a genre-based approach to teaching the written recount...
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A GENRE-BASED APPROACH TO TEACHING THE WRITTEN RECOUNT IN
ARABIC: A MIXED METHODS INVESTIGATION
by
Myriam Abdel-Malek
Bachelor of Science, University of Jordan, 1988
Master of Education, University of Pittsburgh, 2012
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
School of Education in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
University of Pittsburgh
2017
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UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
This dissertation was presented
by
Myriam Abdel-Malek
It was defended on
March 29, 2017
and approved by
G. Richard Tucker, Paul Mellon University Professor of Applied Linguistics Emeritus,
Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Modern Languages
Mariana Achugar, Professor, Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Modern Languages
Francis Troyan, Assistant Professor,
The Ohio State University, Department of Teaching and Learning
Khaled Al Masaeed, Assistant Professor,
Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Modern Languages
Dissertation Advisor: Richard Donato, Professor,
University of Pittsburgh, Department of Instruction and Learning
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Copyright © by Myriam Abdel-Malek
2017
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Studies with English language learners have demonstrated that the genre-based approach
to writing informed by systemic functional linguistics (SFL) provides teachers and students
support during reading and writing instruction. Nevertheless, in foreign language (FL) contexts,
research on the application of this approach is still in its infancy. Additionally, there are no
studies done in the less commonly-taught languages context, such as Arabic.
This mixed methods study investigated the application of the genre-based approach in a
second semester university level Arabic class with 15 students during a three-week unit of study.
The purpose of this study was to (1) conduct a functional grammatical analysis of the Arabic
Recount genre, (2) document the qualitative and quantitative changes in students’ writing of an
Arabic Recount genre after the genre-based approach was implemented compared to students’
initial writing, (3) examine the relationship between learning to write a Recount and reading a
Recount in the same genre, and (4) observe the metalanguage students used during the joint
construction of a Recount with their instructor. Data came from pretest and posttest scores of a
written Recount, reading comprehension test scores of a Recount, a post-study survey,
transcription of video-taped genre-based lessons, and an SFL analysis of pretest and posttest for
A GENRE-BASED APPROACH TO TEACHING THE WRITTEN RECOUNT IN
ARABIC: A MIXED METHODS INVESTIGATION
Myriam Abdel-Malek, PhD
University of Pittsburgh, 2017
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a focal group of students. Findings revealed that students’ Recount genre writing significantly
improved on the posttest compared to the pretest because of the genre-based approach to writing
the Recount. The qualitative analysis for the pretest and posttest corroborated the statistical
analysis and depicted the lexico-grammatical variations and challenges in students’ Recount
writing, indicating the features that would need additional emphasis during instruction.
Findings also showed that there was no relationship between the writing of a Recount and
reading a text in the same genre, which pointed to the need for scaffolding of explicit instruction
in reading various genres. Additionally, findings on the metalanguage use showed that
metalanguage served as a functional, rather than formal, concept. Discussion of the pedagogical
and research implications of the findings indicates valuable areas for future research.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................... XVII
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: A SOCIETAL PERSPECTIVE ........... 1
1.2 MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: A SITUATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ... 2
1.3 BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY................................................................. 3
1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS ..................... 5
1.5 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY .......................................................... 7
2.0 THEORETICAL BACKGROUD .............................................................................. 9
2.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND FOR THE GENRE-BASED
APPROACH ......................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) .......................................................... 9
2.1.2 The language strata ....................................................................................... 12
2.1.3 Register ........................................................................................................... 13
2.1.3.1 Field ...................................................................................................... 14
2.1.3.2 Tenor .................................................................................................... 15
2.1.3.3 Mode ..................................................................................................... 15
2.1.4 Genre............................................................................................................... 16
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2.2 THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH TO LITERACY- THE SYDNEY
SCHOOL PROJECT ......................................................................................................... 20
2.2.1 Principles on the Teaching of Literacy ........................................................ 20
2.2.2 The Sydney School Project ........................................................................... 21
2.2.2.1 Teaching / learning cycle (TLC) ........................................................ 22
2.3 REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON THE APPLICATION OF GENRE-BASED
APPROACH IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE ........................................... 25
2.3.1 The Role of Text Analysis in Supporting Second Language Writing ....... 26
2.3.1.1 Identifying and teaching linguistic features of the genre ................ 26
2.3.1.2 Identifying students’ strengths and needs and providing them with
feedback .............................................................................................................. 29
2.3.2 Some Limitations of Genre-Based Approach ............................................. 33
2.3.3 The Role of SFL Metalanguage .................................................................... 34
2.4 REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL STUDIES ON GENRE-BASED APPROACH
TO TEACHING WRITING IN FL EDUCATION ......................................................... 37
2.5 TEACHING READING IN THE GENRE-BASED PEDAGOGY ............... 42
2.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION .................................................................. 44
3.0 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 48
3.1 CONTEXT.......................................................................................................... 48
3.1.1 Site ................................................................................................................... 48
3.1.2 Participants .................................................................................................... 49
3.1.2.1 Students ................................................................................................ 49
3.1.2.2 Focal group of students....................................................................... 51
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3.1.2.3 Instructor ............................................................................................. 51
3.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................... 52
3.2.1 Alignment of data sources and research questions..................................... 53
FEATURES OF THE ARABIC RECOUNT OF HABITUAL EVENTS
GENRE ............................................................................................................................ 54
3.3.1 Analysis and findings of an exemplar Recount text ................................... 55
3.3.1.1 Stages and lexico-grammatical features of the Recount .................. 56
3.3.1.2 Linguistic demand of the Recount genre .......................................... 60
3.3.2 The model text for the genre-based approach ............................................ 61
3.4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS ....................................................... 62
3.4.1 Quantitative data collection and instruments ............................................. 63
3.4.1.1 Pretest ................................................................................................... 64
3.4.1.2 Posttest ................................................................................................. 65
3.4.1.3 Validity for pretest and posttest and rationale ................................. 65
3.4.1.4 Genre-based assessment instrument ................................................. 66
3.4.1.5 Validity of the genre-based assessment instrument ......................... 69
3.4.1.6 Inter-rater reliability .......................................................................... 69
3.4.1.7 Reading comprehension test .............................................................. 70
3.4.2 Quantitative data analysis............................................................................. 71
3.4.2.1 Pretest and posttest quantitative analysis ......................................... 71
3.4.2.2 Reading comprehension test for recount genre ................................ 71
3.4.3 Qualitative data collection and analysis ...................................................... 72
3.4.3.1 Pretest and posttest qualitative analysis ........................................... 72
3.3
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3.4.3.2 Video recordings of lessons ................................................................ 73
3.4.3.3 Post study survey ................................................................................. 74
3.4.3.4 Observer’s field notes ......................................................................... 75
3.5 DESCRIPTION OF THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH DURING THE
UNIT OF INSTRUCTION ................................................................................................ 76
3.5.1 Lessons during the teaching/learning cycle ................................................. 77
3.5.1.1 Lessons 1 and 2 .................................................................................... 77
3.5.1.2 Lesson 3 ................................................................................................ 78
3.5.1.3 Lesson 4 and lesson 5 .......................................................................... 78
3.5.1.4 Lessons 6 and 7 .................................................................................... 80
3.5.1.5 Lesson 8 ................................................................................................ 81
3.5.1.6 Lesson 9 ................................................................................................ 81
4.0 FINDINGS .................................................................................................................. 82
4.1 RESEARCH QUESTION 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARABIC
RECOUNT .......................................................................................................................... 82
4.1.1 Data collection and analyses for the Recount genre ................................... 83
4.1.2 Features of the Recount genre ...................................................................... 84
4.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 2: DIFFERENCE IN STUDENTS’ WRITTEN
RECOUNTS BEFORE AND AFTER THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH AS
MEASURED ON THE GENRE-BASED ASSESSEMENT INSTRUMENT ............... 86
4.2.1 Data collection and analyses for Research Question 2 ............................... 86
4.2.2 Statistical analyses for pretest and posttest scores ..................................... 88
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4.2.3 Statistical analyses for pretest and posttest scores for each stage of the
Recount ....................................................................................................................... 91
4.2.4 Statistical analyses for scores of the three metafunctions on the pretest
and posttest ................................................................................................................. 92
4.2.5 Paired Sample t-Tests .................................................................................... 95
4.2.6 Summary of findings for the quantitative analyses .................................... 96
4.3 RESEARCH QUESTION 3: THE FEATURES OF THE RECOUNT IN
THE FOCAL GROUP OF STUDENTS WRITINGS ..................................................... 97
4.3.1 The focal group of students........................................................................... 97
4.3.2 Data collection and analyses for Research Question 3 ............................... 98
4.3.3 Findings from pretests and posttests’ analyses for the focal group of
students ....................................................................................................................... 99
4.3.4 Orientation stage.......................................................................................... 101
4.3.5 Sequence of Events stage ............................................................................. 103
4.3.5.1 Textual Metafunction ....................................................................... 104
4.3.5.2 Ideational metafunction .................................................................... 106
4.3.5.3 Interpersonal metafunction .............................................................. 110
4.3.6 Summary of findings for the focal group of students ............................... 114
4.4 RESEARCH QUESTION 4: STUDENTS’ READING COMPREHENSION
OF A RECOUNT TEXT AND ITS RELATION WITH WRITING THE RECOUNT
GENRE............................................................................................................................. 116
4.4.1 Data collection and analyses for reading comprehension scores ............ 116
4.4.2 Descriptive statistics for the reading comprehension test scores ............ 117
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4.4.3 Relationship between writing and reading comprehension ..................... 118
4.4.4 Finding from post-study survey ................................................................. 119
4.5 RESEARCH QUESTION 5: METALANGUAGE USE .............................. 121
4.5.1 Data collection and analyses for Research Question 5 ............................. 121
4.5.2 Metalanguage used to support the joint construction of the
Orientation stage .................................................................................................. 123
4.5.3 Metalanguage used to support the joint construction of the Sequence
of Events stage ......................................................................................................... 125
4.5.4 Summary on metalanguage used during the joint construction phase... 129
4.5.5 Data collection and analysis for Research Question 5a............................ 130
4.5.6 Findings from students’ descriptions of the Recount (Research
Question 5a) ............................................................................................................. 131
5.0 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................... 135
5.1 THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH AND COMPOSING THE RECOUNT
............................................................................................................................ 136
5.1.1 Recount genre awareness ............................................................................ 136
5.1.2 Effect of the genre-based approach on students’ writing of the stages of
the Recount ............................................................................................................... 136
5.1.3 The effects of the prompt on writing ......................................................... 139
5.1.4 The expression of the three Metafunctions in the Recount ..................... 140
5.1.4.1 The Expression of the Textual metafunction .................................. 141
5.1.4.2 The Expression of the Ideational metafunction ............................. 142
5.1.4.3 The Expression of the Interpersonal metafunction ....................... 142
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5.1.5 The genre-based approach and its relationship to students’ overall
achievement .............................................................................................................. 145
5.1.6 Summary and future research on the genre-based approach ................. 146
5.2 GENRE-BASED APPROACH AND THE ACTFL FRAMEWORK ........ 147
5.2.1 Future Research on describing language proficiency and teaching Arabic,
a diglossic language .................................................................................................. 149
5.3 METALANGUAGE USE DURING GENRE-BASED INSTRUCTION ... 151
5.3.1 Metalanguage: a functional concept .......................................................... 151
5.3.2 Use of L1 for metalanguage ........................................................................ 152
5.3.3 Summary and future research on the use of metalanguage .................... 153
5.4 READING COMPREHENSION AND THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH
............................................................................................................................ 153
5.4.1 Future research on reading comprehension ............................................. 154
5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS .......................................................................... 154
APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................ 157
APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................ 158
APPENDIX C ............................................................................................................................ 160
APPENDIX D ............................................................................................................................ 169
APPENDIX E ............................................................................................................................ 172
APPENDIX F ............................................................................................................................ 173
APPENDIX G ............................................................................................................................ 176
APPENDIX H ............................................................................................................................ 179
APPENDIX I ............................................................................................................................. 181
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APPENDIX J ............................................................................................................................. 182
APPENDIX K ............................................................................................................................ 184
APPENDIX L ............................................................................................................................ 186
APPENDIX M ........................................................................................................................... 188
APPENDIX N ............................................................................................................................ 190
APPENDIX O ............................................................................................................................ 192
APPENDIX P ............................................................................................................................ 194
APPENDIX Q ............................................................................................................................ 196
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 203
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Register Variables and their Linguistic Realization ....................................................... 14
Table 2. Participants’ Demographic information.......................................................................... 50
Table 3. Research Questions and Data Sources Alignment .......................................................... 53
Table 4.Summary for the Features of the Recount Genre ............................................................ 59
Table 5. Outline for the Lessons During the TLC ........................................................................ 76
Table 6. Summary of the Features of the Recount Genre ............................................................. 84
Table 7. Raw Scores for Pretest and Posttest ................................................................................ 89
Table 8. Descriptive Statistics for Pretest and Posttest Measured on Genre-Based Assessment
Instrument ..................................................................................................................................... 90
Table 9. Descriptive Statistics for Scores for Each Stage of the Recount .................................... 91
Table 10. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test Results for Difference between Pretest and Posttest
Scores for Each Stage ................................................................................................................... 92
Table 11. Raw Scores for each Metafunction as Measured on the Genre-Based Assessment
Instrument ..................................................................................................................................... 93
Table 12. Descriptive Statistics for Pretest and Posttest Scores for Each Metafunction .............. 94
Table 13. Paired Sample t-Test Results ........................................................................................ 95
Table 14. The Students in the Focus Group .................................................................................. 98
Table 15. Summary of the Differences between Pretest and Posttest for Focal Group .............. 100
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Table 16. Genre-based assessment instrument ........................................................................... 169
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Writing Sample from a Second Semester Arabic Class at the University Level ............ 2
Figure 2. Network of Processes Type Based on Halliday & Matthiessen (2014) ........................ 10
Figure 3. Strata of Language (Martin & Rose, 2008) ................................................................... 13
Figure 4. Genre as an Additional Stratum of Analysis beyond Field, Tenor, and Mode ............. 17
Figure 5. Teaching/Learning cycle (Rose & Martin, 2012, p. 66) ................................................ 23
Figure 6. Convergent Parallel Design (Based on Creswell (2012)) ............................................. 62
Figure 7. Boxplot for Pretest and Posttest Scores ......................................................................... 90
Figure 8. Histogram for Total Reading Comprehension Scores ................................................. 117
Figure 9. Scatter Plot Graph for Scores on Posttest and on Reading Comprehension Test ....... 119
Figure 10. Histogram for Students’ Perceptions on Learning to Write a Recount and its Support
in Reading Comprehension ......................................................................................................... 120
Figure 11. Zach’s Description of the Arabic Recount Genre ..................................................... 132
Figure 12. Worksheet for building the field................................................................................ 183
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PREFACE
This journey would not have been possible without the support of my committee
members, friends, and family.
I am thankful to…
…my advisor, Dr. Richard Donato, whose guidance, encouragement, and constant excitement for
my research and teaching provided me with the support to think independently.
…my committee members, Dr. G. Richard Tucker, Dr. Francis Troyan, and Dr. Khaled Al
Masaeed, whose advice and insights were instrumental in shaping this dissertation.
…my committee member, Dr. Mariana Achugar, who introduced me to Systemic Functional
Linguistics and its application to education. Her passion to this field is contagious!
…my husband, Essam Demian, who continuously, with love, supports and encourages me to
pursue my ambitions.
…my children, Karim and Nadeem, the joy of my life. Their words “You can do it mom!” meant
so much to me.
…my parents, Baba and Mama, my first educators and role models for perseverance.
…my brother and sister, Karim and Eliane, for their words of encouragement and love.
...my friend and colleague, Dr. Amani Attia, who always supported my ideas and welcomed me
into her Arabic classes to implement my research.
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…my friends and colleagues Loretta Fernandez and Ida Chavoshan, who were my cheerleaders
along the way.
Lastly, I thank the staff at the Writing Center at the University of Pittsburgh, especially Eleni
Anastasiou, who worked enthusiastically with me to solve many ‘linguistic puzzles’ during the
dissertation process.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: A SOCIETAL PERSPECTIVE
Recent political tensions have underscored the need to eliminate misunderstandings and
rebuild trust between Arab and Western cultures. One way of addressing this need is through the
teaching and learning of the Arabic language and its cultures that has seen an increase in demand
at the university level in the United States. This growing demand for learning Arabic and its
cultures presented new challenges for university Arabic language programs. Arabic programs
were suddenly populated with a diverse body of students (i.e., heritage and non-heritage
speakers) and were faced with a lack of trained teachers and a scarcity in instructional materials
and pedagogies (Al-Batal & Belnap, 2006). More specifically, the Modern Language
Association’s last surveys conducted in 2006 and 2009 showed that student enrollment in Arabic
language classes grew 126.5% between 2002 -2006 and 46.3% between 2006-2009 (Furman,
Goldberg, & Lusin, 2010). As a result of this increase in enrollment, programs were obligated to
hire untrained native Arabic speakers to teach college level courses. Furthermore, from my own
experience teaching Arabic in several institutions of higher education in the US, those teachers
either relied on the approaches they were familiar with from their own schooling or only focused
on aspects of the language that they felt comfortable to teach, ignoring other aspects, such as
teaching culturally informed written literacy skills.
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1.2 MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: A SITUATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
In Arabic as FL classrooms, the teaching of writing, often, takes the form of several
cycles of write—give feedback—edit. The feedback from the teacher usually emphasizes
correctness of form (e.g., Moore & Schleppegrell, 2014), as seen in Figure 1 below (translation
to English in Appendix A). Figure 1 illustrates a first draft from a second-semester writing task
in an Arabic language program at a large research university in the United States. This draft is a
response to the following prompt from the textbook: “write a paragraph of at least fifty words
describing what your [city] مدینھ has to offer, using [the preposition ‘in’ and the object pronoun
‘it’] فیھا and [nominal sentence] الجملھ االسمیھ with fronted [predicate] خبر” (Brustad, Al-Batal, &
Al-Tonsi, 2011, p.145).
Figure 1. Writing Sample from a Second Semester Arabic Class at the University Level
= ق [grammar] = ص [verb conjugations] = م [gender] = ك [spelling]
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For this writing task, Ms. D. (pseudonym), the instructor, corrected errors using a coding
system (as shown at the bottom of Figure 1) agreed upon with her students. The codes are
centered on correcting the grammatical and spelling errors. Although these errors might interfere
with the text’s communicating a description of the student’s city clearly, the relationship between
language and the adequate exploration of the topic is deeper than simply correcting these surface
level errors (e.g., Achugar, Schleppegrell, & Oteiza, 2007). This relationship requires a
connection between the language and the social context, both cultural and situational, in which
the language occurs (e.g., Achugar & Schleppegrell, 2005; Achugar et al., 2007; Donato, 2016;
Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014; Martin, 2009).
Thus, this study is mainly motivated by the necessity to address: (1) the pedagogical
demand in Arabic programs at the university level, (2) the teaching of culturally informed
writing, and (3) the lack of research on students’ writing in Arabic as a foreign language (FL).
1.3 BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY
Recently, genre theories have contributed to a paradigm shift in teaching writing (Johns,
2002). In the new paradigm, texts (i.e., instantiations of genres) are the centerpiece for
instruction and are seen as purposeful social and cultural practices that involve predictable
language patterns. This new paradigm emerged from three traditions:1 (1) the New Rhetoric, (2)
English for Specific Purposes, and (3) the Genre theory of the Sydney School based on systemic
functional linguistics (SFL). In the New Rhetoric tradition, the focus is on the linguistic features
1 For a detailed comparison of the three traditions, see Hyon (1996) and Hyland (2004).
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of the genre (e.g., Bhatia, 1993). In the English for Specific Purposes tradition, the social context
of the genre is the focus (e.g., Miller, 1984).The Genre theory of the Sydney School brought
together the linguistic features (i.e., lexico-grammar), the social, and cultural context in which
the genre occurs (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014; Martin, 2009; Martin & Rose, 2008). In
combining the strengths of the New Rhetoric and English for Specific Purposes approaches, the
SFL genre-based approach can be particularly useful in informing writing instruction in a
language other than the students’ first language. By using this approach, writing teachers are able
to teach and understand writing as language systems that contribute to the meaning of the text in
a sociocultural context (Achugar et al., 2007; Hyland, 2003, 2007). In addition to aiding teachers,
the pedagogical approach based on SFL Genre theory (i.e., the genre-based approach informed
by SFL) suggests that it is the learner’s engagement with understanding the meaning of the text
in its social context that expands the learner’s potential for meaning-making in the target
language.
The research on the genre-based approach to teaching socio-culturally informed writing
in the US and other countries has demonstrated the support that this approach can provide to
English-as-second-language teachers and their learners as well as FL teachers and their learners
(e.g., Byrnes, 2009; Byrnes, Maxim, & Norris, 2010; Christie & Derewianka, 2008; Martin,
2009; Ramos, 2012; Schleppegrell, 2010; Schleppegrell & Go, 2007; Troyan, 2013; Unsworth,
2000). Given the benefits of this approach, I furthered the work in this field by investigating the
application of the genre-based approach in a new context, Arabic as a less-commonly-taught
language at the university level in the United States.
In a three-week mixed-methods study, I investigated the effect of the genre-based
approach on 15 students’ Recount genre writings using both qualitative and quantitative methods
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of analysis, in a second-semester Arabic language course at the university level. The analysis of
an authentic model text informed the design of the genre-based approach and analysis of the
data. Data came from the written Recount pretest and posttest, the video recordings of lessons,
the post-study survey, and the observer’s field notes. The findings revealed pedagogical
implications to the teaching of foreign languages, specifically for Arabic as a less commonly-
taught language, which are discussed in Chapter 5.
1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The major goals for this study are: (1) to depict the stages and lexico-grammatical
features of the Arabic Recount genre, (2) to investigate and understand students’ writings of the
Recount genre quantitatively and qualitatively after the genre-based approach was implemented
compared to their initial written texts, (3) to examine the relationship between learning to write a
Recount and reading a Recount in the same genre, and (4) observe the metalanguage students
used during the joint construction of a Recount with their instructor.
In order to accomplish this, my dissertation sought to answer the following five research
questions:
Research Question 1:
What are the linguistic demands of the Recount genre in Arabic?
a. What are the stages of the Recount genre in Arabic?`
b. What are the lexico-grammatical features for each stage of the Recount genre?
Research Questions 2:
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What is the difference in students’ writing of the Recount genre before the genre-based
instruction compared to their writing after the genre-based instruction as measured on the
genre-based instrument?
Research Question 3:
What are the stages and the lexico-grammatical characteristics of the Recount genre that
a focal group of students are able to use after instruction in the genre-based approach as
compared to the lexico-grammatical characteristics they used before the genre-based
instruction?
Research Question 4:
To what extent students’ reading comprehension of a Recount text reflected their
understanding of the Recount genre after the genre-based approach for teaching the
writing of a Recount was implemented?
Research Question 5:
How did the instructor and the students use the metalanguage of Systemic Functional
Linguistics during the joint construction stage of the Recount genre?
5a. How did the focal group of students describe the purpose and linguistic features of
Recount genre?
The genre-based unit in this study sought to explicitly teach students to write a Recount
of habitual events (henceforth referred to as the Recount) by making the stages and lexico-
grammatical features typical to this Recount visible to students. The instructional approach was
informed by the genre-based approach of the Sydney School ((Martin & Rose, 2008; Rose &
Martin, 2012; Rothery, 1989, 1996a), known as the teaching/learning cycle (explained in Chapter
2).
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1.5 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The significance of this study is its contribution to the Arabic language education field
and the Arabic language teacher preparation field. First, the study provides an SFL analysis of
the lexico-grammatical features and stages of the Recount genre in Arabic. FL teachers may use
this analysis to explicitly teach the writing of this genre by making organizational and linguistic
characteristics visible to students. Teacher educators may also use this analysis to model the
explicit teaching of Recount features.
Second, this study furthers our understanding of the effect of the genre-based approach
(informed by SFL analysis) in a new context, Arabic as a less commonly-taught language, a
context in which the genre-based approach has not been explored before. Thus, it contributes to
our understanding of how explicit and systematic linguistic instruction supports students’
learning of the stages and lexico-grammatical features of the Arabic Recount. At the same time,
the findings from the analysis of students’ writings identify the features of the Recount that may
need more emphasis during instruction. Third, the genre-based approach to writing enables
students to write culturally appropriate texts (Rose & Martin, 2012), exhibiting cultural
knowledge in the form of a particular written genre. Therefore, this study contributes to the
design of FL writing pedagogies that meet the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign
Languages (ACTFL) standards, both the presentational standard of the Communication goal area
as well as the standards of the Culture goal area (National Standards in Foreign Language
Education Project., 2013).
Fourth, this study contributes to understanding how students use metalanguage as a
formal or functional concept (Greeno, 2012) during the composition of the Recount. Fifth, it
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adds to our understanding of whether the scaffolding of explicit writing instruction during the
teaching/learning cycle supports students’ reading comprehension of the same genre.
In the next chapter, Chapter 2, I explain the theoretical background underpinning the
genre-based approach to writing. I also provide a synthesis of the research regarding the
application of the genre-based approach to second language and foreign language education. In
Chapter 3, I describe the context of the study, the design of the genre-based unit of instruction,
the data sources, the instrumentation for data collection, as well as the methods for data analysis.
In this chapter, I also describe the characteristics of the Arabic Recount genre that was used in
the analysis. In Chapter 4, I present my quantitative and qualitative findings, and, in Chapter 5, I
discuss the findings and their implications to teaching and learning writing skills in Arabic.
