induced by inclu-sion is an isomorphism of groups and so the image of the monodromy group written inthe basis δ1 and δ2 is:

〈A1, A2〉 = SL(2,Z), where A1 :=

(1 01 1

), A2 :=

(1 −10 1

).


Figure 6.1: Fundamental domain

Note that g1 := A−12 A−1

1 A−12 =

(0 1−1 0

), g2 := A−1

1 A−12 =

(1 1−1 0

)and SL(2,Z) =

〈g1, g2 | g21 = g3

2 = −I〉, where I is the identity 2× 2 matrix.

Exercise 6.7. Discuss the Picard-Lefschetz theory as above for the Legendre family ofelliptic curves:

y2 = x(x− 1)(x− λ)

6.5 Schwarz function

Let us take the Legendre family of elliptic curves and consider the Schwarz function

λ 7→∫δ1

dxy∫

δ2dxy

∈ H

It is multivalued beacuse of the choice of δ1, δ2. In order to get a one valued function werestrict λ to H and choose cycles δi, i = 1, 2 such that the projection of δ1 (resp. δ2)to the x-palne is a cycle around 0 (resp. 1 )and λ. In this way the Shwarz function is abiholomorphisim. Its analytic continuations around λ = 0, 1 corresponds to the Picard-Lefschetz transformation of δ1 and δ2.

Exercise 6.8. Show that the image of the Schwarz function is the region depicted in 6.11.The analytic continuations of the Schwarz map gives us the trianglization of H.

6.6 CM elliptic curves

Recall that L is a complex manifold whose points are lattices Λ = Zω1 +Zω2. In fact onecan reinterpret it as follows:

Exercise 6.9. L is the moduli of triples (E,ω, p), where E is a Riemann surface of genusone, p ∈ E, and ω is a holomorphic differential form on E. The canonical action of a ∈ C∗on L corresponds to the multiplication of ω with a−1.

1Reproduced from Wikipedia

6.7. FULL MODULAR FORMS 39

Definition 6.1. The endomorphisim group of an elliptic curve E = EΛ is the set of allholomorphic maps EΛ → EΛ which are in addition homomorphisims of groups. It is inone to one correspondance with

End(E) = {α ∈ C | αΛ ⊂ Λ}

We have Z ⊂ End(E) and we say that E is CM if the inclusion is strict.

Later, we will encounter two spcial CM elliptic curves as follows:

Exercise 6.10. Classify all elliptic curves E with α ∈ End(E) which is not multiplicationby ±1 and is an isomorphism. More precisely show that we have only two such ellipticcurve

E = E〈z,1〉, z = i,−1 + i

√3

2.

Exercise 6.11. Ex. 8,9,10,12 of Koblitz.

6.7 Full modular forms

Let us consider a point z ∈ H and the lattice 〈1, z〉 ⊂ C. The Eisenstein series restrictedto such a lattice gives us the following series

G2k(z) :=∑

(n,m)∈Z2−{(0,0)}

1

(nz +m)2k, k = 2, 3, . . .

which we call them again Eisenstein series. It is easy to show that G2k is a modular formof weight 2k for the group SL(2,Z):

Definition 6.2. A holomorphic function f : H→ C is called a modular form of weight kfor the group SL(2,Z) (full modular form of weight k) if

1. f has a finite growth at infinity, i.e.

(6.1) lim=z→∞

f(z) = a∞ ∈ C

2. f satisfies

(cz + d)−kf(az + b

cz + d) = f(z), ∀,

(a bc d

)∈ SL(2,Z), z ∈ H.

The group SL(2,R) acts on H in a canonical way:(a bc d

)z :=

az + b

cz + d,

(a bc d

)∈ SL(2,R), z ∈ H

The fundamental domain of the action of SL(2,Z) is depicted in Figure 6.1. It is useful todefine the slash operator on holomorphic functions f in H:

f |k(z) := (cz + d)−kf(az + b

cz + d),

(a bc d

)∈ SL(2,R), z ∈ H.

Exercise 6.12. Modular forms of weight k are in one to one correspondance with holo-morphic functions f on L such that

1. For all Λ ∈ L and a ∈ C∗, f(aΛ) = a−kf(Λ).

2. f(〈z, 1〉) has finite growth at infinity as in (6.1).


6.8 Fourier series

Since for a full modular form we have f(z + 1) = f(z) we can write the Laurant series off in e2πiz:

f(z) =

∞∑i=0

aiqi, q := e2πiz

This is called the Fourier series (q-expansion) of f .

Proposition 6.2. Let k > 2 be an even integer. The q-expansion of Gk is as follows:

Gk = 2ζ(k)(1− 2k

Bk

∞∑n=1

σk−1(n)qn), q := e2πiz

where the Bernoulli numbers Bk are defined by:

x

ex − 1=

∞∑k=1

Bkxk

k!= 1 +

−12

1!x+

16

2!x2 +

−130

4!x4 +

142

6!x6 +

132

8!x8 +

566

10!x10 + · · ·

and

σk−1(n) :=∑d|n

dk−1

Proof. [10], p. 110.

It is sometimes usefull to define the normalized Eisenstein series:

Ek =1

2

∑n,m∈Z, (n,m)=1

1

(nz +m)k= 1− 2k

Bk

∞∑n=1

σk−1(n)qn

6.9 The algebra of modular forms

Let us denote by Mk := Mk(SL(2,Z)) the vector space of full modular forms of weight k.The set

M = ⊕k∈ZMk

form a graded C-algebra.

Proposition 6.3. The C-algebra M is freely generated by the Eisenstein series Gk, k =4, 6.

Proof. The proposition follows from the Weierstrass uniformization theorem as follows:Let us consider the map

H→ C2, z 7→ p−1(〈z, 1〉)

It factores through H → D − {0}, z 7→ e2πiz and so using Proposition 6.2 we obtain theholomorphic map

α : D→ C2, α(q) = (60G4(q),−140G6(q)).

Moreover, we can check that α(0) is a regular point of ∆ = 0 and the image of α at α(0)is transeverse to ∆ = 0.

6.10. THE DISCRIMINANT 41

We consider a modular form as a holomorphic function on L as it is asked in Exercise6.12. Pulling back f by the period map p we get a holomorphic function g in T :=C2 − {∆ = 0} which satisfies

g(λ−4t2, λ−6t3) = λg(t2, t3)

and g restricted to the image of α is holomorphic in α(0). Conversely, a holomorphicfunction g in T with these properties corresponds to a modular form f . It follows that gis holomorphic in all points of ∆ = 0 and so it extends to a holomorphic function in C2.Writting the taylor series of f with homoheneous pieces in C[t2, t3], deg(t2) = 4, deg(t6) =6 we conclude that g is homogeneous polynomial of degree k in the mentioned ring.

6.10 The discriminant

Recall that

ζ(4) =π4

90, ζ(6) =

π6

945,

We define

∆ := t32 − 27t23 = g32 − 27g2

3 = (2ζ(4)60E4)3 − 27(2ζ(6)140)2E26 =

(2π)12

1728(E3

4 − E26)

and we have

(2π)−12∆ =1

1728(E3

4−E26) = (

∞∑n=1

τ(n)qn = q−24q2+252q3−1472q4+4830q5+· · · = q∞∏n=1

(1−qn)24

τ(n) is called the Ramanujan function of n.

Exercise 6.13. Exercise 4, p. 123 of Koblitz. The third part of the exercise says that

τ(n) ≡ σ11(n)( mod 691)

Also Ex. 3

6.11 The j function

We have

j = 1728t32

t32 − 27t23= 1728

E34

E34 − E2

6

=1

q+744+196884q+21493760q2 +864299970q3 + · · ·

There is so called Monstrous Moonshine conjecture, proved by Brocherd, relating the co-efficients of the q-expansion of j with the minimal dimensions needed to represent monstergroups.


6.12 Hecke operators

So far, we have interpreted modular forms as functions in theree spaces: the Poicare upperhalf plan H, the space L of lattices and the affine space A2

C representing the parameterst2 and t3. In this section for each natural number n we want to define the Hecke operator

Tn : Mk → Mk

which is a linear map. It is given by one of the following equivalent definitions:

1. For f : H→ C a modular form of weight k we have

Tn(f) =

s∑i=1

f |kAi,

where {[A1], [A2], · · · [As]} = SL(2,Z)/Matn(2,Z).