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2.0 THEORETICAL BACKGROUD
2.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND FOR THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH
2.1.1 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)
Systemic functional linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language based on the work of M. A.
K. Halliday. For this theory, language is considered a social semiotic (Halliday, 1978) and is
based on two main tenets: language as functional and language as meaning-making. The
functional approach to language is attentive to how people use language in context and how
language is structured for use (Eggins, 1994; Halliday, 1978; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014).
People use language related to social contexts and the organization of language is closely linked
to satisfying human beings’ needs in their respective societies. In other words, language evolves
and is reshaped because of how we use it. In this respect, SFL’s functional orientation implies an
intimate relationship between language and society (Christie & Unsworth, 2005; Halliday,
McIntosh, & Strevens, 1965). This relationship is so intimate that it is described as dialectical
(Hasan, 1996).
Additionally, SFL views the structure of language as a set of semantic systems, in which
language functions as a tool for meaning-making (Halliday, 1978). Meaning is realized through
the systemic choices the speaker or writer makes within the system available to him/her in a
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particular context (Eggins, 1994;Halliday & Mattheissen, 2014; Thompson, 1996), and it is
“instantiated” in a text (Halliday & Mattheissen, 2014, p.27). That is to mean that texts are
manifestations of instances of the language system and its culture. A text can range from a note
to a friend to a more elaborate text, such as a presidential speech. Those instances are made
systematically from the language system.
The systemic choices are the reason for the word ‘systemic’ in the name of the theory.
For example, from the SFL perspective, participants’ experiences in the world are expressed in
the clauses through the processes (as describe in traditional grammar, verbs). The different types
of processes are represented as a network as in Figure 2. The speaker or writer construes his
experience in each clause through the choice he makes from one of the types of processes in the
network. As an example, the material processes express the verbs of doing, the mental processes
express the verbs of thinking, etc. with their different possible participants (indicated after the +
sign in Figure 2)
Figure 2. Network of Processes Type Based on Halliday & Matthiessen (2014)
The network above exhibits a paradigmatic relation that SFL favors over a syntagmatic
11
relation. Syntagmatic relations describe the organization of elements in a specific realization of
the structure. In a paradigmatic relation, on the other hand, meaning is made by choosing among
wordings within the same category. To explain further, paradigmatic relations are sets of lexical
items that share semantic features, patterns of collocations, as well as options for constituents in
a clause. These items typically establish some kind of relation (e.g., synonym, antonym, etc.)
which is the reason why they tend to share semantic features and also to collocate with similar
items. Paradigmatic relations imply that only one of the choices is actually realized from all the
potential choices, contributing to the making of specific meanings (Halliday, 1978; Halliday &
Matthiessen, 2014). For example, in the clause The boy cried the paradigmatic relation describes
the choice of the participant (e.g., the boy, the man, or the girl) and the choice of the process
(e.g., ran, jumped, or cried). The syntagmatic relation describes the order of words in the clause
The boy [nominal group] followed by cried a verbal group. The choice of words and grammar
from the networks of the language system construct the meanings in the text.
However, these choices are constrained by two factors. First, the context of situation
limits the range of language choices available. For example, the language choices available to a
person when writing an email to a friend are different from the language choices available to the
same person writing an email to inquire about a job. The second factor is the limited access the
person has to the different contexts of culture, which in turn limits one’s possible choices
(Christie & Unsworth, 2005). For example, a FL learner, who has a limited exposure to writing
emails to his professor, will have a limited access to the language resources for that situation
compared to a first language speaker or another more advanced FL learner who is socialized in
the culture of writing formal emails. In the next section, I will explain SFL’s perspective on how
language is organized.
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2.1.2 The language strata
From the SFL perspective, language consists of three levels, or strata (see Figure 3): (1)
discourse semantics is related to the meaning in the text; (2) lexico-grammar is related to the
words and structures in the text; and (3) phonology/graphology is related to patterns and sounds
of letters and words along with punctuation and tones (Rose & Martin, 2012).
SFL theorizes that the meaning in the text at the discourse semantic level is realized by
the choice of lexicon (words) and grammar (structure) from the large network of systems that
represent the language. The realization relationship between the discourse semantics, the lexico-
grammar, and graphology/phonology is one of a metaredoundancy (Lemke, 1995), where
patterns of semantic meaning comprise patterns of lexico-grammar. The realization or
manifestation between the discourse semantics, lexico-grammar, and the graphology/phonology
is non-directional as the line in Figure 3 illustrates (Halliday & Mattheissen, 2014; Martin &
Rose, 2008; Martin, 1997, 2009). In other words, the discourse semantics realizes lexico-
grammar, and lexico-grammar realizes the phonology/graphology, which is also realized in the
opposite direction. However, as mentioned earlier, the language choices that express the
realization between the language strata are restricted by the social context (i.e., register and
genre) in which the language occurs, which I will explain in the next two sections.
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Figure 3. Strata of Language (Martin & Rose, 2008)
2.1.3 Register
For SFL, register is a relational concept that links the context of situation with linguistic
choices, which are affected by three variables: Field, Tenor, and Mode. The Field is concerned
with the subject matter of the text; the Tenor is concerned with the social relationship between
speaker and listener or writer and reader; the Mode is concerned with whether the text is spoken
or written and its function in context (Christie & Unsworth, 2005; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014;
Martin, 2009; Martin & Rose, 2008; Rose & Martin, 2012). When any, some, or all of those
variables differ, so do the patterns of meanings in the text. For example, the language choices
made in a film review (Field) in a blog (Mode) to an internet audience (Tenor) are different than
those in the review of the same movie (Field) in a newspaper (Mode) to newspaper readers
(Tenor).
The Field, Tenor, and Mode as variables of the social context of situation in the text
relate to three metafunctions which realize the meanings conveyed in any text. The Ideational
metafunction is concerned with how meanings represent experiences and how the text is
Discourse
ti
Lexico- grammar
Phonology/
graphology
14
connected, and it maps onto the Field variable; the Interpersonal is concerned with meanings
that have to do with interactions among people, and it maps onto the Tenor variable; and lastly
the Textual is concerned with the organization of the text and, it maps onto the Mode variable
(Halliday & Mattheissen, 2014; Martin & Rose, 2008; Rose & Martin, 2012). This relation and
some of the clause structures that realize the Field, Tenor, and Mode are illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1. Register Variables and their Linguistic Realization
Register variables Linguistic Realization in Metafunction
Field : what is going on in the text? Ideational • Experiential: Transitivity (participants + process+
circumstances) • Logico-sematic relations: Elements of cohesion
Mode: How the text is organized? Textual • Theme and Rheme • Cohesive devices (e.g., conjunctions)
Tenor: what is the relationship between reader/writer or speaker/listener?
Interpersonal • Mood and Modality • Appraisal system (e.g., Affect , Judgement,
Appreciation) Based on Halliday and Mattheissen (2014), (J.R. Martin, 1997), and White (2001).
2.1.3.1 Field
As Table 1 shows, the Field is realized through the ideational language resources of the
experiential elements (i.e., Transitivity: participants (people or things), verbs (processes), and
circumstances (e.g., of time, place, manner)) and the resources that contribute to the logical
connection of the text (e.g., conjunction, ellipsis, and reference). Figure 2 depicts the various
types of processes. In Arabic, all processes, their participants, and circumstances are expressed in
verbal clauses. However, the relational processes are expressed in nominal clauses (i.e., being
clauses). Those being clauses are either nominal attributive relational clause (i.e., Carrier and
Attribute relation) or an identifying relational clause (i.e., Token and Value). In Arabic all
relational clauses are nominal clauses (i.e., no verbs in the clause) (Bardi, 2008).
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2.1.3.2 Tenor
The Tenor is realized through the interpersonal choices from the Mood, Modality, and
Appraisal resources. The Mood analysis identifies the mood of the clause (i.e., interrogative,
declarative, or imperative) by analyzing the mood block of the clause (i.e., the Finite + Subject+
Residue). Together the position of the Finite and Subject in the clause decide the mood of the
clause. Sometimes, the tone also decides its mood. The Finite is part of the verbal group that
carries the tense of the verb and its polarity, and the residue is the rest of the clause. As for
Modality, it is expressed through Modulation (command and offer) which is used to express the
different degree of obligation or inclination, or Modalization (statements and questions) which is
used to express probability or usuality.
White (2001) expanded the realization of the interpersonal metafunction with his
Appraisal theory. This theory is concerned “with the language of evaluation, attitude and
emotion, and with a set of resources which explicitly position a text’s proposals and propositions
interpersonally” (p.1). Those language resources are understood through subtypes of Appraisal:
Attitude, Engagement, and Graduation. The Attitude system classifies utterances in terms of their
evaluations of the speaker’s/writer’s human behaviors (Judgement); the evaluation of people and
things (Appreciation); or the expression of positive and negative feelings (Affect). The system
of Engagement categorizes the manner the speaker and listener or writer and reader engage with
each other; and the system of Graduation distinguishes the interpersonal force and the
preciseness of focus which the writer/speaker attaches to his relationship with his listener/reader.
2.1.3.3 Mode
The Mode is realized through the textual choices for thematic progression (Theme and
Rheme), deixies (e.g., that and the) and cohesive elements in the text (e.g., connectors). The
16
Theme is “the point of departure of the message” (Halliday & Mattheissen, 2014, p. 89). The
Rheme is “the part in which the Theme is developed” (p.89); it usually contains the new
information of the clause.
An example of the manifestation of the Field, Tenor, and Mode to express the register is
in the clause Sam, I caught a big fish last week. This clause is part of a story where a student
wrote to his friend, Sam, about the events in his school trip. The three metafunctions (Ideational,
Interpersonal, and Textual) that realized the Field, Tenor, and Mode in this clause respectively
are illustrated here. The Ideational meaning is expressed in the experiential elements: the
material process caught, the participants being I as the Actor and a big fish as the Goal, and the
circumstance last week. The interpersonal meaning involves me (the student) as a giver of
information to the reader (Sam) that I have some type of relation with (friendship). Calling the
reader by his name constructs an affective connection. Additionally, the evaluation of the
behavior as a judgement of capacity (caught a fish) and increased the force of this evaluation by
using big in describing the fish. The textual meaning is realized by the choice of I (the point of
departure) in the clause and caught a big fish last week as the Rheme (the new information
presented to the reader/listener Encompassing the register is the genre.
2.1.4 Genre
Genre emerged from the work of Hasan (1985, 2009) and later Martin (1986) and his
colleagues. It describes the impact of the context of culture on the language in the text (Eggins,
1994; Martin & Rose, 2008) and embodies all the situational contexts through which groups in
that culture realize particular social purposes. The concept of the genre is known as the genre
theory of the Sydney School. It is operationalized in the following definition as
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staged, goal oriented social process. Staged, because it usually takes us more than one step to reach our goals; goal oriented because we feel frustrated if we don’t accomplish the final steps; social because writers shape their texts for readers of particular kinds. (Martin & Rose, 2008, p.6)
An example of an English genre is a recount (Martin & Rose, 2008); its social goal is to
record personal experiences or events. Each stage of the genre has a function and “contributes to
the social purpose of the genre as a whole” (Rose & Martin, 2012, p.54). The stages of recount
are: Orientation ^ Sequence of Events^ [Reorientation] (“^”denotes “followed by” and [ ]
denotes an optional stage). In the Orientation stage, the author establishes the context of the
recount. Followed by the Sequence of Events stage, in which the author expresses the events of
the Recount in temporal sequence. Recount genre ends with the optional Reorientation stage,
which addresses the events from another perspective (i.e., what could have been done or what
caused the event to happen) (Hyland, 2004).
Figure 4. Genre as an Additional Stratum of Analysis beyond Field, Tenor, and Mode (Martin & Rose, 2008, p. 17)
As Figure 4 shows, genre is modelled at the stratum of culture. It encompasses and
expresses different patterns of Field, Tenor, and Mode (i.e., register configuration) and is
realized through a lexico-grammatical stratum that constructs ideational, interpersonal, and
textual meanings, respectively. The three functions of the language in the text are intertwined
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together at all levels as well as the level of genre (Rose &Martin, 2012) to express its meaning.
Going back to the example of the English Recount genre, the textual meaning of the Sequence of
Events stage in the written Recount is a realization of Mode and is organized according to time
of event using circumstances of time as the Theme. The interpersonal meaning in the Sequence
of Events stage of the Recount genre is a realization of Tenor and is expressed with no direct
judgement of events; rather, evaluations of various types are dispersed throughout this stage
(Martin & Rose, 2008). The experiential meaning in the Record stage is a realization of Field and
is mostly construed through material processes (Hyland, 2004).
Genre from SFL perspective focuses “on the language as a meaning-making resource”
and “on the text as semantic choice in social context” (Martin, 2009, p.11). Those meanings
construed in genre are recurrent in culturally accepted configurations. In other words, genre is
what we can do with language within cultural activities recognized by the culture. From this
perspective, genre has a broader application than the traditional literary genre (e.g., persuasive
genre or narrative genre). It includes social genres such as scheduling an appointment, applying
for a job, buying and selling goods (Colombi, 2009; Martin, 1985; Rothery, 1989), or describing
a historic monument (Troyan, 2013).
The stages of the genres may be achieved differently in different cultures (Rothery,
1989). Therefore, a comprehensive view of a genre would not be complete without reflecting
critically on the cultural aspect of the genre (e.g., “whose interest is being satisfied in this genre?
What does it tell us about the culture? Why is it useful for the culture?”) (Eggins, 1994, p.82-83)
In other words, genre theory brings awareness to the cultural aspects embedded in the
text by its description of how language achieves things and reflecting on what the culture
involves (Eggins, 1994). For example, in a genre analysis of a corpus of 60 Arabic and English
19
letters of applications for jobs written by native speakers, Al-Ali (2004) found rhetorical moves
in Arabic texts that were not present in the English texts. The letter of application in Arabic
included language that glorifies the potential employer, where the English language letter of
application included a part where the candidate promoted himself. Even though Al-Ali used
Bhatia's (1993) structure analysis and not SFL’s genre theory as a framework for his analysis, the
analysis revealed how inter-subjectivity between reader and writer is realized differently in
different cultures, confirming the genre dependency on the culture and its significance in
teaching foreign languages, such as Arabic, and in doing more research in teaching Arabic
writing.
The relative stability of both the stages and lexico-grammar of the genre in the social
context it represents gives genres the potential to support FL teaching. The genre theory allows
for a top-down/bottom-up approach for examining texts as models for writing; starting with the
purpose of the genre, moving to the stages, then moving to the analysis of the clauses in each of
the stages in the genre. Additionally, the three metafunctions in the text and the lexico-grammar
they realize explain how each clause relates to the whole text and how the text realizes its social
purpose in a specific culture. This view of text contrasts with the traditional view that takes only
a bottom-up approach to explaining a text – from the forms of words up to the sentences – and
gives little to no attention to the relation between text and its social context.
Using the genre theory rooted in SFL as a framework for pedagogical approaches (i.e.,
genre-based approach) to teaching language allows the teaching of form and function as
interrelated and connected to the social context of texts. In other words, the genre based-
approach promotes the learner’s understanding of the relationship between the purpose and
features of the text (Johns, 1997); because “knowledge about grammar and genre are more than
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knowledge about language forms. It is also knowledge about social practice” (Schleppegrell,
1998, p.187). In order to achieve social purposes, learners of a language need to know how
culturally recognized situations are structured and how these situations are different from how
the same situations would be organized in their own culture (Unsworth, 2001). In this respect,
genre-based instruction informed by SFL sees language learning as expanding the language
resources to different social contexts, which may support students’ writing especially when
learning to write in a language of an unfamiliar culture such as Arabic. In the next section, I
explain the genre-based approach to literacy of the Sydney School project to demonstrate its
application as it relates to my argument.
2.2 THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH TO LITERACY- THE SYDNEY SCHOOL
PROJECT
2.2.1 Principles on the Teaching of Literacy
The application of the genre-based approach to teaching literacy is based on the principle
suggested by Halliday (1993), for whom teaching literacy is teaching language. Literacy, in this
respect, is the development of an ability to use language for the exchange of meaning (Hasan,
1996) for which writing is one of the forms to exchange meaning. Using the language effectively
does not happen intuitively; rather, users of the language have to explicitly learn how to use it in
its social context (Martin & Rothery, 1986; Martin, 1993, 2009; Rose & Martin, 2012).
According to Halliday (1993), learning a language involves learning about the language
and through the language. That is to say, users of the language have to expand their knowledge
21
about the language and about the choices available for them from the language system to make
meaning in different contexts. Furthermore, language learning always involves learning new
information. For example, in a school context, in a science class, students learn the language to
describe the water cycle in addition to the process involved in the water cycle. Extending this
view to FL learning, students who learn the FL to communicate also learn how to culturally
introduce themselves, ask for directions, and write emails. Based on these principles and
grounded in SFL and genre theory, the Sydney School project, led by Jim Martin and his
colleagues, suggested a pedagogical approach combined with Genre and SFL metalanguage to
teach literacy in school contexts.
2.2.2 The Sydney School Project
The genre-based approach informed by SFL was first developed in Australia and
recognized as the Sydney School project. The project started with the deconstruction of school
texts to identify their structures and linguistic features, and then gradually evolved into
developing curriculum based on the families of genres (e.g., story genre or report genre) and
pedagogical practices. The project was conducted within Bernstein's (1975) framework of
deconstructions of traditional progressive pedagogy and toward a visible pedagogy. In such a
pedagogy, students are apprenticed into the interpretation and composition of texts (Martin,
1993). An essential tenet of this pedagogy is to make knowledge about the language explicit and
available to all students and teachers (Rose & Martin, 2012). The pedagogical approach to
writing in the Sydney school is known as the teaching/learning cycle (TLC), and educational
linguists later adapted this cycle into several other versions (e.g., Feez, 2002).
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2.2.2.1 Teaching / learning cycle (TLC)
The TLC (Rothery, 1994) comprised, as Figure 5 shows, three stages while keeping in
focus a shared understanding of the topic at hand (i.e., building the field) and the context of the
text: (1) the deconstruction phase, in which the teacher uses explicit instruction to deconstruct
model texts in a specific genre and makes its cultural and situational contexts, stages, and
linguistic features (i.e., lexico grammar) noticeable to students; (2) the joint construction stage,
in which the teacher and students collaboratively write a sample text of the genre; (3) the
independent construction stage, in which the student independently writes an original piece from
the same genre employing what was gleaned in the first and second phase.
The TLC highlights both social contexts (i.e., situational and cultural contexts) and field
(i.e., the subject matter) as a background to the three main stages during which students are
involved in activities to get familiar with both content and context. Additionally, the aim is
toward control of critical orientation of skills, knowledge and language, which contrasts with an
earlier version of the cycle that aimed to the approximation of control of genre. The control of
critical orientation of the genre was a response to theorists who were concerned that genre
inhibits creativity (e.g., Cope & Kalantzis, 1993; The New London Group, 1996). Thus, in this
cycle, the critical literacy awareness was highlighted together with the notion that genre is
construed through language and language construes genre (Rose & Martin, 2012). The
presentation of this approach as a cycle suggests that teachers can start teaching from any point
in the cycle depending on students’ prior knowledge.
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Figure 5. Teaching/Learning cycle (Rose & Martin, 2012, p. 66)
The design of the TLC (Rothery, 1996b) was influenced by Halliday's (1993, 1975) and
Painter's (1996) work on the development of first language in children, from which Rothery
adapted the notion of guidance through interaction in the context of shared experience. This view
resonates with Vygotsky's (1978) concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD)2 and Wood,
Bruner, and Ross' (1976) concept of scaffolding.3 For Vygotsky development happens when it is
mediated by cultural semiotics (e.g., language) with the help of a more experienced person. The
role of the teacher is to help learners extend students’ lexicon and grammatical repertoire in both
2 Vygotsky (1978) defined the Zone of Proximal Development as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (p. 86).
3 Wood, Bruner, and Ross' (1976) defined scaffolding as the “process that enables a child or novice to solve a problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal which would be beyond his unassisted efforts. This scaffolding consists essentially of the adult ‘controlling’ those elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner's capacity, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence".(p. 90)
24
their understanding of and written responses to texts (Derewianka, 2003), thereby expanding the
learner’s meaning-making potential into new text types (i.e., genres and registers) (Mattheissen,
2006). Guided by the teacher, knowledge about language and genre are used to scaffold students’
writing. This scaffold is facilitated by the metalanguage that SFL and genre provides. Therefore,
writing makes for an optimal activity for second language (L2) learning because it encourages
scaffolding (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994). Writing also promotes language learning and
development because of its problem solving nature (Byrnes & Manchón, Rosa, 2014). Informed
by the TLC model and its advantages to scaffold students’ writing, it is the model I applied to
teaching writing in my study.
Building on the work of the Sydney School project, current research is concerned with
finding approaches to guide curriculum development and pedagogy advancement in support of
academic literacy (i.e., reading and writing in school contexts). There are numerous studies on
the potential of the genre-based approach to literacy in Australia and other countries (Christie &
Derewianka, 2008; Coffin, 1997, 2004; Llinares & Whittaker, 2007; Martin, 2009; Rothery &
Stenglin, 1997; Unsworth, 2000; Veel & Coffin, 1996, among others); however, the present
literature review is restricted to studies that investigated the genre-based approach to the teaching
of writing in the American context. The studies are organized into two categories: English as a
second language and foreign languages.
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2.3 REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON THE APPLICATION OF GENRE-BASED
APPROACH IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
The majority of the work done on the genre-based approach in ESL in the American
context is in K-12 schools with English language learners (ELLs) to teach academic language.
Although this investigated the genre-based approach in a university setting with Arabic as FL
learners, K-12 school research informs the methods for the study. As Iddings and de Oliveira
(2011) reason, “in some respect, learning academic language is like learning a foreign language”
(p.38), especially for students who are only exposed to the new language being learned in the
classroom such as ELLs.
In the United States, the increasing growth in the ELL population in schools, along with
the requirements of the New Common Core State Standards, place an increasing demand to
support ELLs’ academic writing development (e,g., Achugar, Schleppegrell, & Oteiza, 2007;
Gebhard, Demers, & Castillo-Rosenthal, 2008; Schleppegrell, 2004, 2006; Schleppegrell &
Colombi, 2002). Thus, educational linguists in the U.S. (e.g., de Oliveira & Lan, 2014; Iddings &
de Oliveira, 2011; Ramos, 2015; Schleppegrell & Colombi, 2002; Schleppegrell & Go, 2007;
Schleppegrell, Greer, & Taylor, 2008; Schleppegrell & O’Hallaron, 2011; Schleppegrell, 1998,
2004; Schulze, 2011) have advocated for and investigated the genre-based approach informed by
SFL to support ELLs during the process of their writing development. In this body of research,
the two salient features are (1) the role of SFL text analysis and (2) the role of SFL
metalanguage.
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2.3.1 The Role of Text Analysis in Supporting Second Language Writing
SFL analysis of model texts, students’ texts, and textbooks have played an important role
in identifying and teaching the stages and linguistic features of the genre. It also played a role in
identifying students’ strengths and needs and for providing feedback to students.
2.3.1.1 Identifying and teaching linguistic features of the genre
With the objective of making genre writing explicit and accessible to all students, a
number of researchers used SFL and genre theory to analyze and identify the linguistic features
and stages of different academic genres and their registers. They then investigated the application
of genre-based approach to writing (e.g., de Oliveira & Lan, 2014; Schleppegrell, 2001, 2004,
2006; Schulze, 2011). For example, Schleppegrell (2004) described the language of valued
school genres by analyzing texts from different grade levels and subject areas, textbooks, and
texts written by students at different levels (middle school, high school and university). Her
analysis (Schleppegrell, 2006, 2004) and her colleagues’ analyses (e.g., Schleppegrell, Achugar,
& Oteiza, 2004; Fang & Schleppegrell, 2010) demonstrated that the texts required to read, to
write, and to speak in schools employ registers that are academic and different than everyday
registers. Those academic texts progressively express different social contexts and progressively
use a language that is lexically dense, abstract, and authoritative, for which students, and
especially ELLs, are inadequately prepared (Schleppegrell, 2004, 2012).
Supporting students’ academic literacy development cannot rely solely on language arts
teachers; all teachers have to equally contribute (Schleppegrell, 2012) because to learn content is
to learn language, and “no language is ever taught in isolation from content” (Schleppegrell et
al., 2004, p.68). Building on this work, Fang and Schleppegrell (2010) maintain that “helping
27
learners recognize language patterns typical in different disciplines can raise their awareness
about the varied ways language constructs knowledge in different subjects” (p.591). In other
words, identifying the linguistic features of the genre and the register is an essential step to create
this awareness.
Based on the linguistic features of academic language identified by Schleppegrell (2006),
when considering the stages of the persuasive genre (i.e., introduction with a thesis on the
argument^ development of the argument ^ conclusion with a reiteration of the argument),
Ramos, (2012, 2015) used these features in the application of a genre-based approach (Rose &
Martin, 2012) to teach persuasive genre writing with ELLs in an urban high school. She first
built students’ knowledge about the topic (i.e., whether amnesty should be granted to
undocumented immigrants). Next, Ramos (2012) did a close and detailed reading of two models
of persuasive genres following the reading to learn framework (Rose & Martin, 2012). During
the reading process, she presented the stages of the persuasive essay genre and led her students
on a functional analysis of the three types of meanings construed in the text (i.e., Ideational,
Interpersonal, and Textual). Next, the entire class constructed a persuasive essay supported by
her scaffolding, and, later, she asked her students to independently write a persuasive essay.
To guide her students during their independent writing, Ramos (2012) used the
performance criteria. These criteria were also used to score pre- and post-writing tests and
included the three types of meaning: (1) presentation of content and knowledge (Ideational), (2)
projection of an authoritative stance (Interpersonal), and (3) construction of a well-organized text
(Textual). Ramos also included the language resources that would realize each meaning.
Although the three types of meaning were presented in a rubric form, their use required an SFL
analysis of students’ essays. The comparison of the pre- and post- writing tests measured on the
28
criteria demonstrated a significant improvement in students’ essays. Ramos triangulated this
finding with the SFL analysis for the tests of a focal group of students, the students’ surveys and
interviews, and her own reflections and video excerpts. She then concluded that the genre-based
approach, with the close SFL analysis of sample texts at its core, supported students’ control
over the linguistic resources needed to write a persuasive academic essay.
In another study, Schulze (2011) applied one of the TLC to teach writing in the
persuasive genre in a 6th grade class with ELLs. Schulze built the field with his students on the
U.S. electoral process by reading and discussing magazines articles related to the topic. After
building the field, he analyzed model texts of the persuasive genre with his students as part of the
deconstruction stage. Schulze explained to his students the different stages of the persuasive
essay and facilitated a discussion about the three meanings construed in each stage. For the
interpersonal meaning, for example, he asked students to evaluate the extent to which the author
was successful in persuading them as readers and to highlight the lexicon, grammar, and phrases
that construed persuasion. Thus, Schulze made the form-functional meaning connection
noticeable to his students.
After jointly writing a persuasive essay with the class, each student independently wrote
three other drafts. In between the drafts, Schulze worked with his students on the linguistic
features of the register variables that were missing in their drafts. For example, for Tenor, they
worked on identifying words that established authority. The SFL analysis of one focal student’s
drafts showed her improvement in using the linguistic resources for writing in the persuasive
genre, such as the increase in use of circumstances of time and the use of aspects of Modality
and Appraisal. Schulze (2011) like Ramos (2012, 2015) concluded that the genre-based approach
to writing instruction helped the students expand their use of the linguistic resources and their
29
awareness of the options the English language system affords, thus improving their academic
writing. However, during instruction, both Schulze and Ramos focused their analyses on
different aspects of the persuasive genre. To construe textual meaning, Schulze concentrated on
scaffolding students to use transition words (i.e., connectors) whereas Ramos, in addition to the
use of connectors, introduced her students to the use of nominalization that also helps develop
the chain of meaning. This difference might have been in response to the students’ abilities, the
topic being covered, and the curricular goals. Other studies in content areas that used genre-
based approach informed by SFL to teach genre writing also reported on students’ improvement
in writing the genre being studied (e.g., de Oliveira & Lan, 2014 in teaching procedural recount
genre in a science class).
In conclusion, functional analysis of texts to identify its linguistic features is at the heart
of the genre-based writing approach. The analyses in the studies reviewed focused on two levels
of analysis: (1) the genre stages and register variables at the context level and (2) the lexico-
grammatical characteristics to the genre at the language level. Although the functional analysis
of texts is essential to the genre-based writing approach, the studies reviewed indicate that it is
the teacher’s decision to choose which meaning-making resources she wants to make noticeable
to her students and which are most pertinent to the genre and register.
2.3.1.2 Identifying students’ strengths and needs and providing them with feedback
As part of the genre-based approach, some educational linguists analyzed students’ texts
to identify and respond to students’ strengths and needs, as well as to provide feedback on their
writing (Schleppegrell, 1998; Schleppegrell & Go, 2007; Spycher, 2007). For example,
Schleppegrell (1998) analyzed 128 students’ texts from a seventh-grade science class, with two-
thirds of the class being L2 learners. A comparison of the grammatical features in students’
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description-genre writing (e.g., a description of an animal or plant in response to a picture) to the
typical features in a science report (Kress, 1994; Martin, 1993) allowed her to discern the
features that are problematic for students. Those features included the inappropriate use of the
personal context instead of the academic interpersonal context (i.e., to establish distance between
reader and writer), confusion in the use of non-restrictive relative clauses (i.e., the type of clause
that is not necessary in the clause complex but gives more information about the participant[s]),
and the errors in constructing forms of plural markings, possessive forms, and tense changes.
Analyzing students’ texts allowed “teachers and students to focus on those grammatical
elements that are most [emphasis added] functional for the assigned task” (Schleppegrell, 2008,
p.207). It also raised students’ awareness of the different language choices available to them,
giving the students the ability to choose the way they want to “represent themselevs as writers”
(p.206). Schleppegrell (2004, 2006, 2008) repeatedly pointed out that it is important for teachers
to understand how different tasks involve different genres with different registers and that
acquiring the academic register is a long, developmental process. Teachers can foster this
development by directing students to focus on grammatical resources that will help them realize
this type of register.
With the same aim of supporting students’ academic writing as in the previous study,
Schleppegrell and Go (2007) analyzed four ELLs texts, two from the fifth grade and two from
the sixth grade. The researchers analyzed the students’ writings in the recount genre to identify
their language choices guided by three questions --What is the text about? How are judgements/
evaluations expressed? How is the text organized? These three questions correspond to the SFL
metafunctions of Ideational, Interpersonal, and Textual. For the first question, the researchers
analyzed the use of processes (i.e., verbs in traditional grammar); for the second question, they
31
examined how judgements and evaluations were expressed in verbs (see example below); and,
for the third question, they examined the use of connectors and circumstances (i.e., prepositional
phrases and adverbs). Schleppegrell and Go’s analysis showed the differences in students’ use of
the language resources. For example, in answering the second question, two of the students used
mainly relational verbs (e.g., He is in China) in contrast to the more advanced students who
expressed judgement in their descriptions, such as through using thinking and feeling processes
(e.g., He knows how to play). Schleppegrell and Go (2007) discerned the grammatical choices
students used in their writing and gave them a clear idea of students’ strengths and weaknesses.
This approach can help ELLs’ teachers and FL teachers to systematically address students’
linguistic needs for a specific genre and design instructional interventions to support their
students’ writing in that genre.
Spycher (2007) built on the above study and reported on the teaching of expository-genre
writing using explicit instruction and analysis of students’ texts. These texts were taken from
English-language development classes for high-school students who were in the 10th through 12th
grades. Spycher, as both the researcher and teacher, analyzed students’ expository-genre writing
to understand the linguistic challenges her students faced. Her analysis revealed three linguistic
features that are challenging to students: (1) the use of authoritative voice, (2) the use of lexical
resources for reference, and (3) the use of conjunctions to create cohesion.
After scaffolding these features using multiple instructional practices including the TLC,
a comparison between the first and second draft of the focal student’s writing showed
improvement in using the same features. Text analysis and the diagnosis of the problematic
linguistic features in students’ work guided Spycher’s focused instruction and scaffolding. It also
supported her departure from the traditional convention, in which students have to control basic
32
linguistic features before being taught advanced features. This support may be particularly
valuable for the teaching of FL at the university level. Usually, those students want to express
more complex ideas that require advanced language features.
In another study, Gebhard, Shin, and Seger (2011) reported on the teaching of persuasive-
genre writing (e.g., convincing the school principal to give students more time for recess) in a 5th
grade ELL classroom. The teacher used analysis of students’ texts to provide them with
feedback that targeted specific functional linguistic features of the genre (e.g., the interpersonal
element) during a write- feedback-edit cycle. The case study presented one student’s essay that
revealed how this type of targeted feedback made the student aware of the linguistic features that
she had employed. Additionally, the teacher pointed out to her student the features that needed to
be employed in her persuasive essay, such as using language that shows the student’s
acknowledgement that the principal has authority.
The findings in the studies reviewed in this subsection corroborate with Fang and Wang's
(2011) argument that functional analysis of students’ writing enable teachers to assess the
content, organization, and style/tone/voice. Functional analysis gives teachers a tool to assess
and provide targeted feedback on specific linguistic elements in the texts and to plan remedial
interventions based on students’ needs. As an example, the analysis of the participants,
processes, and circumstances would enable the teacher to assess the content. In fact, Fang and
Wang (2011) underscored the power of functional linguistic analysis and put a call for all
teachers to go beyond the “rubric-ese mentality” (p.162) by enriching their knowledge about
language and how it works in different genres and registers. Through these studies, it is clear
that SFL is a pedagogical tool.
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2.3.2 Some Limitations of Genre-Based Approach
The genre-based approach informed by SFL is not without its complexity and critics. The
implementation of this type of pedagogy requires training teachers in SFL analysis and seeing
students’ development as an expansion of their meaning making resources, rather than just
development in correctness of syntax and grammar. It also requires teacher’s knowledge about
the features of the language of their discipline (e.g., Achugar et al., 2007; Macken & Slade,
1993; Macken-Horarik, 2005; Schleppegrell, 2004). Most importantly, the SFL analysis takes
time, which usually is a valuable commodity for teachers, especially those who have larger- or
many - classes. Additionally, the genre-based approach has been criticized as an approach that
inhibits students’ creativity (e.g., Kay & Dudley-Evans, 1998). In response to these critics,
educational linguists emphasize that the SFL informed genre-based approach is grounded in
“linguistic elements that realize the genre, so that they are not taught as formulaic but as social
processes that are realized in certain language choices” (Schleppegrell, 2004, p.157), and those
choices are enriched by their constraints (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007). To this end, the genre-
based approach makes the most typically made language choices of the genre and its register
transparent to learners, and this is especially valuable to students who are not exposed to the
language they are learning other than in the classroom, such as ELLs with academic language. It
is equally valuable to FL leaners, such as Arabic learners, that are learning a language for social
contexts they may have never experienced out of the classroom.
SFL informed genre-based writing instruction would not have been possible without the
metalanguage that SFL affords. The reviewed studies above do not explicitly report on the role
that the metalanguage plays in the genre-based approach to writing. Therefore, in the next
section, I will turn to those studies that do.
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2.3.3 The Role of SFL Metalanguage
SFL offers a metalanguage, which refers to the language used to talk about the linguistic
choices the author or speaker makes to construct meaning (Moore & Schleppegrell, 2014;
Schleppegrell, 2013) using functional rather than structural categories (Gebhard, Chen, &
Britton, 2014). A few studies reported that SFL metalanguage can support ELLs expansion of
their meaning-making resources and their development of content knowledge after receiving
instruction in the genre-based writing approach (Gebhard et al., 2014; Macken-Horarik, 2009;
Moore & Schleppegrell, 2014; Schleppegrell, 2009), because it can bring unconscious
knowledge about language to learners’ awareness (Rose & Martin, 2012) in the context of the
discipline. As an example, Schleppegrell (2010) described how second grade teachers of
bilingual and ELLs used the SFL metalanguage to scaffold the writing of two genres—the first,
to write a recount of events after reading a story, and the second to write an argument essay that
takes a stand on the events recounted. In order to draw students’ close attention to the author’s
language choices, and scaffold their understanding of the characters’ involvement in the events
of the story, a meaningful, student-friendly metalanguage was used to track the events and
characters’ development. Students categorized the processes of doing, saying, sensing, and
being, to explore how characters are involved in different processes as the narrative unfolds.
Then, using the genre’s metalanguage, the teachers introduced their students to the stages of the
recount genre (Orientation ^ Events^ Evaluation) and the language choices expected at each
stage. For instance, they indicated that the Orientation stage would include circumstances of time
and place and the Evaluation stage would include the processes of sensing and being. An
example of one of the student’s writing showed her control of the different stages of the recount
genre besides her use of some of the language characteristics of each stage. After the children
35
were able to write the recount, the teachers used the metalanguage to scaffold their writing of the
argument essay. In fact, the recount genre was also a scaffold for the argumentative genre.
In this study, the metalanguage focused the classroom discourse on the language in the
story in order to scaffold the writing of the two genres. The teachers reported that the
metalanguage provided them with the tools to talk about the language with their students, which
supported their students during their writing. It also helped the teachers make the connection of
form (e.g., types of processes used) with meaning (e.g., characters’ involvement in the story)
noticeable to their students. Another study by Schleppegrell (2013) also described a second grade
teacher’s use of metalanguage to talk about a story in an English language arts class. The lesson
objective was to help students notice how different speech functions (offer, statement, question,
and command) can be realized through different Mood choices (declarative, interrogative,
imperative). For instance, the teacher drew her students’ attention to the fact that the command
can be realized through an interrogative mood -- “would you please give me your pencil” – or
the imperative mood --“give me this pencil.” Using the metalanguage of mood choices and
speech functions, the teacher led her students on a discussion about the choices made in the story
they were reading. During classroom discussion, the metalanguage was used to support
students’ understanding of the possibility of using different forms to express the same meaning,
thus, seeing the larger system and the options the system makes available in different contexts.
Even though writing was not the focus of this study, Schleppegrell (2010, 2013), like Moore and
Schleppegrell (2014), maintains that this type of discussion based on interaction through the
shared experience and the use of a meaningful metalanguage can support students’ meaning-
making as they move from reading to writing.
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In a more rigorous study, Gebhard et al., (2014) explored how an elementary school
teacher in an ELL’s class used the genre and SFL-metalanguage with her students and how
students used the metalanguage to help them read and write historical and scientific explanations
over the course of a school year. Data for this study came from classroom interactions, teacher’s
feedback on her students’ writing, students’ written texts, and metalinguistic instructional events
(i.e., teaching events where SFL metalanguage was important to the task). These data allowed
the researchers to track changes in the teacher’s practices of using SFL metalanguage and its
influence on the ELLs’ written work. A three-phase analysis of the data showed that instruction
using SFL metalanguage afforded students the tools to construct and deconstruct texts at the
genre and clause levels, such as tracking Theme/Rheme patterns and categorizing processes. As
a result, students were also able to recognize patterns in texts, produce longer and more coherent
written texts, and receive higher scores on district assessment. Gebhard and her colleagues
concluded that SFL metalanguage is a powerful tool that supports ELLs’ awareness of how
language makes meaning when producing their own texts.
As the above studies show, SFL metalanguage provides the teachers and students with a
flexible pedagogical tool kit to build “students’ capacities to make meanings across an ever
expanding range of contexts” (Dare, 2010, p. 24). At the same time, it makes knowledge about
language noticeable to learners (Rose & Martin, 2012). It also affords the teachers and their
students the tools to articulate the different meanings construed in the different dimensions of the
language (i.e., genre, register, lexico-grammar) depending on the context, text, curricular goals,
and students’ abilities. Furthermore, Achugar et al., (2007) argues that the metalanguage allows
language users to reflect on the meaning the author and themselves construe in the linguistic
choices and become more critical of those choices. However, the use of metalanguage does not
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come without complexity. Teachers and students have to learn a new functional metalanguage
and to think functionally about the text when they are already accustomed to thinking
structurally, using the structural and more conventional metalanguage (e.g., noun, subject, and
verb). This critique has been addressed by using a student-friendly metalanguage and being
selective about the metalanguage to use with students (Macken-Horarik, 2016; Schleppegrell,
2010).
In short, as this section shows, the main aim of the genre-based approach to teaching
academic language writing to ELLs is to help students become aware of how language construes
meaning in academic texts, and thus become aware of the wider range of linguistic resources that
they themselves can use in academic writing. In other words, it helps to socialize ELLs into the
culture of academic language. Given the support which the genre-based approach to writing
affords to ELLs, this approach might also be useful to teaching writing in foreign languages,
such as Arabic as a FL. To further investigate the value of the genre-based approach to FL
writing, I turn to reviewing the literature on the application of genre-based approach to writing in
FL education.
2.4 REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL STUDIES ON GENRE-BASED APPROACH TO
TEACHING WRITING IN FL EDUCATION
Outside the K-12 context with ELLs, the role of genre-based approach to writing in the
U.S. has not been explored in great detail. Therefore, there is a dearth of research on its
application in FL education. In FL higher education context, Byrnes, Maxim, and Norris (2010)
documented the curricula reform undertaken at the German literature and cultural department at
38
Georgetown University (GT). The goal of the curriculum is a textually oriented literacy in all
modality through the concept of genre and a realization of learners’ advanced writing ability over
the span of the four-year literature and culture program (Developing Multiple Literacies, 2000;
Byrnes et al., 2009). Collaboratively, faculty members identified the genres to be taught for each
of the five curricular levels with a focus on learners’ literacy development including writing.
Students are first introduced to familiar genre and as they move through the curricular levels
more unfamiliar and public genres are introduced. In level I for example, students learn the
primary genre such personal narratives and in level V students learn political speeches (Byrnes &
Sprang, 2004). In this approach, content and text sequence are organized through the concept of
genre, moving content and text along a commonsense – an uncommon sense continuum. The
curriculum is rooted in the claim that “learning to write and writing to learn are not separated and
that writing is embedded in the array of learning tasks that the curriculum envisions and that
particular courses and classes will realize” (Byrnes et al., 2010, p. 72). Therefore, the faculty at
GT University articulated a writing program that links tasks to genre (genre-based task). A
genre-based task approach using the teaching/learning cycle (TLC) (Rothery, 1989) was
implemented across the four year curriculum in a five sequenced courses (Byrnes et al., 2010).
In longitudinal studies, Byrnes (2006, 2009) and Ryshina-Pankova (2006) used
grammatical metaphors as a construct for assessing students’ writing development. Grammatical
metaphor (GM) is a way of expressing meaning using lexico-grammar that originally expressed
another meaning (Thompson, 1996) (see example below). Furthermore, GMs afford the
expansion of the meaning potential by creating new structures (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014).
Thus, it is considered an indication of language development as students move from expressing
congruent meaning to more abstract meaning (e.g., Halliday &Martin ,1993; Halliday &
39
Mattheissen, 2014; Coffin,1997) and from every day spoken language to academic language
(Colombi, 2002, 2006, 2009; Schleppegrell, 2004), which Byrnes study sought to trace.
In this example, I illustrate one way of expressing meaning using GM named
nomilalization:
1- He suggested the idea and they ignored it.
2- His suggestion of the idea was ignored.
The verb “suggested” in the first sentence has been converted to a noun “suggestion” in
the second sentence in the process of nominalization. According to Halliday (1994),
“nominalization is the single most powerful resource for creating GM” (p. 352). Suggestion can
be “classified and categorized, qualified, quantified, identified and described in various ways”
(Byrnes, 2009, p.52). In other words, GM through nominalization is a fusion between a mental
process and a thingness of an object. GM may also be expressed by verbs functioning as
adjectives, adverbs functioning as adjectives, and conjunctions as prepositional phrases
(Halliday, 1994).
For example, in Byrnes’ study, the quantitative analyses of the writings of 14 students
revealed that the lexical density (i.e., number of lexical words/ total number of clauses) increased
at each of the curricular levels (level 2, 3, and 4), increasing from 2.46 at level 2, to 3.29 at level
3, and to 4.11 at level 4. It also showed that the grammatical intricacy (number of clause
complexes/ total number of clauses) decreased slightly between levels, which are consistent with
SFL claim’s regarding written language’s characteristics (Halliday, 1985). The lexical density
increases because the non-lexical items decreases and the number of clauses go down.
Additionally, the occurrences of GM in nominalization showed an increase from one level to the
other shifting from 13.14 at level 1, to 17.36 at level 2, and to 55.43 at level 3. To capture the
40
realization of textual meaning, the qualitative analysis of one of the learner’s writings revealed
an increase in his use of GM across the three curricular levels. This analysis supported the
quantitative increase of GM occurrences between level 2 and 3 and the remarkable increase
between level 3 and 4. Byrnes findings showed the potential of the genre-based task curriculum
combined with the TLC pedagogical approach to support FL development.
Byrnes (2009) study echoes the findings in Colombi's (2002, 2006) studies. In a
longitudinal study for three academic quarters with heritage Spanish speakers in a university
undergraduate program in the United States, Colombi (2002, 2006) analyzed students’ oral and
written texts using SFL at the beginning of the first quarter and end of the third quarter. She
defines heritage speakers as those learners that developed heritage language in their homes but
cannot use it in academic setting. Colombi found that students develop along a continuum from
more spoken language to more academic form of language (i.e., from congruent to less
congruent). She then concluded that there is a need of a pedagogy that teaches about text in
social context to enable students from different background to gain control over texts that can
shape their future, such as academic texts. This conclusion led her to turn to explicit pedagogy
such as using the TLC.
In a follow up article, Colombi (2009) discussed how explicit instruction of genre and
register can be used as a way to support the development of academic language in heritage
speakers. To meet this educational goal, she designed curriculum by grouping different genres
(oral and written) of authentic texts under the same overarching theme. Informed by the findings
from her longitudinal study (Colombi, 2006), she organized the texts on a continuum moving
from personal genres (e.g., short story) to more academic ones (e.g., literary text). She also used
the TLC, adapted from Martin (1993, 2009) as an instructional approach to make the features of
41
the text visible to students. For example, through explicit instruction she made students notice
the differences in linguistic features in oral and written language in different genres such as the
use of grammatical metaphor, a mark of academic writing (Halliday, 1994).
In a later study, Troyan (2013, 2014) implemented a genre-based approach to writing the
description of a touristic landmark with elementary school students (age 10-11) in a Spanish
class during a unit on the city of Segovia (in Spain). He first identified the stages and the
linguistic features to describe historical monuments in Spanish as: (1) the title of the text
includes the nominal group; (2) the hook entices the reader and is realized through the material
process and an actor (i.e., the castle) and appreciation of the actor (e,g., the tallest); (3) historical
facts are realized through either mental or material processes; (4) architectural facts are realized
through the use of material processes (5) the invitation to visit is realized through the use of a
command. Then, informed by this analysis, Troyan’s (2013, 2014) suggested the genre-based
interactive approach model, which integrated TLC of the Sydney school (Martin, 2009) into the
interactive approach for the three modes of communication (i.e., interpersonal, interpretive, and
presentational) (Shrum & Glisan, 2010). Before this integration of the two approaches, the
interactive approach comprised of four stages that led students on tasks in different modes of
communication, ignoring the type of text used that students’ produced in each task. This new
model addresses this shortcoming by its focus on genre and is comprised of four stages.
During the first phase, guided by the teacher, students engaged in activities that help
interpret the text. For the second phase, the teacher led the students in deconstructing the model
genre and discussed the general meaning and lexico-grammatical features in each stage
concentrating on the field (i.e., content) through the experiential elements (i.e., participants,
processes, and circumstances) of the ideational metafunction. During the third phase, the
42
students in pairs or small groups collaboratively constructed a text in the same genre. Finally, in
the last phase students independently wrote their own texts which also functioned as the post-
test. Troyan’s model (2013, 2014) with its focus on genre helped the teacher transform her
instruction into a clear description of the genre that the students were expected to produce. The
implementation of this model resulted in students’ improvement in their own writing in the same
genre. The pre- and post-writing tests were evaluated by two different instruments. The genre-
based-instrument is informed by the stages and the linguistic features of the description of the
touristic landmark genre. The performance-based instrument is the rubric of the presentational
mode of the integrated performance assessment from Glisan, Adair-Hauk, Koda, Sandrock, &
Swender (2003) based on five categories: language, function, text type, impact,
comprehensibility, and language control. The pre- and post- writing tests measured by the genre-
based instrument revealed a significant improvement in students writing (p < .001). However, the
pre- and post- writing test measured by the performance-based instrument did not show a
significant difference. Troyan (2013) attributed this insignificance to the lack of the instrument’s
sensitivity. Thus, Troyan showed the efficacy of the genre-based approach to writing in the
context of elementary school age students.
2.5 TEACHING READING IN THE GENRE-BASED PEDAGOGY
Educational linguists used systemic functional linguistics and its metalanguage as a
framework to scaffold reading of different genres in language courses and content areas courses
with ELLs. For example, Palincsar and Schleppegrell (2014) used SFL metalanguage to scaffold
ELLs’ understanding of the notion of likelihood in science texts. After the teacher introduced her
43
students to the concept of likelihood and its relation to the system of modality using everyday
examples, students categorized the language that expressed likelihood into a scale of high, mid,
and low degrees of likelihood. Then, they read texts in which students identified the different
forms that expressed likelihood to add to their scale. They also orally practiced the interpretation
of different degrees of likelihood. Following the close analysis of the text, the students answered
a prompt that provided evidence of their understanding. According to the authors, these activities
that were supported by the metalanguage raised students’ awareness about the range of language
resources that express the concept of likelihood. Nevertheless, the authors did not explain the
type of prompt that elicited this evidence.
In another study, Fang and Schleppegrell (2010) used SFL analysis and SFL
metalanguage to help students read science texts in secondary classrooms. The SFL
metalanguage allowed students and their teacher to discuss the content, the organization, and the
author’s perspective in the text to support their reading. Thus, both above mentioned studies
explained how SFL metalanguage allowed students to recognize the specialized patterns of
language that are used in complex science texts. Both studies described how SFL text analysis
can be used in the classroom. However, they did not illustrate the extent to which students
comprehended the texts.
Moreover, to support the reading that was marginalized in the teaching/learning cycle
(the model implemented in this study and explained in section 2.2.2.1) (Martin & Rose, 2012)
included additional steps to the TLC to scaffold reading, which yielded the Reading to Learn
model. This model comprises three phases with three level of support in each: (1) preparing to
read, in which students are supported to develop an understanding of the overall text in
preparation for a closer reading that involves more scaffolding as well as sentence reading; (2)
44
joint construction, in which teacher lead the class in joint constructing the text, which includes
planning what they are going to write based on the detailed reading analysis of the text they read;
(3) individual construction, in which students write a text but still with the teacher support (in
contrast to the independent construction of the TLC). The application of this model yielded
promising results (e.g., Acevedo & Rose, 2007; Ramos, 2012, 2014)).
As this review shows, the SFL analysis of texts and the metalanguage that SFL affords,
as well as the reading to learn model informed by SFL supported students’ reading of texts in
content areas. Nevertheless, there are no studies that show the relationship between learning to
write using the TLC model and reading texts from the same genre, which the present study
sought to examine.