2. For f : L → C a modular form of weight k we have

Tn(f)(Λ) =∑Λ′

f(Λ′),

where Λ′ runs through all sublattices Λ′ ⊂ Λ of index n. This means that #(Λ/Λ′) =n.

3. For f a homogeneous polynomial of degree k in C[tt, t3], deg(t2) = 4, deg(t3) = 6we have

Tn(f)(t2, t3) =∑t′

f(t′),

where t′ = (t′2, t′3) runs through all parameters for which there is an isogeny α :

Et′ → Et such that α∗(dxy ) = dxy and deg(α) = n.

Exercise 6.14. Prove the equivalence of the above definitions.

Exercise 6.15. Prove that each equivalence class in SL(2,Z)/Matn(2,Z) is representedexactly by one of the matrices (

d b0 n

d

), d|n, 0 ≤ b < n

d.

Exercise 6.16. Can you show by algebraic geometric methods that for fixed t ∈ C2\{∆ =0} the set of parameters t′ with

α : Et′ → Et, α∗dx

y=dx

y, deg(α) = n

is finite.

Let A be an element in the group generated by GL+(2,R) and {(λ 00 λ

)| λ ∈ C∗} ∼= C∗.

Let also ω =

(ω1

ω2

)∈ P. Then

Aω ∈ P.

6.12. HECKE OPERATORS 43

Using the map p in Weierstrass uniformization theorem, we can translate the above processto the (t2, t3)-space. Namely, for each t ∈ C2 − {∆ = 0} and a basis of the homologyδ1, δ2 ∈ H1(Et,Z) with 〈δ1, δ2〉 = 1 and A as above we have a local holomorphic mapt 7→ α(t). If we choose another basis of H1(Et,Z) obtained by the previous one by anelement B ∈ SL(2,Z), then we have a new period matrix ABω. This is equal to Aω in Lif and only if

ABA−1 ∈ SL(2,Z).

We conclude that if we choose representatives for the quotient

(A · SL(2,Z) ·A−1 ∩ SL(2,Z))\(A · SL(2,Z) ·A−1) = {[Ai] | i = 1, 2, . . . , s}

then to each Ai we have associated a local map αi(t).

Exercise 6.17. Let Ai = ASiA−1, Si ∈ SL(2,Z). Show that

SL(2,Z)/Matn(2,Z) = {[ASi] | i = 1, 2, . . . , s}

and vice-versa.

Exercise 6.18. For two natural numbers n.m and Hecke operators Tn, Tm ∈ Mk → Mk

prove that

Tn ◦ Tm =∑

d|(n,m)

dk−1Tnmd2.

The above formula is summarized in the following formal equality:

∞∑n=1

Tnn−s =

∏p

(1− Tpp−s + pk−1−2s)−1

Let f be a modular form with the Fourier expansion:

f(z) =∞∑n=0

anqn, q = e2iπz.

For m ∈ N, we have Tmf(z) =∞∑n=0

bnqn, where

bn =∑

d| gcd(m,n)

dk−1amn/d2 .

Exercise 6.19. Let n ∈ N. Are there polynomials pn,i(t2, t3), i = 2, 3 such that pn :=(pn,2, pn,3) leaves ∆ = 0 invariant and

Tn(f)(t) = f(p−1n (t)), f ∈ Mk,

where f(X) =∑

x∈X f(x).


6.13 Groups

We have seen that SL(2,Z) appears as the monodromy group of the Weierstrass famillyof elliptic curves. In this section we work with subgroups of SL(2,Z). Let N be a positiveinteger number. Define

Γ(N) := {A ∈ SL(2,Z) | A ≡(

1 00 1

)( mod N)}

It is the kernel of the canonical homomorphism of groups SL(2,Z) → SL(2,Z/NZ). Asubgroup Γ ⊂ SL(2,Z) is called a congruence subgroup of level N if it contains Γ(N). Ourmain examples are

Γ1(N) := {A ∈ SL(2,Z) | A ≡(∗ ∗0 ∗

)( mod N)}

Γ1(N) := {A ∈ SL(2,Z) | A ≡(

1 ∗0 1

)( mod N)}

Let Λ ⊂ C be a lattice. The N -torsion subgroup of the complex elliptic curve E = C/Λ is

E[N ] := {p ∈ E | np = 0} = (1

NΛ)/Λ.

andµN := {e

2πikN | k ∈ Z}.