2.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The literature review above shows the potential of the SFL informed genre-based
approach to writing with ELLs in K-12 and with FL learners in the U.S. context, demonstrating
the support this approach can give to teachers and students during writing instruction.
In the K-12 context with ELLs, the literature emphasizes the important role SFL text
analysis and SFL metalanguage play in informing the genre-based approach to teaching
academic writing (e.g., Moore & Schleppegrell, 2014; Ramos, 2015; Schleppegrell & Go, 2007;
Schleppegrell, 2004, 2006, 2012; Schulze, 2011), as well as their role in identifying students’
strengths and needs and for providing students with feedback (e.g., Fang & Wang, 2011;
Gebhard, Shin, & Seger, 2011; Schleppegrell & Go, 2007; Spycher, 2007). The SFL analysis
identifies the characteristic of the genre and the SFL metalanguage focuses the conversation in
45
the classroom on the linguistic choices and the three meanings construed in the genre (Moore &
Schleppegrell, 2014; Schleppegrell, 2010, 2013). Thus, it is the SFL metalanguage informed by
the analysis that supports and systematically scaffolds students’ knowledge about the linguistic
choices available to them in a particular genre. The scaffold takes place during either one of the
iterations of the TLC of the Sydney School or during a write-give feedback-edit cycle which had
been preceded by lessons that had built the content of the subject.
In the FL education context, the literature review shows that genre-based instruction
informed by SFL is still in its infancy. In the FL educational context, the work done in the U. S.
includes the seminal work done at GT University in the German department led by Byrnes and
her colleagues (Byrnes, 2009; Byrnes, Maxim, & Norris, 2010), Troyan’s (2013, 2014) study in a
Spanish elementary school program, and Colombi’s work (2002, 2006, 2009) with heritage
speaker at the university level. All studies showed the efficacy of the genre-based approach in FL
education in the different contexts.
With genre-based instruction in FL education being in its infancy, it is not surprising that
there are no studies done on Arabic, a less commonly-taught language (LCTL). Before exploring
the genre-based approach in Arabic, Arabic genres have to be analyzed to reveal its characteristic
features (i.e., stages and lexico-grammar) because “genres are not uniform across cultures”
(Derewianka, 2003, p.142) and varies from language to the other.
In turn, these characteristics will inform language educators as they prepare materials,
instructions, and assessments for the genre-based approach. Even though (Bardi, 2008), one of
Christian Matthiessen’s students, has described the three SFL metafunctions of Arabic, there has
been no actual application of Arabic SFL in educational contexts. Since this approach makes
clear how the language choices realize social contexts (and social contexts are realized by
46
language), it will be the Arabic teacher’s decision to choose when, what, and how to teach
(Macken-Horarik, 2002) depending on the genre, register, students’ abilities, and curricula goals.
Besides this lack of studies in FL education, the research methods used in the studies in
both English as a second language (ESL) and FL contexts are limited. In ESL research, studies
are mainly exploratory in that they describe the application of the genre-based approach and
ELLs’ writings (Moore & Schleppegrell, 2014; Schleppegrell & Go, 2007; Schleppegrell, 2010).
In FL context, in a university program that implemented the genre-based task approach, in a
longitudinal study, Byrnes’ (2009) traced quantitatively the writing development of 14 students,
and qualitatively the writing of one student from the cohort over the course of three consecutive
curricular levels (levels 2, 3, and 4). Byrnes traced the changes in students’ writing through their
use of grammatical metaphor, which is an SFL construct that indicates language development.
Troyan’s (2013) study, in an FL context evaluated the effectiveness of his genre-based
interactive model. He triangulated the data from qualitative SFL analysis of pre and post writing
tests, surveys, field notes, and personal notes together with quantitative analysis of students’
pretest and posttest tests scores. In this study, I follow a mixed method approach (explained in
Chapter 3) in which students writing are quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed and compared
after the teaching/learning cycle was implemented compared to their initial writing.
As for research on the genre-based approach to reading, studies described the support
SFL text analysis can give to students while reading texts. However, there are no studies that
showed the relationship between learning to write using the teaching/learning cycle informed by
SFL and reading.
Informed by the studies on the genre-based approach to writing and reading in ESL and
FL contexts and in response to the need for more research on genre-based approach in FL
47
educational context, especially, Arabic as a less-commonly-taught language, I sought to fill in
this need in present study.
48
3.0 METHODOLOGY
This mixed method study investigated students’ writing before and after the genre-based
approach (described in section 3.5) in a second semester university Arabic course. To describe
the methodology for the study, this chapter will be divided into four sections: (1) the context of
the study (i.e., research site and participants), (2) the research questions and alignment of data
sources, (3) the stages and lexico-grammar for each stage in the Arabic recount genre, (4) the
procedure and instruments for collecting and analyzing the data, and (5) the description for the
genre-based approach implemented in this study.
3.1 CONTEXT
3.1.1 Site
This research was conducted in a second semester Arabic language class in an Arabic
program in the less commonly-taught language center at a large research university in the
northeastern region of the US. At the time of the study, there were 115 students enrolled in six
levels of Arabic language classes offered in the program in addition to a number of students
enrolled in literature and culture classes. The researcher chose this site because of her intimate
knowledge of the program and its progress. This knowledge was gained during the decade in
49
which the researcher taught in the program, developed syllabi in the different language and
culture classes, and conducted several action research projects in these classes.
For this study, one second semester language class was chosen because teaching writing
is part of the syllabus, and students’ enrollment in the class is relatively high (15 students).
Additionally, the original instructor of the course (referred to in this study as the original
instructor in order not to confuse him with the instructor (myself) who taught the classes during
the three week study) willingly opened his class for conducting this type of research.
3.1.2 Participants
Participants in this study are the students and instructor.
3.1.2.1 Students
To answer the five research questions below, data was collected from one intact second
semester Arabic language class with 15 students. According to Mackey and Gass (2015),
samples from intact classes have more face validity than other types of sampling. Enrolled in this
class were one graduate student and 14 undergraduate students from various majors. They
enrolled in the course to satisfy the university language requirement, to obtain an undergraduate
certificate in Arabic Language and Linguistics or in Global Studies, or simply to learn the Arabic
language and culture. The student in this intact class represented Arabic learners in this
institution.
Before the start of the study the 15 students answered the questionnaire about their
demographic information (Appendix B). Each student’s self-reported information on the
languages other than Arabic he/she speaks, his/her experiences before enrolling in Arabic classes
50
at the university along with each student pseudonym, gender, years at the university are depicted
in Table 2. The achievement levels were decided by students’ former instructor from the
previous semester. These impressionistic teacher’s ratings (high achieving [H], mid achieving
[M], and low achieving [L]) were according to students’ grades in the course, teacher’s
interactions with students, and teacher’s experience with the class. Those grades corroborated
with the pretest scores.
Table 2. Participants’ Demographic information
Student’s name
Gender Achieve-ment Level
Year in University
Language spoken other than English
Studied Arabic before enrolling in university Arabic courses
Sally F H Freshman Urdu (heritage) 1.Startalk beginner program for a month 2. Reading for religious purposes
Nancy F H Junior French (L1) Syrian cultural center in Paris for 3 years
Nicole F M Senior Punjabi (heritage) At a mosque for religious purposes
Emma F M Junior Italian N/A Zack(L) M L Freshman N/A N/A Matthew M M Junior N/A N/A Thomas(H) M H Freshman Czech (L1) N/A Maria F H Graduate 3rd
year Spanish N/A
Henry(M) M M Sophomore Urdu(heritage) To read For religious purposes
Iman F M Freshman Urdu (heritage) N/A Rob M H Freshman Arabic (heritage) Speaks at home and
in Syria with relatives
Dave M H Freshman French N/A Amina F H Freshman Urdu (heritage) N/A Majed M H Junior Urdu (heritage) To read for religious
purposes Kyle M H Freshman Spanish N/A
Note. Names of students with a subscript denote students in the focal group; H = high achievement, M = mid achievement, L = low achievement. N/A= Not Available , L1= the first language.
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3.1.2.2 Focal group of students
Based on students’ performance in the previous course as evaluated by their former
instructor, students were categorized in one of three groups: low achievement level, medium
achievement level, and high achievement level. Then, I randomly picked one student out of each
of the achievement level groups: Zach for low achievement, Henry for mid achievement, and
Thomas for high achievement. To confirm these achievement levels, the three students’ pretests
were compared to the former instructor’s assessment and found to be the same achievement
levels. On the pretest out of the possible maximum 28 points Zach earned 8 points, Henry 11
points, and Thomas 14 points. The purpose of the focal group was to describe and compare in
detail students’ linguistic choices in their writing after a more qualitative delicate SFL analysis
was performed.
3.1.2.3 Instructor
For this study, I was the researcher and the instructor. At the time of the study, I was a
doctoral candidate and have 10 years of experience teaching a variety of Arabic language and
culture courses at the same university and at other institutions of higher education in the United
States. My knowledge of SFL and genre comes from my doctoral course work and from my
application of the genre-based approach (Rose & Martin, 2012) in an action research project in a
third-year Arabic course during the spring semester of 2015. I also taught a range of classes in
methods for teaching FL (e.g., Principles and Practices of Foreign Language Testing and
Assessment, Issues in FL Education, and Special Topics in FL Education) in the Master of
Education program at the same university.
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3.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This study is guided by the following questions:
Research Question 1:
What are the linguistic demands of the Recount genre in Arabic?
a. What are the stages of the Recount genre in Arabic?
b. What are the lexico-grammatical features for each stage of the Recount genre?
Research Questions 2:
What is the difference in students’ writing of the Recount genre before the genre-based
instruction compared to their writing after the genre-based instruction as measured on the
genre-based instrument?
Research Question 3:
What are the stages and the lexico-grammatical characteristics of the recount genre that a
focal group of students are able to use after instruction in the genre-based approach as
compared to the lexico-grammatical characteristics they used before the genre-based
instruction?
Research Question 4:
To what extent students’ reading comprehension of a recount text reflected their
understanding of the Recount genre after the genre-based approach for teaching the
writing of a Recount was implemented?
Research Question 5:
How did the instructor and the students use the metalanguage of Systemic Functional
Linguistics during the joint construction stage of the Recount genre?
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5a. How did the focal group of students describe the purpose and linguistic features of the
Recount genre?
3.2.1 Alignment of data sources and research questions
Table 3 shows how data align with each of the research questions. To answer the first
question, a model text (Appendix C) representing the Arabic Recount of habitual events was
analyzed using SFL as the analytic framework. To answer the second research question, the
quantitative data came from the pretest and posttest scores as measured on the genre-based
assessment instrument (Appendix D). As for research question 3, data came from both genre and
SFL analysis of a focal group of students’ pretest and posttest (Appendix Q). For research
question 4, data came from the reading comprehension test scores (Appendix F) as measured on
the reading comprehension rubric (Appendix G).
Table 3. Research Questions and Data Sources Alignment
Data RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4 RQ5
Model of the Recount genre X
Pretest scores measured on genre instrument X
Posttest scores measured on genre instrument X X
Genre and SFL analyses of pretests for a focal group of students X
Genre and SFL analyses of posttests for a focal group of students X
Reading comprehension test scores X
Transcriptions of video-taped lessons during joint-construction X
Observer’s field notes X
Post survey X X Note. RQ= research question
For research question 5, data came from the video recordings of the two lessons taught during
the joint construction phase of the teaching/learning cycle (i.e., the genre-based approach model
54
implemented in this study), students’ description of their understanding of the Recount genre,
and the observer’s field notes.
3.3 FEATURES OF THE ARABIC RECOUNT OF HABITUAL EVENTS GENRE
The analysis of the Recount of habitual events genre which will be referred to as
Recount) from a daily Jordanian newspaper (Appendix C) and other model texts (Appendices F
and H) identified the linguistic demands of the Recount, the stages, and lexico-grammatical
features in each of the stages that enabled further analysis (i.e., students’ pretests and posttests).
The Recount genre was chosen because it is a genre students are asked to read and write as part
of the course syllabus in a second semester Arabic course. Moreover, stories are central in all
cultures (Martin & Rose, 2007), and the Recount genre is classified as one type in the family of
story genres (Martin & Rose, 2008) although notable distinctions exist between, for example,
Recounts and Narratives. Additionally, each text is an instantiation of the language (Halliday &
Mattheissen, 2014) and the newspaper article chosen is an instantiation of the Recount genre.
The Recount analyzed is from a daily Jordanian newspaper Al-doustour الدستور ( article
in Appendix C and features in section 3.3.1.1), one of the three main newspapers in Jordan. This
text was written on the occasion of the second anniversary of King Abdullah II of Jordan’s
ascension to the throne. The purpose of the text is to provide the reader with information about
the King’s daily life, while foregrounding the humane side of it, a side of his life not obvious to
his people, according to the author. The text is intended for Al-doustour’s readers, and is an
exemplar of a Recount of habitual events. The other Recounts analyzed were written by native
speakers to be used in this study (see section 3.3.2).
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3.3.1 Analysis and findings of an exemplar Recount text
The genre theory (Martin & Rose, 2008; Rose & Martin, 2012), the three SFL
metafunctions (i.e., Textual, Ideational, and Interpersonal) (Halliday & Mattheissen, 2014), and
the Appraisal system (White, 2001) guided the analysis of the Recount genre. The genre analysis
was conducted by coding each paragraph according to the information that the author conveyed
(i.e., information about the character and character’s daily event). Then, the codes were
categorized to reveal the stages of the Recount genre and their purposes. For example, all the
paragraphs that presented temporal information about the time when the daily routines occurred
were coded as temporal events and then categorized in the Sequence of Events stage. Thus, the
genre analysis depicted the stages and purpose of each stage.
The analysis of the Textual metafunction was conducted by coding each clause for
Theme and Rheme, then, tracing the Theme to reveal the thematic progression in each of the
stages of the recount. The analysis for the Experiential meaning of the Ideational metafunction
was conducted by coding the participants, processes, and circumstances in each clause. Then,
each code was categorized in their different types to reveal the type(s) of participants, processes,
and circumstances used to express character’s experiences in the Recount genre. For the analysis
of the Logico-semantic relations, all clauses with expansion were coded. Then the coded clauses
were described to reveal the type of conjunctions that supports the Expansion of the clause.
Finally, for the analysis of the Interpersonal metafunction the types of clause (i.e., interrogative,
and declarative) and the tense in each were traced. Additionally, the lexico-grammatical
resources that expressed evaluation of people and things, showed the author’s positive or
negative feelings, expressed the author’s judgment of the character’s behavior, as well as the
language resources that raise or lower the degree of impact in the utterance (e.g., slightly dizzy,
56
somewhat dizzy, and very dizzy), sharpen, or soften the degree of preciseness in the utterance
(e.g., a true friend, effective work), a language function known as Graduation were coded for
each. Then, the codes were described.
3.3.1.1 Stages and lexico-grammatical features of the Recount
The genre analysis of the Arabic Recount genre model depicted the stages of the Recount
genre as Title ^ Orientation ^ Sequence of Events (^ denotes followed by) as well as showed the
purpose of each stage. Additionally, the SFL analysis depicted the lexico-grammar typical to
each stage. Those features explained here and summarized in Table 4.
1. The Title: is a brief framing of what the text is about. It tells the reader who is the
character(s) in the Recount and indicates the timeframe of the Recount. The Title is
expressed through a nominal group which includes the time, the character, and an
attribute.
2. The Orientation stage: The purpose of this stage is to introduce the character, to indicate
the timeframe of the Recount, and to attract the reader to read the next stage (i.e.,
Sequence of Events stage). The character of the Recount is introduced in a nominal or
verbal declarative clause. The nominal clause is a relational identifying clause in which a
value is given to the name of the character or the pronoun (i.e., token). The verbal clause
construes an action usually related to the character’s biographical information and the
time or place of the action. Textually, if the first clause is a nominal clause, the
character’s name is in the Theme, with the new information about the character in the
Rheme. If the first clause is a verbal clause two choices could be made. The first, the
character is explicitly mentioned in the Rheme and the morphological marking on the
verb refers to the character in the Theme. The second, the character is explicitly
57
mentioned in the Theme and the verb with its morphological marking is in the Rheme.
The subsequent clauses that continue the introduction of the character can be (1) verbal
clauses, the Theme is a verb (i.e., process) with a morphological marking on the verb,
referring to the character, and/or (2) nominal clauses, the Theme is a pronoun, referring
to the character. Thus, the linear thematic progression is established through a reference
to the character.
The time frame of the Recount can be introduced in two ways. In the first way,
the time period can be expressed by a circumstance of time in a verbal declarative clause
as part of the new information in the Rheme. In the second way, an interrogative clause
with the circumstance of time in the Rheme, and which also establishes an engagement
with the reader.
To entice the reader (i.e., the hook), the author shows Appreciation of the time or
Judgement of the character’s behavior during this time. It is expressed in a declarative
identifying nominal clause in which a value is assigned to the time (i.e. Token), or in a
verbal clause in which the circumstances of time indicates the time of the Recount, and
the process indicates what the character does. It also could be expressed using questions
about the events.
3. The Sequence of Events stage: The purpose of this stage is to give information about the
character’s daily events in temporal succession. The author starts this stage by
introducing the character (Actor) explicitly in the Theme or the Rheme of the verbal
clause. When the character is in the Theme then the process with its morphological
marking referring to the character is in the Rheme. When the character is explicitly in the
Rheme then the process with its morphological marking referring to the character is in the
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Theme. The character may also be introduced using a nominal clause. The first clause
also may set the time of the event construed through a circumstance of time.
The subsequent clauses may have other events happening at the same time period of the
first event (e.g., in the morning). These events are expressed with the verb in the Theme
with the character referenced by the morphological marking on the verb. In this type of
clauses the Theme construes the old information (i.e., the character) and the new
information (i.e., the event). This thematic progression is found in stories. It foregrounds
the main character in the story and builds cohesion without repeating the Actor explicitly
(Bardi, 2008). These clauses usually include a temporal conjunctive و (and) or ثم (then)
as a cohesive device as part of their Theme.
To signal a new time for a second event and organize the main events in
chronological order, the next clause includes a circumstance of time in the Theme or
Rheme. Sometimes, after a new event, the new information from the Rheme of the
previous clause is picked up in the Theme of the next clause to expand on it and/or
evaluate it. The expansion and/or evaluation are expressed through a verbal or nominal
clause. Some of those verbal clauses may include evaluative language.
Uncertainty of the event (i.e., Modality) is conveyed using an adverbial circumstance of
time ( i.e., أحیانا (“sometimes”) and عادة (“usually”)). Judgement of the character(s)’
behaviors, appreciation of the people, places, and things, as well as expressing the
character’s feelings are spread throughout the Sequence of Events stage. It is the
evaluative language that creates the tone in the text and paints a portrait of the character.
Often these evaluations raise or lower the degree of impact in the utterance (e.g., slightly
dizzy, somewhat dizzy, and very dizzy), and/or sharpen, or soften the degree of
59
preciseness in the utterance (e.g., a true friend, effective work). All finites in the record
stage construe positive polarity in the present tense.
Table 4.Summary for the Features of the Recount Genre
Stage Purpose Lexico-grammar realizing the stage
Linguistic demands
Tile A brief framing of what the text is about.
Nominal group Noun adjective phrase (i.e., الصفة (والموصوف
Orientation
Introduces the character with information about him/her.
Gives the time frame of the Recount Attracts the reader to read the Recount
Textual: linear thematic progression with character foregrounded in the Theme.
Experiential: circumstances of time
Interpersonal: positive/negative evaluation to the time of the Recount or the character, or judgment of character’s behavior(i.e., Appreciation, Judgment)
Verbal clauses start with: a verb with its morphological marking referring to the character or explicitly with the name of a person. Nominal clauses (i.e., جملة المبتدأ)والخبر
a time (e.g., یوم [a day], أسبوع [a week])
Adjectives to describe the time or character (e.g., یوم طویل [a long day] or العامل النشیط [the active employee]) or adverbs judge the action (e.g., یعمل كثیرا [works a lot])
Sequence of Events
Events narrated in chronological order
Textual: To mark a new time, a circumstance of time is in the Theme/Rheme. For other events in the same time frame, a linear thematic progression with the character foregrounded in the Theme, sometimes a temporal conjunction is included in the Theme.
Ideational: Experiential: In verbal clauses, processes (doing, saying, or sensing), participants (people or
Verbal clauses starting with: a verb and its morphological marking or with the name of the person (e.g., یعمل في مكتب [works in and office]) Or nominal sentences starting with a pronoun referencing the character ( e.g.,ھي في المكتب [she is in the office]) Temporal markings (e.g., time or ,[at four o’clock] الساعة الرابعة connecting particles such as ثم [then], بعد ذلك [after that]) Verbs to express actions, feelings, or mental state (e.g., and ,[prefers] یفضل ,[goes] یذھب .([knows] یعرف
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Table 4. Summary for the Features of the Recount Genre (continued)
Stage Purpose Lexico-grammar realizing the stage
Linguistic demands
things) ,and circumstances (time, place, accompaniment, or manner). The nominal clauses are relational or existential Logico-semantic meaning: expansion to clauses
Interpersonal: Evaluative language to express positive or negative feelings, judgment of behavior, or appreciation for people or products with Focus (sharpening/softening) and/or Force (raising/ lowering).
Nominal sentences (i.e., جملة المبتدأ والخبر Connecting particles (e.g., و [and], ألن [because], and لكن [but])
Adjectives to describe people and things or adverbs to describe the action (e.g., كبیر [big] and شھي [delicious], بسرعة [Fast])
Adjectives or verbs to show feelings (e.g, سعید [happy], یحب [likes])
3.3.1.2 Linguistic demand of the Recount genre
The SFL analysis of the Recount text revealed that writing the Arabic Recount of habitual
events requires the knowledge of the present tense; adverbial and prepositional temporal markers
(e.g., في الصباح [in the morning] or في الساعة العاشرة [at ten o’clock], adverbial: in the] صباحا
morning]); temporal conjunction (e.g., ثم [then] بعد ذلك [after that]); adjectives to describe people,
places, and things (e.g., كبیر [big] and شھي [delicious]); and circumstances of place, time,
manner, and accompaniment (e.g., في المكتب [in the office]). Additionally, the SFL analysis
revealed the need to use doing verbs in the present tense related to the daily routines (أصحو [wake
up] and أنزل [leave]), connectors (e.g., ألن [because], لكن [but], and و [and]) to help the writer
expand on the action, person(s), time, or things involved in the event being recounted.
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3.3.2 The model text for the genre-based approach
As explained in sections 2.2.2.1 and 3.5, part of the instructional genre-based approach
(i.e., teaching/learning cycle) involves the de-construction of a model text, which has all the
characteristics of the Arabic Recount of habitual events. The newspaper article analyzed
(features depicted in section 3.3.1.1 and article in Appendix C) is an exemplar of such genre;
however, it is beyond the students’ level in respect to the length of the text and the language
choices. Therefore, informed by both genre and SFL analysis of the newspaper article, I used a
semi-scripted text as a model text during the de-construction phase of the teaching/learning
cycle. The semi-scripted text (Appendix H) was obtained by asking a native speaker to respond
to this prompt: You are featured in your local community newspaper, and you are asked to write
an article informing your neighbors about your weekend daily routine. Please note that some of
your neighbors have just emigrated from other countries and speak Arabic as a second
language. Your article should include the following stages: a Title, an Introduction [i.e.,
Orientation], and a Sequence of events stage.
Based on the findings from the genre analysis of the newspaper article, I prompted the
author to include the three stages of the Recount (i.e., Title, Orientation, and Sequence of
Events). I also prompted the author that the Recount is aimed for second language learners. To
assure the comparability of the two texts one of the members of my dissertation committee who
is an Arabic sociolinguist approved that both the newspaper text and the semi-scripted texts are
comparable Recount genres.
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3.4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
In order to answer the research questions above, a mixed-method study (Tashakkori &
Teddlie, 2003) was designed; more specifically, the convergent parallel design (Creswell, 2012)
was implemented. As illustrated in Figure 6 below, the quantitative data and qualitative data
were collected and analyzed. Then, the results from both types of data were compared.
Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis • Pre- and post-tests measured on the
genre assessment instrument • Reading comprehension test measured on
Reading comprehension rubric
• Analysis: Statistical Compare and Interpret relate
Figure 6. Convergent Parallel Design (Based on Creswell (2012))
The quantitative and qualitative data collection and analyses complemented each other
and allowed for a complete interpretation (Ivankova, Creswell, & Stick, 2006) that captured the
trends and details in students’ writings (on the pretest and posttest). The SFL qualitative analysis
of students’ texts provided a description for the quantitative data obtained from scoring the
pretests and posttests on the genre-based assessment instrument (Appendix D) explained in
section 3.4.1.4. Attention to how students employed the language resources to express the three
Qualitative Data collections and analysis • SFL analysis of pretest posttest of
focal group • Post survey • Video recordings and field notes of
lessons • Analysis: Coding and describing
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metafunctions provided useful insights on the different impact that the genre-based approaches
had on students’ writing. Additionally, the quantitative data obtained from students’ reading
comprehension test (Appendix F) measured on the reading comprehension Rubric (Appendix G),
explained in section 3.4.1.7, and the qualitative data on their perceptions on the relation between
writing a Recount and reading one showed the relationship between writing a Recount and
reading a text from the same genre. Both types of data helped understand students’ strengths and
weaknesses in their writing and reading as a result of the implementation of the genre-based
approach. Additionally, the qualitative analysis of the metalanguage the students and their
instructor used during joint construction of the Recount showed the type of metalanguage that
mediated the joint construction of the Recount.