The Weil pairingeN : E[N ]× E(N)→ µN

is defined as follows: let Λ = Zω1 + Zω2, =(ω1ω2

) > 0. For p, q ∈ E[N ] write(pq

)= A

(ω1Nω2N

), A ∈ SL(2,Z).

DefineeN (p, q) = e

2πi det(A)N

Exercise 6.20. Prove that the above definition is well-defined.

Proposition 6.4. Let

Y0(N) := Γ0(N)\H, Y1(N) := Γ1(N)\H, Y (N) := Γ(N)\H.

1. The set Y0(N) is the moduli space of pairs (E,C), where E is a complex ellipticcurve and C is a cyclic subgroup of E of order N .

2. The set Y1(N) is the moduli space of pairs (E, p), where E is a complex elliptic curveand p is a point of E of order N .

3. The set Y (N) is the moduli space of pairs (E, (p, q)), where E is a complex ellipticcurve and (p, q) is a pair of points of E that generates the N -torsion subgroup of E

with Weil pairing eN (p, q) = e2πiN .

The item 2 is proved in the lectures.

Exercise 6.21. Prove 1 and 3 above.

Chapter 7

Other topics

7.1 Some modular forms obtaind from Geometry

We take the family of elliptic curves

y2 − 4x3 + t2x+ t3 = 0

For any n ∈ N we can write xndxy as a linear combination of dx

y and xdxy . More precisely

xndx

y= pn(t)

dx

y+ qn(t)

xdx

y, pn, qn ∈ Q[t].

We have calculated some of pn and qn’s (see the latex file of this pdf file). We conjecturethat

Problem 7.1. pn and qn are homogeneous polynomials in t2, t3, deg(t2) = 2, deg(t3) = 3.Can you give an explicit Eisenstein series or Fourier series representing them.

Note that if we take the family y2− 4(x− t1)3 + t2(x− t1) + t3 = 0 and the differnetialform xndx

y then this is equivalent to take y2 − 4x3 + t2x+ t3 = 0 and (x+ t1)n dxy .

45

46 CHAPTER 7. OTHER TOPICS

Chapter 8

Riemann zeta function

In this chapter we introduce the Riemann zeta function. We will follow mainly the Rie-mann’s original article ([21]) and the book [5] which explain an historical account onRiemann’s paper. Euler considered the zeta function

ζ(s) :=∞∑n=1

1

ns

for real s and Riemann introduced ζ(s) for complex s and its extension as a meromorphicfunction to the whole s-plane. In particular, it was known before Riemann that

ζ(2) =π2

6, ζ(4) =

π4

90, ζ(6) =

π6

945, ζ(8) =

π8

9450

8.1 Riemann zeta function

In this section we are going to study the first of all Zeta function, namely Riemann zetafunction:

ζ(s) :=∞∑n=1

1

ns

We mainly use the Riemman’s original article [21].

Proposition 8.1. The series ζ(s) converges for all s ∈ C with <(s) > 1 and

ζ(s) =∏p

1

(1− p−s).

where p runs over all primes.

Proof. We have |n−s| = n<s and so it is enough to prove the proposition for s ∈ R, s > 1.We have

∞∑n=2

1

ns≤∫ ∞

1x−s =

x−s+1

−s+ 1|+∞1 =

1

s− 1if s > 1

Again we assume that s is a real number bigger than 1. We have p−s < 1 and so

(1− p−s) =

∞∑m=0

p−ms.

47

48 CHAPTER 8. RIEMANN ZETA FUNCTION

By unique factorization theorem∏p≤N

(1− p−s)−1 =∑n≤N

n−s +RN (s).

Clearly

RN (s) ≤∞∑

n=N+1

n−s.

Since ζ(s) converges we have RN (s)→ 0 as N →∞ and the result follows.

8.2 The big Oh notation

In this section for a ∈ R ∪ {±∞} we define the interval Ia to be a small one sidedneighborhood of a. If a ∈ R this means that Ia = (a, a+ ε) or = (a− ε, a) for some smallε and for a = +∞ this means Ia = (b,+∞) for a big positive number b and for a = −∞this means Ia = (−∞,−b) for a big positive number b.

Definition 8.1. Let f, g be two complex valued function in Ia we write

f = O(g) or f ∼x→a g

to say that f(x)g(x) is bounded near a, that is there exists a constant M such that

| f(x) |≤M | g(x) |, ∀x ∈ Ia.

For three complex valued functions f, g and h in Ia we write f(x) = h(x) + O(g(x)) iff(x)− h(x) = O(g(x)).

We mainly use the following convergence criterion: Let f be a complex valued contin-uous function in Ia, a ∈ R and

f ∼x→a (x− a)s, s ∈ R.

For a = ±∞ we assume f ∼x→a xs. We can extend this assumption to s = ±∞. Forinstance for a ∈ R the expression f ∼x→a (x− a)+∞ means

∀s ∈ R+, f ∼x→a (x− a)s

For a, s ∈ R the integral ∫Ia

f(x)dx

converges if s > −1. If a = ±∞, s ∈ R then the integral∫Iaf(x)dx converges if s < −1.

8.3 Gamma function

The gamma function is defined by

Γ(s) =

∫ ∞0

xs−1e−xdx, <(s) > 0

8.4. MELLIN TRANSFORM 49

It converges because near 0

xs−1e−x ∼x→0 x<(s)−1

and so for <(s) > 0 the integral near zero converges. Near infinity it is alway convergentbecause

xs−1e−x ∼x→+∞ x−n−1, ∀n ∈ N.

We have

(8.1) Γ(s) = (s− 1)Γ(s− 1)

because

Γ(s) = −∫ ∞

0xs−1de−x = · · · = (s− 1)Γ(s− 1)

Since Γ(1) = 1 this implies that

Γ(n) = (n− 1)!, n ∈ N

and so the Γ-function is the interpolation of the factoriel function.

The equalities

Γ(s) =Γ(s+ 1)

s= · · · = Γ(s+ n+ 1)

s(s+ 1) · · · (s+ n), n ∈ N

enables us to continue Γ analytically onto all of the complex s-palne with poles of simpleorder at s = 0,−1,−2, . . .. We have also Euler’s reflection formula

(8.2) Γ(1− s)Γ(s) =π

sin (πs)

which shows that Γ has not zeros. We have also the equality

Γ(s) Γ

(s+

1

2

)= 21−2s √π Γ(2s).

Remark 8.1. Gauss introduced the notation Π(s) = Γ(s+ 1) which is used in Riemann’soriginal article. The notation Γ is due to Legendre, see [5] p. 8.

8.4 Mellin transform

The content of this section is taken from Wikipedia. The Mellin transform of a functionf defined on R+ is ∫ ∞

0xsf(x)

dx

x.

If f(x) is locally integrable along the positive real line, and

f(x)x→0+ = O(xu) and f(x)x→+∞ = O(xv)

then its Mellin transform converges in the fundamental strip [−u,−v].

By definition the Γ function is the Mellin transform of e−x.


8.5 Analytic extension

From the definition of Γ-function it follows:

(8.3)Γ(s)

ns=

∫ ∞0

xs−1e−nxdx, <(s) > 1

Taking sum for n = 1, 2, . . . we obtain

Γ(s)ζ(s) =

∫ ∞0

xs−1dx

ex − 1, <(s) > 1.

One can see that near +∞ we have 1ex−1 = O(x−∞) and near 0 we have 1

ex−1 = O(x−1).Therefore, the convergence strip for the above integral is <(s) ∈ (1,+∞) (see the sectionon Mellin transform).

Now, we consider the integral

I(s) :=

∫ +∞

+∞

(−x)s

ex − 1

dx

x

Here, we have taken the branch of (−x)s = es ln(−x) in C\R+ such that ln(−x) for negativex is a real number. The path of integration begins at +∞, moves to the left up to thepositive axis, circles the origin once in the counterclockwise direction, and returns downto the positive real axis to +∞. Now the above integral is convergent for all s and it givesan entire function in s. A simple calculation show that it is equal to

I(s) = (eπis − e−πis)∫ ∞

0

xs

ex − 1

dx

x, <(s) > 1

In particular, this shows that I(s) vanishes in s = 2, 3, . . .. Therefore, we get

2i sin(πs)Γ(s)ζ(s) =

∫ +∞

+∞

(−x)s

ex − 1

dx

x

and by (8.2)

ζ(s) =Γ(1− s)

2πi

∫ +∞

+∞

(−x)s

ex − 1

dx

x

This equality shows that

1. ζ(s) extends to a meromorphic function on the s palne

2. it has a unique pole in s = 1. The point s = 1 is a simple pole of ζ.