3.4.1 Quantitative data collection and instruments
For the quantitative data collection, I followed a pretest and posttest design with one
intact class. This design supports a high internal validity (Fife-schaw, 2006). In other words, it
increases the confidence in the relationship between the independent variable (instruction) and
the dependent variable (pretest and posttest). The pretest was administered at the start of the
three-week study (before the teaching/learning cycle was implemented), and the posttest was
administered at conclusion of the study. Both tests were scored on the genre-based assessment
instrument (Appendix D) explained in section 3.4.1.1. Additionally, at the end of the study,
students read a Recount text and took a reading comprehension test (Appendix F) that included
structured recall prompts. The reading comprehension tests were scored on the reading
comprehension rubric (Appendix G) explained in section 3.4.1.7.
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3.4.1.1 Pretest
The pretest (Appendix E) was administered at the beginning of the study. The writing
prompt was adapted from the course textbook. In the textbook, the prompt states, “watch the
silent video and then write a story describing یوم في حیاة االستاذة كریستن [a day in the life of
Kristen]” (Brustad et al., 2011, p. 196). Although the prompt uses the term story, the
requirements of the writing task focusing on daily routines are clearly anchored in the Recount
genre (a type of story). For example, the video shows the activities Professor Kristen does during
the day. It shows Professor Kristen waking up at 7 A.M., then watching the weather forecast, and
taking breakfast.4 At another time of the day, it shows Kristen at work and at the gym. It ends the
video by showing Kristen husband, Mahmood, at home sitting and talking. This video with the
sequence of habitual events reflects the Recount genre. By adding a context to the prompt, the
students had an audience to interact with, and this helped them see writing as a social act
(Yasuda, 2011) instead of approaching writing as a task de-voided of context. The
contextualized prompt states, “This week, your school newspaper is featuring your professor,
Professor Kristen. As you are one of her students, we ask you to write a Recount about her daily
routine. Watch the silent video, and, then, write a recount describing یوم في حیاة االستاذة كریستن
[“a day in the life of Kristen”]. This adapted prompt established a context of situation for the
text, in which the audience is a newspaper reader (Tenor), the Field (i.e., content of the Recount)
is the information about Professor Kristen’s life, and the Mode is a written article for the
school’s newspaper.
4 The video may be accessed on the textbook companion website https://www.alkitaabtextbook.com/books/.
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The pretest was administered in the classroom. The video was shown two times. For the
first viewing, the students only watched the video without taking notes. For the second viewing,
students were asked to watch and take notes. Watching the video several times and note taking
using the language of their choice assured that all the students knew the events in the video
before starting to write. Subsequently, students were given 50 minutes to respond to the prompt
(Sasaki, 2004; Yasuda, 2011). A list of vocabulary words were given to students to refer to, if
needed. The aim of the list was to support students’ concentration on the composition of the
Recount rather than on recalling the new vocabulary.
3.4.1.2 Posttest
At the end of the unit, the same prompt, procedure, and time assigned for the pretest was
used for the posttest (Appendix E). In the next section, I explain the rationale for my choice for
choosing the same pretest and posttest.
3.4.1.3 Validity for pretest and posttest and rationale
The usage of the same prompt for both pretest and posttest (1) ruled out the
instrumentation threat to validity (Malone & Mastropieri, 1992; Mertens, 2005); (2) eliminated
any factors other than the genre-based approach responsible for the improvement in students’
genre writing; (3) eliminated the vocabulary related to the genre as an extraneous variable,
because with beginners students we have to be concerned about making the vocabulary constant;
Additionally, the 10 day lag time between the pretest and posttests supports the validity of this
design.
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3.4.1.4 Genre-based assessment instrument
The findings from the genre analysis and from the SFL analysis of the three
metafunctions for each of the three stages of the recount genre in the model text informed the
genre-based assessment instrument (Appendix D). The instrument was divided into three parts
according to the stages of the recount genre (i.e., Title, Orientation, and Sequence of Events) and
the expected lexico-grammatical features that were taught during the teaching/learning cycle for
each stage. The quantification for the lexico-grammar for each stage took into account the
Recount that students were asked to write in response to the pretest and posttest prompt. The
quantification for the lexico-grammatical features were decided after a speaker of the language
answered the prompt, and I counted the number of lexico-grammatical resources expressing each
category on the genre-based assessment instrument. The maximum score that could be awarded
was 28 points for including the expected lexico-grammatical features of the Recount in each
stage.
Title
For the Title stage, one point was awarded for including a nominal group that contains
the character, a circumstance of time, and an attribute.
Orientation
For the Orientation stage, one point was awarded for including a nominal or verbal clause
with the character explicitly introduced in the first clause; one point was awarded for the
presence of each of the three additional introductory clauses which gives information about the
character. Those clauses were either nominal including a pronoun that refers to the character in
the Theme or verbal with the character implied in a morphological marking on the verb.
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Additionally, a point was awarded for including the time frame of the Recount using a
circumstance of time. The hook clause, which function is to attract the reader to read the
Sequence of Events stage, was awarded one point and had to contain an appreciation for the time
or the character of the Recount, or judgment of character’s behavior.
Sequence of Events
For the Sequence of Events stage, the points were awarded for including the lexico-
grammar typical for each of the three metafunctions. For the Textual metafunction, the
organization of the stage (in chronological order for main events and linear thematic progression
for other events in the same time frame) was measured. One point was awarded for the first
verbal or nominal clause that records the first event and included the character explicitly in the
Theme or the Rheme of the clause. For the main events expressed through a verbal clause, two
points were awarded for recording seven events, one point for recording five – six events and no
point for recording less than five events provided the circumstance of time was in the Theme or
Rheme, thus establishing the chronological order. For the other events in the same time frame of
the main events, a linear thematic progression was expected. For the verbal clauses, the verb with
morphological marking on the verb referencing the character is in the Theme, for relational
clauses, the pronoun referencing the character is in the Theme. Two points was awarded for
Including 20 or more of those verbal or relational clauses; one point was awarded for including
10-19 clauses; and no points was awarded for including less than 9 clauses.
Additionally, two points were awarded for not mentioning or only mentioning one time
the character of the Recount explicitly and redundantly (relying only on the morphological
marking on the verb); one point was awarded for mentioning the character explicitly and
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redundantly two – three times; and zero points was given for mentioning the character more than
four times explicitly and redundantly.
For the Ideational metafunction, both the Experiential meaning and the Logico-semantic
relations were measured. For the Experiential meaning, the number of verbal clauses (that
include participant, process, and optional circumstance(s)) as well as the number of relational
clauses were counted. Two points were awarded for including 20 – 30 clauses; one point was
awarded for including 10 – 19 clauses; and zero point was awarded for including less than 10
clauses.
As for the lexico-grammar that construed expansion on the events, two points were
awarded for expanding on clauses four or more times; one point was awarded for expanding two-
three times; and no points were awarded for only expanding less than two times.
As for the interpersonal metafunction, two points were awarded for including 20 -25
events using declarative clauses; one point was awarded for including 10 – 19 events using
declarative clauses; and no point was given for including less than 10 events using declarative
clauses. Additionally, 2, 1, or 0 points were awarded for including 20-25, 19-15, or less than 14
events recorded in the present tense respectively.
I counted the number of lexico-grammatical resources that expressed evaluation of
people and things (i.e., Appreciation), showed the character’s positive or negative feelings (i.e.,
Affect), expressed the author’s judgment of the character’s behavior (Judgment); and (4) the
language resources that raise or lower the degree of impact in the utterance (e.g., slightly dizzy,
somewhat dizzy, and very dizzy), sharpen, or soften the degree of preciseness in the utterance
(e.g., a true friend, effective work), a language function known as Graduation. For those lexico-
grammatical resources (other than using Graduation to express the time of the events), two points
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were awarded for including ten or more language resources that expressed Affect, Appreciation,
Judgment, or Graduation; one point was awarded for including six to nine of those language
resources; and zero point was awarded for including less than six of those language resources.
Additionally, one point was awarded for expressing modality two or more times and no points
were awarded for including modality less than two times.
3.4.1.5 Validity of the genre-based assessment instrument
The genre-based assessment instrument was informed by both genre and SFL analysis of
the model text. That is, the categories on the assessment instrument were decided based on these
analyses. I asked a speaker of the language to answer the pretest/posttest prompt in writing.
Then, I decided the quantification of each category on the assessment instrument based on his
response, and I counted the lexico-grammar in the text for each category. Informed by those
numbers, I assigned a score range for each category on the genre-based assessment instrument.
To confirm that the assessment instrument measured what it was supposed to measure, I rated
students’ written answers to the same prompt from previous semesters.
3.4.1.6 Inter-rater reliability
To establish interrater reliability regarding the use of the genre-based instrument, 30% of
the total number of pretests and posttests were evaluated by two raters. I was one of the raters
and the second rater was the original course instructor in which this study was conducted. The
original instructor received training on both genre and SFL analysis of the lexico-grammatical
features of the Recount. He also attended the classes during the duration of the study. In order to
ensure rating consistency, the second rater was also familiarized with the assessment tool.
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To calibrate ratings, the second rater and I first discussed what meant by each category on
the instrument to establish a common understanding of the instrument. We practiced rating
samples of texts from students’ writings in the other Arabic section which were also in response
to the same prompt. We then discussed our agreement/disagreement on each of the categories on
the instrument. Once a general agreement on the rating was achieved and the two raters felt
comfortable with the instrument, we proceeded with independent ratings of the pretests and
posttests (Yasuda, 2011). Approximately 30% of the pretests and posttests were randomly picked
to be evaluated by the two raters; that is, 10 out of 30 tests. The other 70% were rated by the
researcher, and, if any doubt occurred in any of the ratings, the second rater was asked to re-
evaluate the test. To compare the ratings and to determine the consistency between the two
raters, Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated (r = .954).
3.4.1.7 Reading comprehension test
At the end of the unit of study, students were asked to read a Recount and answer
structured recall prompts in their first language (L1) (Appendix F). In other words, students’
reading comprehension was assessed on their ability to recover meaning of the Recount text
(Rand, 2002). The rubric was based on ideal expected responses. For the orientation stage,
students had to describe the character, the time of the recount, and the hook. For the Record
stage, students had to describe the recorded events and the detail(s), if available. The reading
comprehension prompts were scored one for the right answer and zero for the wrong answer. The
maximum score that any student could have earned was 26 points.
Students’ use of their L1 to express comprehension diffused any doubt whether difficulty
existed because of students’ lack of comprehension or because of problems of expression in the
target language (Swaffar & Arens, 2005). It also eliminated any misinterpretation as to whether
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the students comprehended the text or were just lifting local words and phrases out of the text
(Shrum & Glisan, 2010).
To determine an inter-rater reliability the researcher and the original instructor of the
class rated about 50% of the tests and Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated (r = .965).
3.4.2 Quantitative data analysis
3.4.2.1 Pretest and posttest quantitative analysis
The descriptive and inferential statistical analyses for the scores from the 15 student
participants’ pretest and posttests measured on the genre-based instrument were performed on
SPSS statistical software. The descriptive statistics included the mean, median, standard
deviation, and the minimum and maximum scores on each of the pretests and posttests as
measured on the genre-based instrument. The descriptive analysis helped describe the features of
the scores and identify any outliers.
For the inferential statistics, the Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test was used, a non-parametric
test, which corresponds to the paired sample t-test. However, the Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test
does not make assumption about the normality of the data distribution. Therefore, the Wilcoxon
Signed-Ranks Test may have more power for a non-normal distribution (as are the scores on the
pretest and posttest) and produces more accurate results than the parametric paired sample t-Test.
3.4.2.2 Reading comprehension test for recount genre
Quantitative data also came from scoring the reading comprehension of the recount text
(Appendix F) on the reading comprehension rubric (Appendix G). The descriptive statistics
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explained above for the pretest and posttest scores (section 3.4.2.1) were also used to describe
students’ reading comprehension scores.
3.4.3 Qualitative data collection and analysis
3.4.3.1 Pretest and posttest qualitative analysis
The qualitative data came from the focal group of students’ pretests and posttests
(Appendix Q). The genre (Martin & Rose, 2008; Rose & Martin, 2012) and SFL analyses (Bardi,
2008; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) of the pretests and posttests for the focal group of students
provided a more delicate analysis of students’ use of the lexico-grammar typical to each stage of
the Recount genre. The genre analysis revealed the stages of the Recount that students included
in their texts. Each student’s text was coded for the purpose he/she conveyed in each part of
his/her text. Then each purpose was compared to the typical purpose of each stage in the Recount
to reveal the presence or absence of each stage in students’ texts. As explained below, the SFL
analysis showed the lexico-grammar each of the students used to express the three metafunctions
(i.e., Textual, Ideational, and Interpersonal) on the pretest and posttest. Then, the lexico-grammar
was compared with the lexico-grammar that is typical to the Arabic Recount (see section
3.3.1.1).
For the analysis of the Textual metafunction, the clauses were coded for Theme and
Rheme. Then, the thematic progression in each student’s text was traced. For the analysis of the
Experiential meaning in the Ideational metafunction, the processes were coded, counted and
categorized according to their types (e.g., processes of doing, saying, and sensing). Likewise, the
participants and circumstances were categorized according to their types. For the analysis of
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Logico-semantic relations in the Ideational metafunction, for all the expanded clauses the
conjunctions each student used to realize the expansion were coded.
For the analysis of the Interpersonal metafunction, the language resources each student
used to evaluate the character(s) and things (i.e., Appreciation), express feelings (i.e., Affect),
and judge the behavior of the character(s) (i.e., Judgement) were coded. Additionally, I coded the
language resources that raise or lower the degree of impact in the utterance (e.g., slightly dizzy,
somewhat dizzy, and very dizzy), sharpen, or soften the degree of preciseness in the utterance
(e.g., a true friend, effective work). Then, the evaluative language, which was coded, was
assessed and recoded for its contribution to the tone of the text and the portrayal of the main
character. For the Recounts the students wrote on the pretest and posttest, a positive tone and a
portrait of the main character (Kristen) as a hardworking professor were expected. This type of
descriptive SFL analysis is a common approach in SFL-based studies (e.g., Schleppegrell & Go,
2007; Schulze, 2011; Spycher, 2007) that supports comparing and describing students’ use of the
lexico-grammatical characteristics of the genres.
These findings from the SFL analysis of the focal group of students were compared
(Creswell, 2012; Hatch, 2002) with the pretest and posttests’ scores quantitative statistical
analysis results. The comparison brought the strength of both data sets and corroborated the
quantitative results with the qualitative findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007) as discussed in
Chapter 4.
3.4.3.2 Video recordings of lessons
During the teaching/learning cycle (Rose & Martin, 2012) (i.e., the genre-based model
implemented in this study) the two lessons of the joint construction phase were videotaped. The
purpose of the joint construction phase is for the instructor and students to collaboratively write a
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Recount with all its typical features in order to prepare students to write another Recount
independently. To scaffold the joint writing of a complete Recount, in the first lesson, the
instructor and her students worked together to revise a text taken from the course textbook (AL-
Kitaab fii Ta'allum al-'Arabiyya, part 1, by Brustad, Albatal, and Altonsi) (Appendix P) that was
missing some of the features of the Arabic Recount genre. In the second lesson, after watching a
video about the daily routine of a university student, Jamal, on his study abroad trip, the
instructor and her students worked together to co-write another Recount while taking into
account the characteristics of the Arabic Recount genre.
The video recordings during the joint construction phase were transcribed. During the
first read, the transcribed lessons were coded (Saldana, 2012) for metalanguage used to: (1)
describe the organization of the Recount (i.e., Textual metafunction), (2) to present the content in
the Recount (i.e., Ideational metafunction), and (3) to include the author’s voice (i.e.,
Interpersonal metafunction through evaluative language). Then, the metalanguage in each
category was described for how the metalanguage and what type of metalanguage was used by
the students and teacher to jointly construct the Recount.
3.4.3.3 Post study survey
At the end of the three week study, students answered two questions on the post study
survey (Appendix I). The first question asked students about their perceptions on the relationship
between learning to write a Recount and reading a Recount in the question did learning to write
a Recount genre help you in the reading comprehension of the Recount text? Explain. The
students answered the question on a Likert scale (i.e., 1= not at all, 2= a little, 3= somewhat, 4= a
lot) and in a narrative. Responses on the Likert scale were statistically described by the
frequency of responses for each item on the scale (Babbie, 2010). The open ended part of the
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question was coded and categorized according to the emergent theme (Saldana, 2012). This part
was compared with the reading comprehension scores to answer research question 4.
The second question on the survey asked students to describe the Recount genre as they
understand it: Your friend in the other Arabic class has an assignment to write a Recount genre;
he asked you for help. How would you explain to him/her how to write a Recount genre? (You
may use Arabic/English or illustrations to answer this question. Informed by the features of the
Recount (section 3.3), the answers of the focal group of students were coded for the presence or
absence (Saldana, 2012) of the description of the overall social purpose of the Recount, social
purpose of each stage of the Recount (Title Orientation, and Sequence of Events), as well as the
lexico-grammatical characteristics that expressed the Textual, Ideational, and Interpersonal
metafunction in the Orientation and Sequence of Events stages. This analysis showed students’
understanding of the Recount and complemented the findings from the qualitative and
quantitative analysis of the pretests and posttests.
Additionally, the type of metalanguage that was used to describe the genre was
categorized and described. Then, those findings were compared to the metalanguage students
used during the joint construction stage. This comparison gave a full description of students’ use
of the metalanguage and students’ understanding of the genre, which was used to answer
research question 5.
3.4.3.4 Observer’s field notes
During the study, the observer, the original instructor of the course, attended all the
classes and wrote field notes about the students’ use of metalanguage. The field notes were
coded for the type of metalanguage. Then, the findings were compared with the findings in
research question 5.
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3.5 DESCRIPTION OF THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH DURING THE UNIT OF
INSTRUCTION
Informed by the characteristic features of the Arabic Recount described in section 3.3, I
developed the genre-based unit of instruction with the objective to teach students how the Arabic
Recount works so that they could write a culturally and linguistically informed Recount. The
features of the Recount were made visible to students during the teaching/learning cycle (TLC),
the genre-based model implemented during the three-week study. The model includes three
phases (i.e., de-construction, joint construction, and independent construction), while it
emphasize keeping the context and building the content in focus during the three phases. The
schedule for the three week genre-based unit of instruction is depicted in
, and a more detailed description of each lesson is presented in the subsection below.
Table 5. Outline for the Lessons During the TLC
Lesson Phase
Week 1 Lesson 1 Leeson 2 Lesson 3
Building the field Building the field Pretest
Week 2
Lesson 4
Lesson 5 Lesson 6
Introduction to the concept of genre and Register, and Recount. Deconstruction of Recount, building the field, and setting the context Deconstruction of text Joint construction, building the field, and setting the context
Week 3 Lesson 7
Lesson 8 Lesson 9
Joint construction of the text, building the field, and setting the context Independent construction (i.e., Posttest) Reading comprehension test and Post survey
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3.5.1 Lessons during the teaching/learning cycle
3.5.1.1 Lessons 1 and 2
In preparation for the pretest (and for building the field for the model text used in the
deconstruction phase), I introduced my students to cultures of the daily events of different Arab
people (e.g., a student and a teacher), particularly focusing on how they allocate the days of the
week (e.g., weekend is on Friday and Saturday) and typical daily schedules (e.g., lunch at 2:00
PM). This introduction required teaching the vocabulary and grammar choices available and that
could be used in the Recount of habitual events (e.g., telling time, ordinal numbers, conjunctions
to support the sequencing of events, time markers, and the present tense) (worksheets in
Appendix J, K, and L). Students then watched a video (Brustad, Al-Batal, & Al-Tonsi, 2011a)
about a teaching assistant’s (TA) daily routine in one of the Egyptian universities (viewing guide
Appendix M). This video initiated the use of the vocabulary and grammar in context. For
example, as a post-viewing activity, students practiced the use of terms that express occurrences
of events , عادة .أحیانا,و أبدا)دائما [always, most of the times, sometimes, and never]) and time
(Appendix K). Students also practiced those terms by asking their friends’ questions about their
daily routines, later reporting their findings to the class (Appendix L). The video initiated
comparative discussions about everyday activities in Arab and American cultures. Kyle, one of
the students, for example, observed that graduate assistants do not teach classes in Egyptian
universities as part of their schedule whereas graduate students might teach in American
universities.
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3.5.1.2 Lesson 3
During lesson 3, the pretest (Appendix E) was administered.
3.5.1.3 Lesson 4 and lesson 5
Lessons 4 and 5’s objectives were to explain the concepts of genre, register, and Recount,
as well as to make the stages and lexico-grammatical features of the Recount visible to students
(i.e., a deconstruction of the genre). I initiated the conversation on genre and register while
displaying a PowerPoint image of a recipe text, a genre familiar to students. I made students
notice the different stages of the recipe genre (the name of the dish ^ the ingredients ^ and the
directions [^ denotes followed by]). We discussed the purpose of each stage and how the overall
purpose is achieved by including all the required stages. I pointed out that sometimes there are
additional optional stages, such as the nutrition facts stage in the recipe genre (worksheet in
Appendix N was used to help students understand those terms).
The conversation also included the concept of register and how the language changes
depending on the Mode of communication (i.e., written or oral), the expected reader (i.e. Tenor),
and the content (i.e., Field). One student, Majed, commented about the language he would use to
give direction in comparison to the language of written directions, an interesting example of
students’ understanding of the concept of register. Majed observed, “I only thought of it now
….if I read direction and want to explain it to somebody, I explain in slang.” Understanding such
concepts set the stage for the deconstructing the Recount.
For the deconstruction of the Recount, I displayed the model text (Appendix H) that was
divided into clauses and gave a copy to each student. The text is a newspaper article that
describes the weekend routine of a Jordanian student in her community where many immigrants
live. Before its deconstruction, the text was read and discussed in class. As a class we also
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discussed the overall purpose of the Recount and the possibility of writing Recounts in other
contexts. For example, Mira suggested that a Recount can be for documenting the schedule of a
person for a police report. Students were also prompted to examine the purpose of each section
in the text (i.e., stages of the Recount). I then led the class to deconstruct the Recount.
First, to make the organization of the text visible to students, I explained to the class that
the Theme is the part of the clause (person, thing, or circumstance) about which we provide new
information in the Rheme. Together, we color coded the clauses in the Recount to mark the
Themes and Rhemes. Then, as a class, we traced the thematic progression in both the Orientation
and Sequence of Events stages. Second, to show them the types of participants, of processes, and
of circumstances used to express the Experiential meaning in the Ideational metafunction, we
color coded each in the text. Then, as a class, we categorized each type and traced its function.
For example, students noticed the sensing verbs like تحب [love] is used to express the character’s
feelings. This led to a conversation about other lexico-grmmatical choices that express feelings
(e.g., تفضل [prefer]). Additionally, to make the Logico-semantic relations in the clauses visible
(i.e., expansion on the clause), I made students notice the use of و to expand on the clause and
gave other examples for the possibility of using لكن [but] and الن [because].
Third, to make students aware of the function of the evaluative language (i.e.,
Interpersonal metafunction), I asked students to underline the language resources where they
thought the author is evaluating the character, expressing the character’s feelings, or judging the
character’s behavior. Then, as a class, we had a conversation on what these resources add to the
text in regard to its tone, while pointing out that some of the evaluative language may be
implicit, such as شرب الشاي مع عائلتھا [she drinks coffee with her family] and some might not
contribute to the tone, such as تشرب قھوة سوداء [She drinks black coffee]. Additionally, students
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underlined the evaluative language that contributes to paint a portrait of the character. As a class
we discussed how those language resources function.
After the deconstruction of the text, I designed activities to have students practice the use
of those lexico-grammatical features. For example, to practice the organization of the Recount, I
gave students a Recount cut-up into clauses and asked them to organize it according to the
typical thematic progression (Appendix O). This same Recount text was used to draw students’
attention to choices made for the types of participants, processes, and circumstances used. To
practice the use of evaluative language to set a tone in the text, students enjoyed changing the
tone in the model text (used in the deconstruction phase Appendix H) from a positive one to a
negative one by changing the language choices.
3.5.1.4 Lessons 6 and 7
Lessons 6 and 7 were dedicated to jointly construct two Recounts with the students. In
the first lesson, to scaffold the writing of a complete Recount, the students and I jointly edited a
text that missed some of the features of the Recount (Appendix P). One of the students, Rob,
categorized the incomplete Recount as “unclear,” and Thomas remarked that the “sentences are
out of order.” We identified the missing stages and added them. We then edited the organization
and content in the text. We also edited the evaluative language in order to create a tone in the
text.
In the second lesson, we jointly constructed a Recount after watching a silent video about
the daily routine of a student on a study abroad trip. During the joint construction, I build the
content based on the events in the study abroad trip and set the context by indicating that the
Recount is intended to be published in the school’s newspaper for the university’s readers (i.e.,
context). The writing process was a collaborative one in which the majority of the students
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participated; students constructed the clause, either on their own or in consultation with one of
their peers, which I then wrote on the board. I drew the students’ attention to the lexico-grammar
of each clause to decide if any changes were needed to the clause before joint constructing the
next one.
3.5.1.5 Lesson 8
The 50-minutes posttest took place during lesson 8.
3.5.1.6 Lesson 9
Lesson 9 was used for the reading comprehension test (Appendix F) and the post-study
survey (Appendix I).
In the next chapter, the data analysis and findings are presented.
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4.0 FINDINGS
This chapter presents the findings, for the five research questions, organized in five
sections. Each section also gives a summary of the data collection methods. As described in
Chapter 3, data collection occurred over a three-week period with five hours of classes/week, in
a second-semester Arabic class at the university level with 15 students. During those classes, the
teaching/learning cycle (TLC) of the Sydney School project (Martin & Rose, 2012) was
implemented to teach the Arabic Recount genre of habitual events.5
4.1 RESEARCH QUESTION 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARABIC RECOUNT
This section reviews the data collection and analysis method used to answer Research
Question 1 and summarizes by way of introduction to this chapter what was presented in greater
detail in Chapter 3.
What are the linguistic demands of the Recount genre in Arabic?
a. What are the stages of the Recount genre in Arabic?
b. What are the lexico-grammatical features for each stage of the Recount genre?
5 In this document the Recount of habitual events is referred to as the Recount.
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The detailed answer to this question is presented as part of the methodology because this analysis
was necessary for the design of the intervention and the analysis of students’ tests.
4.1.1 Data collection and analyses for the Recount genre
To answer Research Question 1, an authentic text that represents the recount genre was
taken from the daily Jordanian newspaper Al-doustour (Appendix C) and analyzed using SFL as
the analytic framework. The article provided information about the King of Jordan’s daily
routine and was written on the occasion of his ascension to the throne. The genre analysis
revealed the stages of the Recount genre and the purpose of each stage. This analysis was done
by coding each paragraph according to the information that the author conveyed. Then, the codes
were categorized to reveal the stages of the Recount genre and their purposes. For example, all
the paragraphs that presented temporal information about the events when daily routines
occurred were coded as temporal events and then categorized in the Sequence of Events stage.
The SFL analysis for each of the three metafunctions (i.e., Textual, Ideational, and
Interpersonal) in each of the stages revealed the lexico-grammatical characteristics that realized
each metafunction. The Textual metafunction was concerned with the organization of the text,
the Ideational metafunction was concerned with the content, and the Interpersonal metafunction
was concerned with the evaluation of people and things, the positive and negative feelings
expressed in the text, and judgments of the character(s) behaviors. The SFL analysis was done by
coding the text three times, once for each metafunction. For each metafunction, the codes in
each stage were then categorized according to the lexico-grammar used. The categories then
revealed the typical lexico-grammatical characteristics that construed each metafunction for each
stage.
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4.1.2 Features of the Recount genre
Table 6 summarizes the findings for the characteristic features in each of the three stages
of the Recount genre (i.e., Title, Orientation, and Sequence of Events). It presents the purpose of
each stage, the lexico-grammatical resources that realize each of the stages, and the linguistic
demands for each. In the context of this study, linguistic demands mean what students need to be
able to control to realize to lexico-grammatical resources needed to construct the Recount genre.
The findings from this question were used during the teaching/learning cycle, and also informed
the quantitative and qualitative analyses of the pretests and posttests to answer Research
Questions 3 and 4 respectively (sections 4.2 and 4.3).
Table 6. Summary of the Features of the Recount Genre
Stage Purpose Lexico-grammar realizing the stage
Linguistic demands
Tile A brief framing of what the text is about.
Nominal group Noun adjective phrase (i.e., الصفة (والموصوف
Orientation
Introduces the character with information about him/her.
Gives the time frame of the Recount Attracts the reader to read the Recount
Textual: linear thematic progression with character foregrounded in the Theme.
Experiential: circumstances of time
Interpersonal: positive/negative evaluation to the time of the Recount or the character, or judgment of character’s behavior(i.e., Appreciation, Judgment)
Verbal clauses start with: a verb with the morphological marking referring to the character or explicitly with the name of a person. Nominal clauses (i.e., جملة المبتدأ)والخبر
a time (e.g., یوم [a day], أسبوع [a week])
Adjectives to describe the time or character (e.g., یوم طویل [a long day] or العامل النشیط [the active employee]) or adverbs judge the action (e.g., یرایعمل كث [works a lot])
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Table 6. Summary of the Features of the Recount Genre (continue)
Sequence of Events
Events narrated in chronological order
Textual: To mark a new time, a circumstance of time is in the Theme/Rheme. For other events in the same time frame, a linear thematic progression with the character foregrounded in the Theme, sometimes a temporal conjunction is included in the Theme.
Ideational: Experiential: In verbal clauses, processes (doing, saying, or sensing), participants (people or things) ,and circumstances (time, place, accompaniment, or manner). The nominal clauses are relational or existential Logico-semantic meaning: expansion to clauses
Interpersonal: Evaluative language to express positive or negative feelings, judgment of behavior, or appreciation for people or products with Focus (sharpening/softening) and/or Force (raising/ lowering).
Verbal clauses starting with: a verb and its morphological marking or with the name of the person (e.g., یعمل في مكتب [works in and office]) Or nominal sentences starting with a pronoun referencing the character ( e.g.,ھي في المكتب [she is in the office]) Temporal markings (e.g., time or ,[at four o’clock] الساعة الرابعة connecting particles such as ثم [then], كبعد ذل [after that])
Verbs to express actions, feelings, or mental state (e.g., and ,[prefers] یفضل ,[goes] یذھب .([knows] یعرف
Nominal sentences (i.e., جملة المبتدأ والخبر
Connecting particles (e.g., و [and], ألن [because], and لكن [but])
Adjectives to describe people and things or adverbs to describe the action (e.g., كبیر [big] and شھي [delicious], بسرعة [Fast])
Adjectives or verbs to show feelings (e.g, سعید [happy], یحب [likes])
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4.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 2: DIFFERENCE IN STUDENTS’ WRITTEN
RECOUNTS BEFORE AND AFTER THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH AS
MEASURED ON THE GENRE-BASED ASSESSEMENT INSTRUMENT
In this section, the data collection methods and findings from quantitative analyses of
students’ pretest and posttest scores are presented to answer Research Questions 2:
What is the difference in students’ writing of the Recount genre before the genre-based
instruction compared to their writing after the genre-based instruction as measured on the
genre-based instrument?
4.2.1 Data collection and analyses for Research Question 2
The data used to answer this question came from the pretest and the posttest (Appendix
E) administered at the beginning and at end of the three-week study respectively. The pretest and
posttest were in response to the same prompt. The prompt (as detailed in chapter 3 section
3.4.1.1) asked students to watch a silent video featuring Professor Kristen acting her daily
routine. The video showed Kristen’s seven main daily events and detailed some of them.
The pretest and posttest were scored with the genre-based assessment instrument
(Appendix D). This assessment instrument was informed by the characteristic features of the
Recount found in section 3.3. and 4.1. For the Title stage, the genre-based assessment
instrument measured the presence and absence of the nominal group that represented the time
and character of the Recount. For the Orientation and Sequence of events stages, the genre-based
87
assessment instrument measured the presence and number of lexico-grammatical resources that
students used to construe the three metafunctions (i.e., Textual, Ideational, and Interpersonal) in
those stages as defined in Systemic Functional Linguistics. For the Orientation stage, it measured
1) the presence of Themes (foregrounding the character) that construed the organization of the
this stage in linear thematic progression (i.e., Textual metafunction); 2) the presence of a
circumstance of time to express the time frame of the Recount (i.e., Experiential meaning in the
Ideational metafunction); and 3) the presence of evaluative language that expressed Appreciation
of the time or the character in the Recount (i.e., Interpersonal metafunction).
For the Sequence of Events stage, the genre-based assessment instrument measured (1)
the presence and number of lexico-grammatical resources that represented the organization of the
events in chronological order, and in linear thematic progression for other events within the
same time frame, with the main character foregrounded in the Theme (i.e., Textual
metafunction); (2) the presence and number of clauses with the participant(s), process, and
circumstance(s) to express the main events and details for the event of the Recount, as well as the
number of clauses that realized an expansion (i.e., Ideational metafunction); (3) the presence and
number of declarative clauses expressed in the present tense, as well as the number of lexico-
grammatical resources that expressed evaluation of people and things, showed the author’s
positive or negative feelings, expressed the author’s judgment of the character’s behavior; and
(4) the presence and number of the language resources that raise or lower the degree of impact in
the utterance (e.g., slightly dizzy, somewhat dizzy, and very dizzy), sharpen, or soften the degree
of preciseness in the utterance (e.g., a true friend, effective work), a language function known as
Graduation (i.e., Interpersonal metafucntion).
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To score the pretest and posttest, both tests were coded for each metafunction then the
codes were counted and scored according to the genre-based instrument. Using SPSS, the
statistical analyses software, the scores were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics
to determine trends in the data. More specifically, the total scores, the scores for each stage, and
the scores for each metafunction as measured on the genre-based instrument were statistically
analyzed as presented in the next few sections.
4.2.2 Statistical analyses for pretest and posttest scores
For the 15 student participants, Table 7 presents the pretest and posttest raw total scores and
scores on each stage in the genre, (i.e., Title, Orientation, and Sequence of Events) as measured
on the genre-based instrument (Appendix D). The total scores were obtained by adding all the
scores of all the items on the genre-based assessment instrument. The scores for each stage were
obtained by adding the items for each stage on the assessment instrument separately. The three
focal students for which the pretest and posttest were qualitatively analyzed (in section 4.3) are
indicated with superscripts denoting their achievement level (i.e., H=high, M=mid, and L=low).
89
Table 7. Raw Scores for Pretest and Posttest
Note. T=Total
To investigate the change in students’ use of the linguistic resources typical to the genre,
descriptive and inferential statistics were performed on the total raw scores of the pretest and
posttest. Figure 7 shows the descriptive statistics for the pretest and posttest scores. The median
for the pretest was 11 and the median for the posttest was 22, Also 50% of the students’ scores
on the pretest ranged between 9 and 14, whereas 50% of the scores on the posttest ranged
between 16 and 23. The minimum score on the pretest was 6, and the maximum was 19, whereas
the minimum score on the posttest was 14 and the maximum was 26.
Pretest
Posttest Pseudo-nyms
Title T=1
Orienta-tion T=7
Sequence of events
T=20
Total T=28
Total T=28
Title T= 1
Orienta- tion T=7
Sequence of events T=20
Sally 0 1 18 19 24 1 6 17 Nancy 1 0 12 13 20 1 5 14 Nicole 0 0 10 10 21 1 6 14 Emma 0 0 16 16 22 1 7 14 Zack (L) 0 0 8 8 11 1 2 8 Matt 0 0 7 7 10 0 0 10 Thomas(H) 0 0 14 14 26 1 6 19 Maria 0 1 13 14 26 1 5 20 Henry (M) 0 0 11 11 22 1 5 16 Iman 0 0 13 13 15 1 6 8 Rob 0 0 11 11 14 1 4 9 Dave 0 0 7 7 16 1 4 11 Amina 0 0 15 15 23 1 5 17 Majed 0 0 6 6 14 1 5 8 Kyle 0 1 10 11 23 1 5 17
90
Figure 7. Boxplot for Pretest and Posttest Scores
The mean, median, and standard deviation for the total scores on both the pretest and posttest are
shown in Table 8.
Table 8. Descriptive Statistics for Pretest and Posttest Measured on Genre-Based Assessment
Instrument
N = 15 Pretest M
Pretest Median
Pretest SD
Posttest M
Post-test
Median
Posttest SD
11.73
11.00
3.751
20.13
22.00
4.051
To investigate whether the differences between the total posttest and pretest scores were
significant, the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test, a nonparametric test, was performed. The
Wilcoxcon Signed-Rank Test6 showed statistically significant higher scores on the posttest
(mean rank = 8.00) compared to the pretest (mean rank = 0.00), Z = -3.413, p = .001. Those
results suggest a significant improvement on students’ use of the language characteristics of the
Recount genre on the posttest after the genre-based approach was implemented compared to the
6 Alpha level (p) = .05 was used for all statistical tests
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pretest. They also are an indication that the genre-based approach impacted students’ expansion
of their language repertoire.
4.2.3 Statistical analyses for pretest and posttest scores for each stage of the Recount
To investigate the difference in students’ use of the language typical to each stage in the
Recount, the raw scores (section 4.2.2) for each stage of the genre on the pretest and posttest as
measured on the genre-based instrument were analyzed using descriptive and inferential
statistics.
Table 9 shows the descriptive statistics for the scores of each stage.
Table 9. Descriptive Statistics for Scores for Each Stage of the Recount
Stage N= 15
Mean Standard Deviation
Minimum Score
Maximum Score
Pretest Title
Posttest Title
.13
.93
.352
.258
0
0
1
1
Pretest Orientation
Posttest Orientation
.20
4.73
.414
1.751
0
0
1
7
Pretest Sequence of Events
Posttest Sequence of Events
11.40
13.53
3.521
4.207
6
8
18
20
For the inferential statistics, the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test was performed. The
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Tests’ results for the differences between the posttest and pretest scores
for each stage are shown in Table 10. The results indicate that the posttest scores for both the
Title and Orientation stages were significantly higher than the scores on the pretest Z = -3.464 , p
= .001 for Title stage; Z = -3.346 , p = .001 for the Orientation stage. However, the difference
92
between the pretest and posttest scores for the Sequence of Events stage Z = -2.054, p = .040
were not significant (p is too close to .05 to support the evidence for a significant result).
Table 10. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test Results for Difference between Pretest and Posttest Scores for
Each Stage
Posttest-Pretest for each stage
Positive mean rank
Negative mean Rank
Z P
Title stage 6.50 (12 ranks) 0 (0 ranks) -3.464 .001
Orientation stage 7.50 (14 ranks) 0 (0 ranks) -3.346 .001
Sequence of Events stage
8.65 (10 ranks) 4.63(4 ranks) -2.143 .040
Note: p was set to equal .05
In general, those results indicate an improvement on students’ genre writing on both the
Title and Orientation stages and a non-significant improvement on the Sequence of Events stage
because the p value is too close to .050. The lack of change in the Sequence of Events stage
between the pretest and posttest could be attributed to the nature of the Sequence of Events stage
which is in some way common across languages (i.e., events in chronological order in all
languages). In any case, for a more delicate analysis, the next section will investigate statistically
the difference between the pretest and posttest for the scores for each metafunction, and section
4.3 will investigate qualitatively the linguistic resources students employed.
4.2.4 Statistical analyses for scores of the three metafunctions on the pretest and posttest
To investigate whether there was a change in students’ use of the lexico-grammar that
expressed each metafunction (i.e., Textual, Ideational, and Interpersonal), the pretest and posttest
scores, as measured on the genre-based instrument, for each metafunction were statistically
93
analyzed. These scores of the items on the genre-based assessment instrument related to each
metafunction were added to give the total score for each metafunction (raw scores in Table 11).
Table 11. Raw Scores for each Metafunction as Measured on the Genre-Based Assessment
Instrument
Note. T= Total
The descriptive statistics for those scores in Table 12 shows the mean, standard deviation,
and minimum and maximum scores for each metafunction on the pretest and posttest. The
maximum score that could be attained was 12 for the Textual metafunction, 5 points for the
Ideational metafunction, and 10 points for the Interpersonal metafunction.
The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test was performed to compare the scores for the Textual,
Ideational, and Interpersonal metafunctions expressed on the pretest and posttest. The results
showed statistically significant higher scores for the Textual and Ideational metafunctions on the
Pretest
Posttest
Pseudo-nyms
Textual
T=12
Ideational
T=5
Interpersonal
T=10
Textual
T= 12
Ideational
T=5
Interpersonal
T=10
Sally 7 4 8 11 5 6 Nancy 4 3 5 8 4 5 Nicole 5 4 2 10 5 6 Emma 7 3 5 12 4 5 Zack (L) 5 1 2 6 2 3 Matt 4 1 2 5 3 3 Thomas(H) 5 4 5 11 5 6 Maria 4 4 5 10 5 6 Henry (M) 5 2 4 10 5 6 Iman 4 3 6 8 2 3 Rob 5 2 4 6 2 3 Dave 4 1 2 9 3 4 Amina 5 4 6 10 4 4 Majed 3 1 2 7 2 3 Kyle 3 3 15 9 5 6
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posttest than on the pretest: Z = - 3.434, p = .001 for Textual and Z = -2.951, p = .003 for
Ideational. However, there was no statistically significant difference for the Interpersonal
metafunction between the pretest and posttest (Z = -1.141, p =.254).
Table 12. Descriptive Statistics for Pretest and Posttest Scores for Each Metafunction
Metafunction
N= 15
M SD Minimum Score
Maximum Score
Pretest Textual
Posttest Textual
4.67
8.80
1.175
2.077
3
5
7
12
Pretest Ideational
Posttest Ideational
2.60
3.73
1.183
1.280
1
2
4
5
Pretest Interpersonal
Posttest Interpersonal
4.07
4.60
1.710
1.352
2
3
7
6
These results indicate an improvement in students’ use of the language resources that
construed the Textual and Ideational metafunctions in the Recount genre but do not show enough
evidence of change in students’ use of the language resources that construed the Interpersonal
metafunction in the genre. The lack of improvement in students’ use of the language resources
that represented the Interpersonal metafunction indicates students’ lack of attention to include
their own evaluations, expressing feelings, and judgments related to the character and events of
the Recount. To confirm this finding, in section 4.3, students’ texts will be qualitatively analyzed
to reveal the language resources students used to express the Interpersonal metafuntion.
95
4.2.5 Paired Sample t-Tests
In addition to the use of SPSS to perform Wilcoxcon-Signed Rank test on the pretest and
posttest scores (in sections above), SPSS was also used to conduct paired sample t-Tests on the
difference between pretest and posttest’s 1) total scores, 2) scores for each of the three stages of
the genre, and 3) scores of each of the three metafunction. These results corroborated the
statistically significant results of the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test. As Table 13 shows, the
paired-sample t-Test results indicate that the higher posttest total scores were statistically
significant compared to the pretest total scores. It also shows a statistically significant
improvement on the posttest scores for the Title and Orientation stages, as well as for the scores
on Textual and Ideational metafunctions in comparison to the pretest scores (p < .05).
Table 13. Paired Sample t-Test Results
Test for mean difference
df = 14
M
difference
t p
Total pretest – Total posttest -8.267 -7.750 <.05
Pretest Title stage- Posttest Title stage -8.000 -7.483 <0.5
Pretest Orientation stage– Posttest Orientation stage -4.467 -10.020 <.05
Pretest SE stage- Posttest SE stage -2.067 -2.239 = .042
Pretest Textual metafunction – Posttest Textual metafunction
-4.133 -9.057 <.05
Pretest Ideational metafunction – Posttest Ideational metafunction
-1.133 -4.432 <.05
Pretest Interpersonal metafunction – Posttest Interpersonal metafunction
-.533 -1.164 =.262
Note. SE = Sequence of Events
Results from the t-test also corroborated the statistically non-significant results of the
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test. As shown in Table 13, there was no significant difference (p =
96
.042) between the mean scores of the Sequence of Events on the posttest compared to the pretest.
Moreover, there was no significant statistical difference between the Interpersonal metafunction
on the posttest compared to the pretest (p = .262).
4.2.6 Summary of findings for the quantitative analyses
The quantitative analyses showed significant changes in students’ writing on the posttest
compared to the pretest. The statistical analysis for the total score of the posttest compared to the
pretest showed a significant difference. It also revealed a significant difference on the posttest
compared to the pretest for the Title and Orientation stages, and for the Textual and Ideational
metafunctions. However, no significant difference was shown for the Sequence of Events stage
and for the Interpersonal metafunction between the posttest and pretest.
These findings indicate that students expanded their language repertoire on several
aspects of the Recount genre, suggesting that the genre-based approach supported students’
expansion to mean. To illustrate the specific changes in students’ use of the language resources
characteristic of the Recount, in the next section, I present the findings for Research Question 3
based on both the genre (Martin & Rose, 2008; Rose & Martin, 2012) and the SFL qualitative
analyses (Bardi, 2008; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) of the pretest and posttest of three focal
students.
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4.3 RESEARCH QUESTION 3: THE FEATURES OF THE RECOUNT IN THE
FOCAL GROUP OF STUDENTS WRITINGS
This section presents the data collection methods and findings for Research Question 3:
What are the stages and the lexico-grammatical characteristics of the Recount genre that a focal
group of students are able to use after instruction in the genre-based approach as compared to
the lexico-grammatical characteristics they used before the genre-based instruction?
4.3.1 The focal group of students
To have a complete and detailed picture of the differences in the language resources that
students were able to use after the genre-based approach as compared to before the approach was
implemented, a genre and a systemic functional linguistics analyses on the pretests and posttests
of a focal group of students were performed. The focal group of students represented three
different achievement levels (i.e., high, mid, and low). The achievement levels were obtained
from the evaluations of the students’ former instructor, which were based on students’ scores and
level of performance in the classroom during a whole semester, which corroborated students’
scores on the pretest.
For the focal group, Table 14 shows each student’s achievement level, first language, and
language(s) spoken other than English. For Zach, the low-achieving student, English is his first
and only language. For Henry, the mid-achieving student, English is his first language and he
also speaks Urdu. As for Thomas, the high achieving student, Czech is his first language and he
also speaks German.
98
Table 14. The Students in the Focus Group
Student’s name
Achievement Level
Pretest Score- max. 28 points
First language Language(s) spoken other than English
Zach Low 8 English No other language
Henry Mid 11 English Urdu
Thomas High 14 Czech German
4.3.2 Data collection and analyses for Research Question 3
The data used to answer Research Question 3 came from the three focal students’ written
responses in the pretest at the beginning of the three-week study and in the posttest at the end of
the study. The pretest and posttest were in response to the same prompt (described in section
3.4.1.1), which asked students to watch a silent video about Professor Kristen and write a story
(i.e., a Recount) about her daily routine to be published in the university newspaper. The tests
were analyzed using genre and SFL as analytical framework.
The genre analysis of the pretest and posttest investigated the stages of the genre (i.e.,
Title, Orientation, and Sequence of Events) and their purposes. The pretest and posttest for each
of the three students were coded according to the information the author conveyed. This
information revealed the purpose of each part, which was then compared to the typical stages of
the Recount (section 4.1) to reveal the presence/absence of each of the stages in the pretest and
posttest.
The SFL analysis depicted the lexico-grammar that students employed to write their
Recounts in Arabic to express: 1) the organization of their texts (i.e., Textual metafunction); 2)
99
the presentation of content, and the logical and functional-semantic relations between clauses
(i.e., Ideational metafunction); and 3) the language of evaluation, attitude, and emotion (i.e.,
Interpersonal metafunction). As described in Chapter 3, the SFL analyses of the pretests and
posttests for each of the metafunctions were performed by coding the text three times, one for
each of the lexico-grammar related to each of the three metafunctions. The codes for each
metafunction were then traced to reveal the patterns in each stage of the Recount. Later, the
lexico-grammatical patterns were compared to the characteristic features of the Recount (section
4.1 above) to reveal their presence or absence in students’ texts.
4.3.3 Findings from pretests and posttests’ analyses for the focal group of students
The findings from the analysis of the pretest and posttest of the focal group of students
(high, mid, and low achievement levels) showed qualitative and quantitative improvement for all
three students. In other words, the findings showed an expansion in students’ meaning-making
potential. Those changes were similar in the Title stage across the three students; however,
students did not show uniform improvement in the Orientation and Sequence of Events stages.
Table 15 depicts the differences between the pretest and posttest for all three students:
Thomas, the high-achieving student; Henry, the mid-achieving student; and Zach, the low
achieving student. The (+) sign indicates the presence of the stage or of the lexico-grammar
realizing the metafunction in each stage, whereas the (—) sign indicates its absence.
100
Table 15. Summary of the Differences between Pretest and Posttest for Focal Group
Genre stage and lexico-grammar realizing the metafunction
Zach’s Tests
Pre Post
Henry’s Tests
Pre Post
Thomas Tests
Pre Post Title Stage Nominal group
— —
+ +
— —
+ +
— —
+ +
Orientation Stage Textual metafunction a) linear thematic progression b)Other than in the first clause, the character is referenced by morphological marking on the verb or pronoun in nominal clauses Ideational metafunction Experiential meaning: circumstance of time to set time frame Interpersonal metafunciton Use of evaluative language to attract the reader
—
— —
—
—
+
— —
+
—
—
— —
—
—
+
+ +
+
+
— — — — —
+
+ +
+
+
Sequence of Events stage Textual metafunction a)Events in chronological order set through either time (as Theme/Rheme) or temporal adjuncts in (as textual Theme) a) for other events in same time frame- Linear Thematic progression foregrounding the character c) for clauses other than the first clause, character is referenced by morphological marking on the verb or pronoun in nominal clauses c) Ideational metafunction: 1. Experiential meaning Verbal clauses (participant(s), process, circumstance(s)) Relational nominal clauses Doing process Sensing processes Saying processes 2. logico-semantic relations Language resources to extend on the clause (adding) language resources to extend the clause (exception/alternative) language resources to enhance the clause (cause) Interpersonal metafunction Evaluative language that portrayed a positive tone Evaluative language that portrayed Kristen as a hard-working professor
+
+
+
—
9* — + — —
+ — —
— —
+
+
+
+
15 — + — —
+ — —
— —
+
+
+
—
15 — + — —
+ — —
— —
+
+
+
+
19
— + + —
+
+ —
+ —
+ + + — 17 2 + — — + + — — —
+
+
+
+
21 7 + + +
+ + +
+ +
Note. (+) indicate the presence of the stage or lexico-grammar. (— ) indicate the absence of the stage or the lexico-grammar.* the number shows the number of clauses.
101
To illustrate the changes in the students’ writing of the Arabic Recount, in the next two
sections, I present the differences in the three students’ Recounts7 (full Recounts in Appendix Q)
for both the Orientation and Sequence of Events stages.
4.3.4 Orientation stage
The Orientation stage is where the author introduces the character(s) of the Recount with
biographical information organized in linear thematic progression, sets the time of the Recount
using a circumstance of time, and attracts the reader to read the Recount using evaluative
language. This stage is important to Recounts because it contributes to the overall social purpose
of the Recount (i.e., informing the university newspaper’s readers about Professor Kristen’s daily
routine).