3. It vanishs in s = −2,−4,−6, . . ..

The third item follows from the following: The Bernoulli numbers Bk are given by

x

ex − 1=

∞∑k=1

Bkxk

k!= 1 +

−12

1!x+

16

2!x2 +

−130

4!x4 +

142

6!x6 +

132

8!x8 +

566

10!x10 + · · ·

For s ∈ Z, s ≤ 0 we have

ζ(s) = −Γ(1− s)2πi

∫|x|=ε

(

∞∑m=0

(−1)s−1Bmxm+s−2

m!)dx = −Γ(1− s)(−1)s−1 B1−s

(1− s)!

8.6. FUNCTIONAL EQUATION 51

8.6 Functional equation

By Cauchy theorem for s with <(s) < 0 we get

2 sin(πs)Γ(s)ζ(s) = (2π)s((−i)s−1 + is−1)

∞∑n=1

ns−1

In other words the functionΓ(s

2)π−

s2 ζ(s)

remains invariant under s 7→ 1 − s. By analytic continuation this holds in the wholes-plane.

Exercise 8.1. Find the values of ζ for even positive integers:

ζ(2n) =(2π)2n(−1)n+1B2n

2 · (2n)!

8.7 Second proof for functional equation

In the equality (8.3) we make the change of variables n→ n2π and s→ s2 and we obtain:

Γ( s2)

nsπ−

12 =

∫ ∞0

xs2−1e−n

2πxdx, <(s) > 1

Define

ψ(x) :=∞∑n=1

e−n2πx

and so

(8.4) ζ(s)Γ(s

2)π−

12 =

∫ ∞0

xs2−1ψ(x)dx, <(s) > 1

Exercise 8.2. Prove that ψ converges and

(8.5) 1 + 2ψ(x) = x−12 (1 + 2ψ(

1

x).

Moreover, the above integral converges for <(s) > 1. We have the theta series

θ3(z) :=∞∑

n=−∞q

12n2, q = e2πiz, z ∈ H

which is related to ψ byθ3(z) = 1 + 2ψ(−iz).

Using (8.5) one can see that

(8.6) ζ(s)Γ(s

2)π−

12 =

∫ ∞1

(xs2 + x

1−s2 )ψ(x)

dx

x− 1

s(1− s), s ∈ C

for which the right hand side is convergent for all s ∈ C. We multiply the above equalityby s(s−1)

2 and define

ξ(s) := Γ(s

2+ 1)(s− 1)π−

s2 ζ(s)

which is an entire function and satisfies ξ(s) = ξ(1− s).


Exercise 8.3. From 8.4 we have

is2 ζ(s)Γ(

s

2)π−

12 =

∫ i∞

0zs2−1ψ(−iz)dz, <(s) > 1

In the above formula, use the Schwarz map of the family of elliptic curves y2−x3+3x−t = 0

and write ζ as an integral in the t-domain. For this you have to calculate ψ(

∫δ1

dxy∫

δ2

dxy

) as a

polynomial in elliptic integrals. In particulat, one may prove in this way that ζ(s) for sinteger is a period.

8.8 Zeta and primes

In this section we sketch the relation between primes and the zeros of ζ.

Theorem 8.1. The sum ∑ρ

(ln(1− s

ρ) + ln(1− s

1− ρ))

where ρ runs over all roots of ξ with =(ρ) > 0, converges absolutely. In particular,

ξ(s) = ξ(0)∏ρ

(1− s

ρ).

where the infinite product is taken in an order which pairs each root ρ with 1− ρ.

We have

(8.7) ln ζ(s) =∑p

∑n

1

np−ns = s

∫ ∞0

J(x)x−s−1dx, <(s) > 1

where

J(x) :=1

2(∑pn<x

1

n+∑pn≤x

1

n).

The order of summation in 8.7 is unimportant because it is absolutely convergent. Nowwe use the Fourier inversion

(8.8) J(x) =1

2πi

∫ a−i∞

a+i∞ln ζ(s)xs

ds

s, a > 1

we have also

(8.9) ln(ζ(s)) = ln(ξ(0)) +∑ρ

ln(1− s

ρ)− ln Γ(

s

2+ 1) +

s

2lnπ − ln(s− 1).