On the posttest, all three students included the Orientation stage compared to its absence
on the pretest with varying levels of improvement. Both Thomas (high-achieving student) and
Henry (mid-achieving student) showed a developed Orientation stage with all the characteristics
typical to this stage in the Arabic Recount. Thomas, for example, included the biographical
information about Kristen organized in linear thematic progression (i.e., Textual metafunction),
foregrounding Kristen in the Theme (Theme is underlined in lines 3-5 below). The numbering
for the excerpts from students’ texts will be on the right side of the page to respect the Arabic
right to left reading.
7 All the texts are the student’s original writing. Spelling, grammar, or punctuation errors were not corrected. The mistakes in words
that might affect the comprehension of the reader are corrected in < >.
102
2) كریستن االستاذة اللغة العربیة في الجامعة "س"
[Kristen is a professor of Arabic language at the university “X”]
3) تسكن في المدینة وھي عندھا زوجتھا <زوجھا> اسمھ محمود
[{She8} lives in the city and she has a husband named Mahmood]
4) ھي تعمل في الجامعة كل یوم ولكن لیس تعمل في الیوم السبت
[She works at the university everyday but {she}does not work on Saturday]
مفضلھا والیوم االول في االسبوع بعد الظھر )5
[The first day of the week afternoon is her favorite]
Thomas also included the time of the Recount expressed in the circumstance of time والیوم
,(i.e., Experiential meaning in the Ideational metafunction) [first day of the week] االول في االسبوع
marked with a dashed line in line 5, and an evaluation of Kristen’s time expressed through
Appreciation of time بعد الظھر مفضلھا [afternoon her favorite] (i.e., Interpersonal metafunction),
bolded in line 5.
Similar to Thomas, Henry, in the Orientation stage of his posttest, included the
biographical information about Kristen organized in a linear thematic progression (i.e., Textual
metafunction), foregrounding Kristen in the Theme (Theme is underlined in lines 1-3):
1) كریستن أستاذة في جامعة "س". تدرس اللغة العربیة.
[Kristen is a professor in university "X". [{She} teaches the Arabic language]
2) كریستن تسكن في مدینة بیتسبرغ مع زوجھا.
[Kristen lives in the city of Pittsburgh with her husband.]
3) تحب تذحب <تذھب> الى المدبنة كل یوم السبوع <االسبوع>.
[{She} likes to go to the city every day of the week.]
8 The { } corresponds to the morphological marking on the verb in Arabic.
103
Henry also included the time of the Recount expressed by the circumstance of time كل یوم
>السبوع <االسبوع [every day of the week] (i.e., Experiential meaning in the Ideational
metafunction), which is marked with a dashed line in line 3, and an expression of Kristen’s
positive feelings on what she does نةیتذحب <تذھب> الى المد تحب [She likes to go to the city] (i.e.,
Interpersonal metafunction), bolded in line 3.
Zach, on the other hand, did not develop his Orientation fully. It only consisted of two
lines:
كریستن تعمل في جامعة "س".) 2
[Kristen works in university “X”
3) ھي یوم ھذه:
[she day this] to mean <this is her day>
In the first (line 2) س" كریستن تعمل في جامعة" [Kristen works in university “X”], he gave one
biographical information about Kristen and, in the second (line 3), he indicated the time of the
Recount using the circumstance of time یوم [day]. Thus, Zach’s Orientation was missing both
additional biographical information that would give a complete picture of Kristen and the
evaluative language to attract the reader.
4.3.5 Sequence of Events stage
The Sequence of Events stage in the Recount is where the author gives information about
events chronologically. It is important to the Recount because it contributes to the overall social
purpose of the Recount (i.e., informing the university newspaper’s readers about Professor’s
Kristen’ daily routine). This stage is organized chronologically (i.e., Textual metafunction). The
new time for an event or events is signaled by a circumstance of time placed in the
104
Theme/Rheme. The other events in the same time frame are organized in linear thematic
progression foregrounding the character by the morphological marking on the verb in the Theme.
Sometimes, a temporal conjunction is included in the Theme to keep the temporal sequence of
events. The content (i.e., Experiential meaning in the Ideational metafunction) of this stage is
expressed by (1) the participants who contribute to the event, (2) doing, saying, and sensing
processes, and (3) circumstances of time, place, and accompaniment. The content is sometimes
expressed through expansion in the clause (i.e., Logico-semantic relations in the Ideational
metafunction). The expansion can be when one clause add a new element to the other or give an
exception to it (i.e., extension), or by giving it a cause (i.e., enhancing). Additionally, the tone of
the Recount is established through evaluation of the participant and the objects they use,
judgment of the participant’s behavior, or expressing the participant’s positive or negative
feelings (i.e., Interpersonal metafunction)
The Sequence of Events stage was present on both the pretest and posttest for all three
students, which explains the insignificant difference in the quantitative findings (section 4.2.3).
In the next sub -sections, I detail the differences in this stage for each metafunction in students’
pretest and posttest and the differences among the three students.
4.3.5.1 Textual Metafunction
Zach, Henry, and Thomas organized the Sequence of Events stage on both the pretest and
posttest in chronological order (as typical to the Recount). They signaled the new time of the
main events by a circumstance of time as حوالي الخمسة وربع [around quarter after five], marked by
the dotted line in line 9 in this excerpt from Zach’s posttest:
وربع تذھب الى الجیم.ھویاة <حوالي> الخمسة ) 9
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[Around quarter after five she goes to the gym]
For all the other events during the same time frame, all three students organized these
events in a linear thematic progression (as typical of the Arabic Recount), foregrounding Kristen
in the Theme, such as these excerpts from Henry’s pretest (Theme underlined in line 6) and his
posttest (Theme underlined in line 9). Sometimes, a temporal conjunction was included in the
Theme to keep the temporal succession of events, such as ثم [then] circled in line 6 (form
Henry’s pretest) and line 9 (form Henry’s posttest).
6) كریستن تعمل حتى الساعة الخامسة االربع وثم تعود البیت
[Kristen works till quarter to five then {she}returns home]
While the organization of the text was the same for all students on the pretest and
posttest, they all improved in referring to Kristen through the morphological marking on the verb
in the posttest, such as تحب [{she} likes] and تأكل[{she} eats] تعمل [{she} works] in line 9 in
Henry’s posttest. In this way, all students avoided the unnecessary redundancy of explicitly
referring to Kristen, such as كریستن تعمل [Kristen works] bolded in line 6, as an example from
Henry’s pretest.
This change suggests that with the genre-based approach students at all achievement
levels can appropriate even nuanced lexico-grammatical details, because the genre-based
approach makes visible the language resources that support the organization of the genre in a
culturally appropriate way, as discussed in Chapter 5.
9) تحب تدرس اللغة العربیة. من ثم تأكل الغذاء وتعمل من كمبیوترفي الساعة الثانیة عشر ونصف.
[{She} likes teaching the Arabic language. Then {She}eats lunch and {she}works from
the computer half past twelve]
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4.3.5.2 Ideational metafunction
There was a difference in quality and quantity in the language resources the students used
in their texts to realize Experiential meaning as well as logico-semantic relations in the Ideational
metafunction. In the next two sections, I present those differences.
Experiential meaning
In expressing Experiential meaning in the Sequence of Event stage, for Zach, the low-
achieving student, the change between the pretest and posttest was mostly quantitative. There
was an increase in the number of processes Zach used from 9 on the pretest to 15 on the posttest,
which contributed to an increase in the number of clauses and thus contributed to a longer text.
However, the type of processes did not change; they remained only doing processes (e.g.,تذھب
[goes], تعمل [works]). He also included more participants (e.g., كریستن [Kristen], زوجھا [her
husband] التلفزیون [television], and ھم [They]) on his posttest than on his pretest. The only
qualitative improvement on his posttest was in his use of circumstances of accompaniment مع
السعة in addition to the circumstance of time ,(underlined in line 10) [with husband] زوز<زوج>
that he already (bolded in line 10) [gym] الجیم and place [seven o’clock] السبعة <الساعة السابعة>
included on his pretest.
10) السعة السبعة<الساعة السابعة> تنزل الجیم وتذھب منزل وتجلس مع زوز<زوج>
[at seven o’clock {she} leaves the gym and goes home and sits with husband]
As for Henry, the mid-achieving student, and Thomas, the high-achieving student, the
change between the expression of Experiential meaning in the Sequence of Events stage in the
pretest and posttest was quantitatively and qualitatively different. For Henry, in addition to the
increase in the number of verbal clauses containing processes of doing from 15 on the pretest to
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17 on the posttest, he included other verbal clauses containing the sensing process تحب [likes,
love8F
9] underlined in line 13.
13) ال تحب دخن ولكن تحب زوجھا.
[{She} does not like smoking but {she} loves her husband.]
This slight variation in the types of processes Henry used contributed to Experiential
meaning as well as Interpersonal metafunction (discussed in findings for the Interpersonal
metafunction section below). As on his pretest, Henry maintained the use of circumstances of
time, (e.g., <كل یوم السبوع <االسبوع [everyday of the week] and في الساعة الثانیة عشر ونصف [at half
past twelve o’clock] ), place (e.g., البیت [home] and <النادي الراضة<الریاضي [gym]), and
accompaniment (e.g., مع زوجھا [with her husband]) and expanded on the participants to include
قھوة ,[her husband] زوجھا ,[Kristen] كریستن [coffee], اخبار[news], الفطور [breakfast], الغذاء [lunch],
and <دخن <الندخین [smoking].
As for Thomas, the high-achieving student, the improvement was not only in the number
of verbal clauses (from 17 clauses on the pretest to 21 on the posttest) that included doing (e.g.,
تحب ,.sensing (e.g ,[drinks] تشرب [likes], and verbal processes (e.g., تتكلمون [talk]), but also in the
number of relational nominal clauses (e.g., ھي مشغولة كثیرا [she is very busy]) from two on the
pretest to seven on the posttest, such as the ones underlined in lines 8, 11, and 13:
8) في مدینتھا الطقس مشمس
[In her city the weather is sunny]
11) وعندھا جریدة
[And she has a newspaper]
13) بعد ذلك تعمل وعندھا الغذاء في نفس الساعة- ھي مشغولة كثیرا-
9 The verb تحب in Arabic translate to like or love in English depending on the context.
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[After that she works and she has lunch at the same time- she is very busy-]
The above findings suggest that all students improved quantitatively in expressing
Experiential meaning in the Sequence of Events stage that contributed to longer texts on their
posttests. However, qualitatively, each student’s choices to express the Experiential meaning
varied and seem to be related to his achievement level. The higher the achievement, the more
varied the language resources are that the student chose to express the Experiential meaning.
This finding could inform the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages
(ACTFL) proficiency guidelines as to how to describe students’ proficiency in functional terms.
Such implication is discussed in chapter 5.
Logico-semantic relations
The logico-semantic relations are the relations between the clauses in the clause complex and can
be of different categories (e.g., expansion and projection). Each category includes different types
of relations. In this study, the language resources that realized expansion were examined and
specifically the type that expresses, (1) extension, when one clause adds a new element to the
other clause using و [and], for example, as a connector, or when one clause gives an exception to
the other clause using لكن [but], for example, as a connector ; and (2) enhancement, when one
clause gives a cause to the other clause using الن [because], for example, as a connector.
There was variability in students’ expression of expansion. Zach, the low-achieving
student, on both his pretest and posttest, expressed extension by solely using the additive
conjunctive adjunct و [and] (underlined in line 8).
8) بعد ذلك في الساعة السابعة أال ثلث بعد الظھر تعود البیت وتجلس مع زوجي<زوجھا>
[Then at twenty minutes to seven in the afternoon she returns home and sits with her husband]
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Similar to Zach, Henry, the mid-achieving student, expressed extension using additive
conjunctive adjunct و [and] (underlined in line 12), on his pretest and posttest. Unlike Zach, he
also expressed extension in the clause using the adversative adjunct conjunctive adjunct لكن
[but] on the posttest (underlined in line 13).
12) بعد ذلك تعود البیت وتجلس مع زوجھا .
[After that she returns to the house and sits with her husband.]
13) ال تحب دخن ولكن تحب زوجھا.
[She does not like smoking but she likes her husband.]
As for Thomas, the high-achieving student, on his posttest, he not only expressed
extension in the clause (similar to Zach and Henry) using و [and] (underlined in line 18), and
extension (similar to Henry) using لكن [but] (marked with dotted lines, line 18), but he also used
the adversative conjunctive adjunct الن [because] (in bold) to express an enhancement in the
clause
18) وھي سعیدة ألنھا ما <مع> زوجتھا <زوجھا> ولكن ھو یدخن ولیس یستطیع أن<االن> یدخن
[And she is happy because she is with her husband but he smokes and he cannot smoke now]
The use of the conjunctive adjunct الن [because] allowed Thomas to give reasons in
support of the independent clause وھي سعیدة [and she is happy] (circled in line 18 above). This
finding suggests that expressing enhancement may be a characteristic of the high-achieving
students. The above findings, like the previous findings related to Experiential meaning indicate
that changes in students’ linguistic repertoire is related to their achievement levels. This finding
could inform the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) proficiency
guidelines as to how to describe students’ proficiency in functional terms.
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4.3.5.3 Interpersonal metafunction
To examine the Interpersonal metafunction, for each of the three students in the focal
group (Thomas, Henry, and Zach), one from each achievement level (i.e., high, mid, and low), I
analyzed the evaluative language in their pretests and posttests. More specifically, I analyzed the
language that evaluated the character(s) or the object(s) used by the character(s) in the Recount
(i.e., Appreciation), judged the character’s behavior (i.e., Judgment), and expressed the
character’s feelings (i.e., Affect). The evaluative language resources conveyed the student’s
voice and impacted the tone of the Recount and the way the writer portrayed the character (i.e.,
Kristen). In this analysis, I identified the tone by the positive feelings expressed about Kristen
(e.g., Affect as in she is happy) and the positive evaluation (i.e., Appreciation) of the objects she
uses (e.g., the favorite gym she goes to) or her time (e.g., her favorite day). I also identified the
evaluative language resources that portrayed Kristen as a hard working professor (e.g., evaluated
the character (i.e., Appreciation as in she is busy) and judgment of what she does during her
daily routine (e.g., she works a lot). On their pretests and posttests, a positive tone in the text and
a portrait of Kristen as a hard-working professor were expected.
The evaluative language reflecting the Interpersonal metafunction was different
qualitatively and quantitatively among the three students in the focal group. For Thomas, the
high-achieving student, on his posttest compared to his pretest, he used a wide variety of
evaluative language that contributed to setting the positive tone in his Recount and to painting a
portrait of Kristen as the hard working professor. On the posttest, the positive tone in the
Recount was initially signaled in the Orientation stage through the positive feelings and positive
evaluation (i.e., Affect and Appreciation) of Kristen’s time expressed by مفضل لدیھا> مفضلھا> [her
favorite] in االول في االسبوع بعد الظھر مفضلھا <مفضل لدیھا> والیوم [The afternoon of the first day of the
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week is her favorite]. Thomas also represented Kristen as the hard working professor by
evaluating the amount of time she works by using Graduation یوم كل [everyday] in ھي تعمل في
.[she works in the university everyday] الجامعة كل یوم
In the Sequence of Events stage, the positive tone was voiced through the evaluative
language that expressed Appreciation with Graduation of the weather (e.g., الطقس مشمس [the
weather is sunny] bolded in line 8 below) and Appreciation and Affect of where Kristen goes
(e.g., <النادي مفضلھا < مفضل لدیھا [her favorite club] bolded in line 15 below and what she drinks
.(bolded in line 9 below [she loves coffee] تحب قھوة
الطقس مشمس) في مدینتھا 8
[In her city the weather is sunny]
-تحب قھوة –تشرب قھوة كثیرة ۷٬۰ثم في الساعة (9
[Then at seven o’clock she drink a lot of coffee- she likes coffee-]
النادي مفضلھا تذھب الى ٥٬۱۰) وفي الساعة 15
[And at 5:10 she goes to her favorite club]
Thomas also projected a positive tone by using Affect and Graduation to show Kristen’s feelings
as happy because she is with her husband in وھي سعیدة ألنھا ما <مع> زوجتھا [she is happy because
she is with her husband]), bolded in line 18, and as happy and loves her husband
سعیدة وتحب زوجتھ <زوجھا>ھي [she is happy and love him] bolded in line 19.
ولكن ھو یدخن ولیس یستطیع أن یدخن وھي سعیدة ألنھا ما <مع> زوجتھا <زوجھا>) 18
[And she is happy because she is with her husband but he smokes and he cannot smoke now]
وھي سعیدة وتحب زوجتھ <زوجھا>بعد ذلك زوجتھا <زوجھا> ال یدخن ) 19
[After that her husband does not smoke and she is happy and she loves her husband]
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To paint a portrait of Kristen as a hard working professor, in addition to including all the
activities Kristen perform at different times of the day, Thomas used Graduation to show that
Kristen eats and works at the same time تعمل وعندھا الغذاء في نفس الساعة [she works and she has
lunch at the same time], bolded in line 13 below, as well as using Appreciation with Graduation
to show how busy she is ھي مشغولة كثیرا [she is busy a lot], underlined in line 13.
13) بعد ذلك تعمل وعندھا الغذاء في نفس الساعة- ھي مشغولة كثیرا-
[After that she works and she has lunch at the same time- she is very busy-]
The language choices Thomas’ made to express evaluation made the positive tone and
the portrait of Kristen as the hard-working professor salient in his posttest in comparison to the
intermittent use of those resources in his pretest as the excerpt from Thomas’ pretest shows (the
evaluative language expressing Appreciation with Graduation is underlined in lines 5, 6, and 13).
5) في الساعة ۱۲٬30 كریستن تعمل و تغذاء في نسف <نصف> الساعة
[at 12:30 Kristen works eats lunch in half an hour]
6) وتشرب قھوة ثم ھي تعمل كثیر
[and drinks coffee then works a lot]
13) ثم كریستن سعیدة وتتكلم ماه
[Then Kristen is happy and talks to him]
Similar to Thomas, Henry, the mid-achieving student, used more variety of language
resources to express the Interpersonal metafunction on his posttest than on his pretest. He, like
Thomas, signaled the positive tone in the Orientation stage through positive feelings (i.e.,
Affect). Henry expressed those feelings in the sensing process تحب [love] (bolded in line 4
below) compared to its absence in the pretest.
تذحب <تذھب> الى المدبنة كل یوم السبوع <االسبوع>. تحب) 4
[{She} loves to go to the city every day of the week.]
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In the Sequence of Events stage of his posttest, Henry, compared to Thomas, chose a
limited variety of language resources to express the positive tone. Henry projected the positive
feelings only in the sensing verb تحب [loves] bolded in line 14 below:
زوجھا. تحبدخن ولكن ) ال تحب14
[{She} does not like smoking but she loves her husband.]
Even though Henry’s evaluative language choices were limited in type to the sensing verb تحب
[she likes] and did not create a fully developed tone in the Recount nor gave a full picture of
Kristen as the hard-working professor, nonetheless, he attempted to include his voice in his
Recount.
Zach, the low-achieving student, included evaluative language on the posttest compared
to its absence on the pretest, this change was not enough to create a tone in the Recount or paint
a portrait of Kristen as the hard-working professor. For example, Zach, on the posttest, expressed
Appreciation and Graduation to describe the coffee Kristen drinks أحوا <قھوة> أسود [takes black
coffee for breakfast] bolded in line 6). However, such evaluation does not contribute to the tone
of the Recount.
6) بعد تذھب یفطرأحوا <قھوة> أسود وتخرج الى تذھب تعلم <الى العمل> في السیارة.
[after going take black coffee for breakfast and leaves to goes to work in the car]
These findings indicate that each student’s ability to use a variety of evaluative language
to create a tone in the Recount and represent Kristen as the hard-working professor is again
related to the student’s achievement level. This observation is similar to the previous observation
from the analysis of the language resources realizing the Ideational metafunction. The
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implication from both findings for genre-based pedagogy and the description of student
proficiency in functional terms will be discussed in Chapter 5.
4.3.6 Summary of findings for the focal group of students
The above findings from both the genre and SFL qualitative analyses of the pretests and
posttests of a focal group of three students (Thomas, Henry, and Zach) from three different
achievement levels (i.e., high, mid, low) show that all students expanded their linguistic
repertoire, although not uniformly for all students and for all features of the Recount.
All students included the three typical stages of the Recount (i.e., Title, Orientation, and
Sequence of Events) on their posttests compared to only the Sequence of Events stage on the
pretest. Nevertheless, Zach’s Orientation stage was underdeveloped in comparison to Thomas’
and Henry’s. As for the Sequence of Events stage, all three students organized the stage in
chronological order as typical to the Recount on both the pretest and posttest. The difference
between the pretest and posttest for all three students was in their use of the morphological
marking on the verb to refer to the character, while keeping the text cohesive and avoiding the
unnecessary redundancy of explicitly mentioning the character.
The difference on the pretest and posttest for the Ideational and Interpersonal
metafunctions for the three students corresponded to their achievement level. For the Experietial
meaning of the Ideational metafunction, Thomas employed a large number of clauses (i.e., 19
clauses on the pretest compared to 28 clauses on the posttest) and a variety of processes (i.e.,
doing and sensing processes on the pretest compared to doing, sensing, and saying processes on
the posttest) on his posttest compared to his pretest. To realize expansion of the clauses (i.e.,
build complex clauses), Thomas used a variety of conjunctions and of different types (i.e., و , لكن
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و on his posttest compared to only ([and, but, because] ألن and لكن [and, but] on his posttest. For
the Interpersonal metafunction, Thomas also used various types of evaluative language to create
a tone and paint a portrait of Kristen as the hard working professor in his posttest compared to
his pretest.
As for Henry, in comparison to Thomas, he used a smaller number of clauses (19 on the
posttest) and less variety of processes (doing and sensing processes on the posttest), which made
his text shorter than Thomas’ posttest. All students wrote their texts during the 50 minutes testing
time. Thomas’ text was 146 words whereas Henry’s text was 115 words. Additionally, Henry’s
use of fewer linguistic resources to realize the Interpersonal metafunction made the tone of his
text less developed than that of Thomas’ and the representation of Kristen as a hard working
professor absent.
As for Zach, he included more clauses to express the events on the posttest ( i.e., 15) than
on his pretest (i.e., 9) , which made his text longer (from 46 words on the pretest to 72 words on
the posttest). However, there was no variation in the types of clauses; they were all verbal
clauses with doing processes. To express the Interpersonal metafucntion, even though Zack used
more language resources on his posttest compared to his pretest, those resources were not
enough to create a tone in the Recount and to paint a portrait of Kristen as a hard working
professor. Although the differences between his pretest and posttest were not dramatic, those
small changes showed Zack’s nascent appropriation of the features of the Arabic Recount genre.
These appropriations indicate that even low-achieving students might benefit from awareness of
the stages and lexico-grammatical resources characteristic of the genre made visible during the
genre-based approach.
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4.4 RESEARCH QUESTION 4: STUDENTS’ READING COMPREHENSION OF A
RECOUNT TEXT AND ITS RELATION WITH WRITING THE RECOUNT GENRE
This section presents the data collection method and findings for Research Question 4:
To what extent students’ reading comprehension of a Recount text reflected their understanding
of the recount genre after the genre-based approach for teaching the writing of a Recount was
implemented?
4.4.1 Data collection and analyses for reading comprehension scores
To answer Research Question 4, the reading comprehension test (Appendix F) for the
Recount was scored on the reading comprehension rubric (Appendix G, detailed in Chapter 3
and summarized here). In short, the reading comprehension tests were scored for recognizing the
text type and explaining the information in the Orientation and Sequence of Events stages of the
Recount. For the Orientation stage, one point was awarded for giving three facts that described
the main character, one point for recognizing the time frame of the Recount, and one point for
explaining the hook sentence. For the Sequence of events stage, one point was awarded for each
description of the event and detail(s) of the events (20 points in total). Additionally, one point
was awarded for recognizing the genre. The maximum score any student could have been
awarded was 26 points.
A descriptive analysis of the reading comprehension scores and a Spearman’s correlation
between the posttests and the reading comprehension tests were performed. Those results were
triangulated with the findings from students’ perceptions in the post-study survey (Appendix I).
Students answered the question: Did learning to write a Recount genre help you in the reading
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comprehension of the Recount text? Explain. Students’ answered this question both on the Likert
scale (i.e., 1= not at all, 2= a little, 3= somewhat, 4= a lot) and as an open ended question.
4.4.2 Descriptive statistics for the reading comprehension test scores
The result from the descriptive statistical analysis for the reading comprehension scores
for the 15 students participants gave a M = 19.80, SD = 3.950, with a Minimum score = 8 and a
Maximum score = 24. Figure 8 shows the distribution of the scores where the majority of
students scored above 19 points.
Figure 8. Histogram for Total Reading Comprehension Scores
Additionally, a descriptive statistical analysis was performed to describe the 15 students’
scores on the different elements in the test. Fourteen students recognized the type of text as a
Recount. For the Orientation stage, all of the students could describe three facts about the
character, 11 students could describe the time frame, and 12 students could describe the hook
sentence. As for the students’ scores for describing the main events and their details in the
Mean = 19.73 Std. Dev = 3.95 N = 15
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Sequence of Events stage, M = 14.27 and SD = 3.575, and the majority of the scores ranged
between 14 – 19.
4.4.3 Relationship between writing and reading comprehension
To examine the relationship between the students’ posttests scores for the written
Recount and their reading comprehension test scores, the reading comprehension test scores
were mapped onto the writing posttest scores. As Figure 9 shows, there was no evidence of a
consistent relationship between students’ posttest writing scores and reading comprehension
scores. To test this relationship, a Spearman’s correlation revealed an insignificant statistical
correlation between writing scores and reading comprehension scores rs =.130, p = .645. In
other words, no evidence was found that suggested that students with higher writing scores had
higher reading scores or students with lower writing scores had lower reading scores.