The direct substitution of 8.9 in (8.8) leads to divergent integrals. For this reason we write

(8.10) J(x) =1

2πi ln(x)

∫ a−i∞

a+i∞

d

ds(ln ζ(s)

s)xsds, a > 1

8.9. OTHER ZETA FUNCTIONS 53

Now the substitution of (8.9) gives us convergent integrals and a formula for J(x):

J(x) = Li(x)−∑=(ρ)>0

(Li(xρ) + ln(x1−ρ)) +

∫ ∞x

dt

t(t2 − 1) ln(t)+ ln(ξ(0)), x > 1,

where

Li(x) :=

∫ x

0

dt

ln(t).

Now we derive a formula forπ(x) =

∑p<x

1

using

π(x) =∞∑n=1

µ(n)

nJ(x

1n ),

where µ(n) is zero if n is divisable by a prime square, 1 if n is a product of an even numberof distinct primes, and −1 otherwise.

8.9 Other zeta functions

There are many generalizations of the Riemann Zeta function. One of them is alreadyused in §4.2. Bellow we explain how the zeta functions of a curve over a finite field is ageneralization of the Riemann zeta function.

Consider a plane affine curve C : f(x, y) = 0, f ∈ Fp(x, y) defined over the field Fp.In analogy with the Riemann zeta function we define

(8.11) ζ(C, s) =∏p

1

(1− (Np)−s).

where p runs over all non-zero prime ideals of Fp[C] := Fp[x, y]/〈f(x, y)〉. Here Np is theorder of the quotient Fp[C]/p. Since such a quotient is a finite integral domain it is a fieldand hence it has pn elements. We define deg(p) := n. This allows us to redefine the zetafunction as follows:

Z(C, T ) =∏p

1

(1− T deg(p)).

with ζ(C, s) = Z(C, p−s).

Proposition 8.2. Let C be a curve ove the finite field Fp. We have

Z(C, T ) = exp(∞∑r=1

#C(Fpr)r

T r)

For a proof see [17] p. 90.

Exercise 8.4. Calculate the zeta functions of A1 and P1.

Exercise 8.5. Calculate the zeta function of degenerated elliptic curves:

y2 = x3 + ax+ b, 4a3 + 27b2 = 0.


8.10 Dedekind Zeta function

In this section we give a summary of Dedekind Zeta functions. Let k be anumber fieldand Ok be its ring of integers.

Theorem 8.2. The integer ring of a number field is a Dedekind domain, i.e every ideala ⊂ Ok in a unique way can be written

a = pα11 pα2

2 · · · pαss ,

where α1, . . . , αs ∈ N0 and p1, . . . , ps are prime ideals.

A character χ on Ok is a map from the set of non-zero ideals of Ok to C such that itis multiplicative:

χ(a1a2) = χ(a1)χ(a2).

We mainly use the Character χ ≡ 1. Formally, the Dedekind Zeta function is defined inthe following way:

ζk(s) =∑a

χ(a)

N(a)s=∏p

1

1− χ(p)N(p)−s, N(a) = #(Ok/a),

where the sum is running in non-zero ideals of Ok and the product is running in the primeideals of Ok.

Exercise 8.6. Discuss the convergence of the Dedekind Zeta function (put χ ≡ 1).

Exercise 8.7. Discuss the fact that the integer ring of a number field is not necessarily aunique factorization domain/principal ideal domain. Give examples of irreducible but notprime elements. Hint Q(

√−5)

2.3 = (1 +√−5)(1−

√−5)

〈6〉 = 〈2, 1 +√−5〉〈2, 1−

√−5〉〈3, 1 +

√−5〉〈3, 1−

√−5〉

Exercise 8.8. The ring of Gaussian integers is Z[i]. Prove that the prime ideals of Z[i]are of two types:

p = 〈p〉, ifp ≡ 3(4), = 〈a+ ib〉, if a2 = b2 = p ≡ 1(4).

In the second case we say that p splits in Z[i]. Show that the only units of Z[i] are ±1,±i.Show also that the only ideal which ramifies is p = 〈1 + i〉, i.e. p2 = 〈p〉.

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