Implication from this finding will be discussed in chapter 5.
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Figure 9. Scatter Plot Graph for Scores on Posttest and on Reading Comprehension Test
4.4.4 Finding from post-study survey
In the post-study survey, the 15 students’ perceptions about the relationship between
writing and reading were elicited from answering the question did learning to write a Recount
genre help you in the reading comprehension of the Recount text? Explain. Their perceptions
challenged the quantitative findings discussed above. Students’ responses on the Likert scale
part of the question (i.e., 1= not at all, 2= a little, 3= somewhat, 4= a lot) suggested that almost
all of students (n = 14) found that learning to write the Recount either “somewhat helped” or
“helped a lot” in reading comprehension of the same type of text. Only one student found that
writing “helped a little,” and one other student found it “did not help at all”, as Figure 10
illustrates.
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Figure 10. Histogram for Students’ Perceptions on Learning to Write a Recount and its Support in
Reading Comprehension
This finding was also supported by students’ explanations on the open-ended part of the
question in post-study survey. Two themes emerged in students ‘explanations: (1) knowing the
structure of the genre and (2) attention to language being used. Under the first theme, knowing
the structure of the genre, about half of the students (n= 8) indicated that knowing the structure
and organization of the genre helped them in comprehending a text from the same genre.
Representative comments include “understanding the structure made it easier to recognize who
belongs where in a Recount” and “I think it might have been helpful since I know the format and
where different sentences should be located, which helped my overall comprehension.” Under
the second theme, a closer consideration of the language being used, some students (n= 6)
explained that learning how to write in the genre made them approach the text with a closer
attention to the language. Representative comments include “it helped me look more closely and
critically at language for tone /transitions and helped clarify what some terms were referring
[sic]” and “being able to write a Recount made it easier to identify the subject (using prefixes
and suffixes) and easier to identify habitual actions and the words regarding them.”
1 = not at all
2= a little
3= somewhat
4= a lot
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One student explained that instruction on writing Recounts did not help her in reading
comprehension because she understood Recounts before writing instructions. Ironically, her
pretest did not display all the characteristics of the Recount, indicating that initially she did not
have knowledge of how Arabic Recount works. These findings from the post-survey suggest that
writing instruction that made the characteristics of the genre evident to students helped students
approach reading the text with an analytical eye with regards to the organization and language of
the Recount. The lack of relationship between writing and reading comprehension is probably
an indication that the students needed more scaffolding during the teaching/learning cycle as will
be discussed in Chapter 5.
4.5 RESEARCH QUESTION 5: METALANGUAGE USE
This section presents the data collection methods and findings for Research Question 5:
How did the instructor and the students use the metalanguage of Systemic Functional Linguistics
during the joint construction stage of the Recount genre?
5a. How did the focal group of students describe the purpose and linguistic features of the
Recount genre?
4.5.1 Data collection and analyses for Research Question 5
In this study, metalanguage refers to language that describes language and includes both
the use of terminology to talk about language and meaning (Schleppegrell, 2013). The purpose of
this analysis is to find how the metalanguage was used by the students and instructor to jointly
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construct the Recount, as metalanguage is believed to support “contextual language learning”
(Schleppegrell, 2013, p. 153), such as writing the Recount genre for a social purpose .
To answer Research Question 5, I transcribed the two one-hour videotaped lessons of the
joint-construction phase, which is one of the phases in the teaching/learning cycle (i.e., the
genre-based model implemented in this study explained in section 3.5). The purpose of the joint-
construction phase is for the instructor and students to jointly write a Recount with all its typical
features in preparation for students’ independent writing of a text from the same genre. To
scaffold the joint writing of a complete Recount, in the first lesson, the instructor and her
students worked together to revise a text (Appendix P) that was missing some of the features of
the Arabic Recount genre. In the second lesson, after watching a video about the daily routine of
the university student, Jamal, on his study abroad trip, the instructor and her students worked
together to co-write another Recount that demonstrated the characteristics of the Arabic Recount
genre. During the first read, the transcribed classroom conversations were coded for the
metalanguage used in both the Orientation and the Sequence of Events: (1) to describe the
organization of the Recount (i.e., Textual metafunction), (2) to present the content in the Recount
(i.e., Ideational metafunction), and (3) to include the author’s voice (i.e., Interpersonal
metafunction through evaluative language). Then, the categories were described for type of
metalanguage and how metalanguage was used by the instructor and the students to jointly
construct the Recount. The descriptions of the codes were also compared with the observer’s
field notes.
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4.5.2 Metalanguage used to support the joint construction of the Orientation stage
During the joint construction of the Orientation stage, metalanguage supported the
instructor and her students’ lexico-grammar choices to organize this stage. This metalanguage
referred to the Theme (i.e., what the clause is about), Rheme (i.e., the part of the clause where
the Theme is developed), and thematic progression (i.e., how the clauses are organized by
referring to each clause’s Theme). The instructor’s metalanguage helped explain the function of
the Theme and its role in the textual organization of the Orientation stage. For example, the
instructor’s SFL Textual metalanguage (bolded in lines 4 and 11 in Excerpt 2) explained how the
choice of the Theme (e.g., یسكن [lives] instead of the character Sammy, line 8 Excerpt 2 below)
changed the thematic progression and the message of the clause. Specifically, the instructor
explained how the Theme in the Orientation stage “has to always be the person or thing we want
to talk about” (lines 9 and 10 in Excerpt 2). Metalanguage also helped the instructor explain to
her students that their choice of the Theme decides the linear thematic progression (“keep the
linear thematic progression by keeping the character in the Theme” line 11 in Excerpt 2 and
underlined in lines 11, 13, and 14 in Excerpt 3 below).
Excerpt 2
1. S1: صغیریسكن سامي في بیت [{He} lives in a small house] 2. S2: is it better to say یسكن سامي في بیت صغیر [Sammy lives in a small house] 3. than بیت سامي صغیر [Sammy’s house is small] 4. T: here [pointing to Sammy’s house is small] you are describing the بیت [house] 5. like saying Sammy’s house is small. It is the house that is the Theme. What is the 6. theme here? 7. S2: the house 8. T: but here یسكن [lives]is the Theme and the یـ [morphological marking on the verb] 9. refers to Sammy and that is the important part. So the Theme has to always be the 10. person or thing we want to talk about it is the point of departure, keep the linear 11. thematic progression by keeping the character in the Theme [teacher points to the 12. themes] and not something that is not important like the بیت [house].
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At times during the joint construction of the Orientation stage’s organization, the
instructor and the students used their own terminology to explain the relationship between the
position of the lexico-grammar in the clause and its function. For example, the instructor and her
students referred to the Theme (i.e., what the clause is about) by start (bolded in lines 1 and 7 in
Excerpt 3) and related it to its function to introduce (bolded in line 6 in Excerpt 3) the character.
Excerpt 3
1. T: For the orientation stage what do we start with? 2. S: أسم [name] 3. T: What do we do with the أسم [name] 4. S: We name him 5. T: Right we have to introduce him 6. T: How are you going to introduce him 7. S: just start with his name 8. T: and what do we say 9. S: جمال طالب حصل على بعثة في كوریا [Jamal obtained a scholarship in Korea] 10. T: Now I want you to take a moment and think what is going to come next. 11. Are we keeping the same Theme or not [pointing to Jamal] 12. S: نعم [yes] 13. T: So can you prepare what is next. If you are keeping the same Theme what does 14. that mean? Are we giving new information about him? 15. Ss: Yes 16. T: Ok so write down the next sentence. What more can you say about him [the character. 17. S: ھو طالب في مدرستنا [He is a student in our school] 18. S: Introduce him as a student in our school, one of our classmates
Showing their understanding of their instructor’s textual metalinguistic prompt
(underlined in lines 11, 13, and 14 in Excerpt 3), the students produced Arabic text that followed
the typical organization of the Orientation stage (i.e., linear thematic progression). For example,
one student produced the clause جمال طالب حصل على بعثة في كوریا [Jamal a student who obtained a
scholarship in Korea] (underlined with a dashed line in line 9 in Excerpt 3 above) and another
student produced the clause طالب في مدرستنا ھو [He is a student in our school] (underlined with a
dashed line in line 17 in Excerpt 3 above). Both clauses had the same Theme to support the
linear thematic progression in the Orientation stage.
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4.5.3 Metalanguage used to support the joint construction of the Sequence of Events stage
During the joint construction of the Sequence of Events stage, the instructor and her
students used metalanguage to explain the lexico-grammatical choices that can organize the
Sequence of Events stage, express the content, and include their voices as authors.
To joint construct the organization of the Sequence of Events stage, the students and
instructor used a similar metalanguage as that used during the joint construction of the
organization of the Orientation stage. The instructor used SFL metalanguage (bolded in line 8
Excerpt 4) and own terminology (bolded in line 7 Excerpt 4 to refer to the Theme and bolded in
line 8 Excerpt 4 to refer to the Rheme) to explain the role of the position of the circumstance of
time in establishing a chronological order (lines 9 and10, Excerpt 4 below). Another example for
the use of SFL metalanguage is during the instructor’s explanation of how the morphological
marking ي [refers to Jamal] on the verb establishes the linear thematic progression for recounting
the events (e.g., …. the ي [pointing to the morphological marking on the verb] refers to Jamal-
keeping the same Theme [i.e, thematic progression] lines 18 and 19 in Excerpt 4).
Students did not use SFL metalanguage, rather they responded to the instructor’s
metalinguistic prompts either by using their own functional explanation of the lexico-grammar
(e.g., introduce the events, line 3 Excerpt 4 referring to the Theme) or by producing Arabic text
as in line 13 and 16 in Excerpt 4.
Excerpt 4
1. T: for this stage what do we usually start with ? what is a Sequence of Events stage? 2. T: It is event in chronological order ,so what is important here? 3. S: So maybe introducing the event by saying this is the beginning of the day 4. T: beginning of the day what is that? 5. S: الصباح 6. T: And that is what we need, a circumstance of time if you want the events in chronological 7. T: order. The circumstance of time does not have to be the first thing, in the Theme
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8. T: It can be at the end of the sentence because in Arabic it is flexible. You can move 9. T: it around. We need a circumstance of time somewhere and we are recording events in 10. T: chronological orders so that is very important to us. 11. T: So I want you to think for a minute and write down the first event… 12. T: . یاال یا امینة [teacher calls a student] 13. S: في الساعة السادسة صباحا ھو یصحو ویبدأ یومھ [at seven o’clock in the morning he wakes up and starts his day] [Teacher wrote the sentence on the board] 14. T: الساعة السابعة صباحا [at seven o’ clock] this is a circumstance of time جمال یصحو و یبدأ الیوم [Jamal wakes up and starts his day 15 T: وماذا أیضا یفعل في الصباح ؟ [and what else does he do in the morning] 16. S: االول ومن ثم ھو یغسل وجھھ قبل الذھاب الى الطابق [then he washes his face before going to the first floor] (student produced the sentence with teacher’s help) 17. T: I want you to notice here we set the time then introduced Jamal then یصحو ویبدأ ویغسل 18. T: [wakes up, starts, and washes]And these are all processes of doing and the یــ refers to 19. T: Jamal- keeping the same Theme The above findings show that the instructor’s SFL metalanguage and students’ and
instructor’s own terminology, which explained the function of the lexico-grammar, supported the
organization of the Orientation stage and Sequence of events stage of the Recount during the
joint construction phase. Additionally, students’ Arabic responses in the examples above show
their comprehension of the SFL formal metalanguage their instructor used, even though they did
not produce the formal metalanguage themselves. The lack of students’ use of the SFL formal
metalanguage might be attributed to the fact that SFL textual metalanguage is new language
terminology that students must learn. Thus, students may need time to learn this terminology as
well as more opportunities to use them. These implications will be further discussed in chapter 5
in relation to the genre-based approach and theoretical underpinnings of the use of metalanguage
and its purposes and significance.
The joint construction of the content of the Sequence of Events stage (i.e., Experiential
meaning) was supported by the instructor’s and the students’ use of SFL metalanguage. The
functions of the processes (e.g., doing processes to express the events and sensing processes to
express the author’s feelings) were made visible through the instructor’s metalinguistic prompts
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(see lines 1, 3, 5, and 7 in Excerpt 5) and the students’ metalinguistic responses (see lines 2, 4,
and 6 in Excerpt 5).
Excerpt 5
1. T: The process that we used here, we used حصل [obtained] is that a process of doing or sensing? 2. S: doing 3. T: and we used یدرس 4. S: doing 5. T: and we used ھو یحب 6. S: chorus: sensing 7. T: but that is our feelings of what Jamal [the character] does The instructor’s metalinguistic prompts (see lines 1 and 3 in Excerpt 6) and students’
responses (see lines 2 and 4 in Excerpt 6) drew the students’ attention to the participant as being
expressed in the morphological marking on the verb, a typical feature of the Arabic language.
Excerpt 6
1. T: where is the participant here [pointing to the sentence]? 2. S: یـ [morphological marking on the verb referring to he] 3. T: and it refers to 4. S: ھو [he]
Additionally, the SFL metalanguage supported the choices that students and their instructor
made for different types of circumstances (lines 1 -7 in Excerpt 7). It also made students aware
of the possibility of having different circumstances in one clause (line 6 Excerpt 7).
Excerpt 7
1. T: and what is this [pointing to بعد نصف ساعة [after half an hour]] 2. S: a circumstance 3. T: and what is this في نصف الشارع الى جامعة سول [in the middle of the street to Seoul
University] 4. S: place ? 5. T: all these are circumstances and this is of place….. 6. T: so one sentence can have many circumstances of time or place 7. T: We can add here ھو یمشي بسرعة and that is a circumstance of manner
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The instructor also used SFL metalanguage to explain to students how a circumstance of manner
(lines 1 – 4 Excerpt 8) may express the author’s judgment of the character’s behavior (e.g., النھ
,line 3 Excerpt 8) (i.e., Interpersonal metafunction). Thus [because he is always late] دائما متأخر
the metalanguage made students aware of the use of circumstances to express their voices as
authors of Recounts.
Excerpt 8
1. T: We can add here ھو یمشي بسرعة and that is a circumstance of manner 2. T: If we want to give our impression that he is always late ھو یمشي بسرعة في نصف الشارع الى
he walks fast in the middle of the street to Seoul university=he] -وھو دائما متأخر جامعة سول is always late]
3. S: can we do النھ دائما متأخر [because he is always late] 4. T: yes we can
The above findings show that students used SFL metalanguage to jointly construct the
content of the Sequence of Events stage (i.e., expressing Experiential meaning) while, when
jointly constructing the organization of the Recount (i.e., expressing Textual meaning), the
students used their own terminology that referred to the function of the lexico-grammar. Their
choices in using the SFL metalanguage to express the Experiential meaning might be attributed
to the similarity between SFL metalanguage and the metalanguage of traditional grammar (e.g.,
doing verbs in both traditional grammar and SFL) with which the students are already familiar.
As for the joint construction of meaning to express the author’s voice (i.e., interpersonal
meaning) in the Sequence of Events stage, students responded to the instructor’s metalinguistic
prompts (e.g., put your voice here or a description, bolded in line 1 in Excerpt 9) with Arabic
text that included evaluative language, which expressed the author’s feelings about the food
(e.g., ھو یفضل أن یأكل سیریل بالحلیب [he prefers to eat cereals with milk], in line 2 Excerpt 9).
Students’ responses exhibit their understanding of the function of the language choices to
express their voices as authors of Arabic Recounts. One student commented on adding a positive
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tone to the Recount, “… and then at the end when we were talking what he likes to do [we can]
give it like a positive [tone], maybe drinks a lot of coffee …” Her comment shows her
understanding that adding “a lot” to something the character likes to do (drink coffee)
contributed to the tone of the Recount.
Excerpt 9
1. T: anybody want to say something? put your voice here or a description of breakfast 2. S: ھو یفضل أن یأكل سیریل بالحلیب [he prefers to eat cereals with milk] 3. S2: can we say something like tasty or delicious 4. T: الشھي او اللذیذ [appetizing or delicious] (teacher write on the board) 5. T: We can describe more رتقال البارد مع سكر ومع عصیر الب ھو یفضل أن یأكل ویفضل السیریل بالحلیب [he 6. T: prefers to eat and prefers cereals with cold milk with sugar with orange juice] 7. T: You are describing with focus and putting your voice
4.5.4 Summary on metalanguage used during the joint construction phase
During the joint construction phase of the teaching/learning cycle, the instructor either
used SFL metalanguage or her own terminology in order to draw students’ attention to the
typical lexico-grammar (realizing the Textual, Interpersonal, and Ideational metafunctions) and
their function in the stages of the Recount. As for the students, they rephrased the Textual SFL
metalanguage and recast it in their own words, but used SFL metalanguage to express the
Experiential meaning. Additionally, students produced Arabic text in response to their
instructor’s metalinguistic prompts that indicates their understanding of the functional meaning
of formal SFL metalanguage. This finding corroborates with the observer’s field notes at the end
of the joint construction phase that comment on the change in students’ use of metalanguage
during the teaching/learning cycle:
It seems the students wholly understand the concepts of the metalanguage despite the fact
that they do not reproduce it frequently on days when it is not the focus [referring to the
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deconstruction phase]; earlier in the study, when the focus was on learning the language
[metalanguage], it seems that students produced it more, even if they maybe understood it
less—there seems to be a shift in usage from rote repetition to understanding of a
concept.
This finding indicates that during the joint construction of the Recount, the SFL
metalanguage in conjunction with the students’ and instructor’s own terminology (that explained
the function of the lexico-grammar in the Recount) contributed to the way they organized their
understanding of the typical features of a written Arabic Recount to produce one. Thus, the SFL
metalanguage and the students’ and instructor’s own terminology is a functional concept that
supported the writing of the Recount. According to Greeno (2012) a functional concept is “a
cognitive entity [metalanguage] that has meaning in a kind of activity [jointly constructing a
Recount], in which it contributes to the way participants [students and instructor] organize their
understanding of what they are doing [writing a Recount]” (p.311). Greeno’s theory of functional
concepts and its implication on the use of metalanguage during the genre-based approach will be
further discussed in chapter 6.
4.5.5 Data collection and analysis for Research Question 5a
At the end of this study, students were asked to complete a post-study survey (Appendix
I). Question 2 on the survey asked students to verbalize their understanding of the Recount
genre. The students were provided with the following prompt to carry out this part of the
research study:
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Your friend in the other Arabic class has an assignment to write a Recount genre; he
asked you for help. How would you explain to him/her how to write a Recount genre?
(You may use Arabic/English or illustrations to answer this question.
Each student’s response (Thomas, Henry, and Zach) in the focal group from the three different
achievement levels (i.e., high, mid, and low) was coded for the description of the general social
purpose of the Recount, the three stages of the Recount (i.e., Title, Orientation, and Sequence of
Events) and their purpose, as well as the lexico-grammatical characteristic of each of the three
stages in the Recount. Then, these codes were described.
4.5.6 Findings from students’ descriptions of the Recount (Research Question 5a)
Describing the Arabic Recount entails the identification of the three stages of the Recount
(i.e., Title, Orientation, and Sequence of Events), the purpose of each stage, as well as the overall
social purpose of the Recount. Additionally, it requires describing the lexico-grammatical
features that represents the organization of the Recount (i.e., Textual metafunction), the content
of the Recount (i.e., Ideational metafunction) and the evaluative language to create the tone in
the Recount and paint a portrait of the character (i.e., Interpersonal metafunction).
The three students in the focus group (Thomas, Henry, and Zack) showed different levels
of awareness for the features of the Arabic Recount. Zach, the low-achieving student, only
showed awareness of the three stages of the genre and some of the purposes of each stage, which
he illustrated in a diagram, see Figure 11 below. For example, he listed the Orientation (which
he named the Introduction) as one of the stages of the Recount and expressed two of the
purposes of this stage: “Introduction tells a little bit about the person, also contains a hook.”
Missing in his description of this stage was the time of the Recount. He used his own
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metalanguage to name and to describe the stages. Zach ignored any reference to the lexico-
grammatical features typical to any of the stages.
Figure 11. Zach’s Description of the Arabic Recount Genre
Henry (the mid-achieving student), similar to Zach, listed the three stages and the
purposes of each stage of the Recount, as this excerpt describing the Orientation stage shows:
…. We would work on the introduction describing the subject. At the end of this we would make sure the time frame of the recount is clear as well as have a proper hook before the sequence of events.
Later in his explanation, Henry identified some of the lexico-grammar typical to the Recount but
had a vague explanation of their function. As this excerpt below shows, he explained that the use
of vocabulary (e.g., السادسھ [six o’clock], ثم [then], or بعد ذلك [after that] ) would be used “to make the
Recount flow or the events flow”. However, he did not make it clear what he meant by the word
flow.
I would introduce them to vocabulary such as السادسھ [six o’clock], ثم [then], or بعد ذلك [after that] in order to help them make the Recount flow...We would move on to the actual Sequence of Events and use the vocabulary to make sure the events flowed and make sense.
The Excerpts from Henry’s response show that he used his own terminology to describe the
function of some of the lexico-grammar in the Recount. However, Henry, like Zach, ignored
describing other lexico-grammatical features typical to each of the stages of the Recount (e.g.,
lexico-grammar that express the content or organization of the Recount).
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As for Thomas, the high-achieving student, he showed his awareness of the three stages
of the Recount “it needs three parts” and the purpose of each stage (similar to Henry and Zach).
For example, he described the Sequence of Events stage as: “…is the longest part. It is here that
you write in chronological order, once again introducing the subject/event by name and going
through the whole time frame that was mentioned in the introduction.”
However, he was the only student in the focal group that demonstrated an explicit
awareness of the general social purpose of the Recount, although he expressed this awareness in
relation to the context of the class rather than the social context. Thomas wrote, “…the
assignment is a review of either events or individuals and their lives.” Thomas was also the only
student to express an awareness of some of the lexico-grammar of the Recount. More
specifically, Thomas demonstrated his understanding of the features realizing the Experiential
meaning of the Ideational metafunction in the Sequence of Events stage by writing, “The verbs
used should be primarily action verbs…..There can be some sentences that are not essential to
the overall recount and these we use abstract/ feeling verbs.” His explanation referred to
classroom instruction on the use of doing verbs to express the actual events of the Recount and
on the use of sensing verbs to express the character’s emotions or feelings in the Recount. He
used his own description to express his understanding. However, Thomas missed on describing
the lexico-grammar that expresses the organization and the tone (i.e., Interpersonal metafiction)
of the Recount.
These findings reveal that while all three students had equal awareness of the stages of
the Recount, they did not have uniform awareness of the overall social purpose of the Recount
and of the lexico-grammatical features typical for each stage, which again corresponds to their
achievement levels. Thomas the high achieving student exhibited the highest awareness of the
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characteristics of the Recount and Zach the low achieving student exhibited the lowest awareness
of the characteristics of the Recount. In summary, Thomas showed awareness of the stages of the
Recount, the lexico-grammatical features that express the Experiential meaning in the Recount,
and the overall social purpose. However, Thomas’ awareness of the social purpose was oriented
to the classroom task (i.e., assignment).
Henry showed awareness of the three stages of the Recount and of some of the lexico-
grammatical features. Zach showed only an awareness of the stages of the Recount. The
correspondence between awareness of the Recount to students’ achievement level corroborates
the findings from the qualitative analysis of the pretest and posttest (in section 4.3.2) for students
in the focal group. Implications from these findings on genre-based pedagogy will be discussed
in Chapter 5
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5.0 DISCUSSION
In this study, the genre and SFL analysis of a model Arabic Recount depicted how this
genre works in terms of its social purpose, the purpose of each stage, and the typical lexico-
grammatical features in each stage. Knowing how the Recount genre works supported the design
of a genre-based unit of instruction. It also informed the revision of three weeks on the syllabus
to accommodate the application of the Recount genre-based unit within the constraints of this
syllabus, in which students were expected to write about daily routines grounded in the textbook
chapters of AL-Kitaab fii Ta'allum al-'Arabiyya, part 1, by Brustad, Albatal, and Altonsi.
During the implementation of this approach, the stages and lexico-grammatical features
of the genre were made visible and accessible to students, which yielded improvement in their
writing. Thus, the findings from the genre analysis and the implementation of the genre-based
unit of instruction indicate the plausibility of designing a whole genre-based Arabic syllabus
(Feez & Joyce, 1998) and potentially a whole curriculum (Byrnes et al., 2010).
In this chapter, I discuss four themes that were revealed in the findings and their
implications: (1) the genre-based approach and composing the Recount, (2) the genre-based
approach and the ACTFL framework, (3) metalanguage use during genre-based instruction, and
(4) reading comprehension and the genre-based approach. At the end of each section,
implications for future research are explored. I then end the chapter with concluding remarks.
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5.1 THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH AND COMPOSING THE RECOUNT
5.1.1 Recount genre awareness
Based on the results from the quantitative analysis of the total scores on the pretest and
posttest as measured on the genre-based assessment instrument, students showed improvement in
their appropriation of the features of the Arabic Recount. However, based on the findings from
the qualitative analysis, the improvement was not uniform for all students from high, mid, and
low achievement levels as will be discussed in section 5.1.5. The quantitative findings indicate
that the approach raised students’ awareness regarding the characteristic features of the Recount
genre. The findings also point to the advantage of explicit instruction. In the context of Arabic as
a less-commonly-taught language at the university level, these implications echo the implications
of earlier studies in FL and L2 contexts in the United States, such as Byrnes (2009) and
Ryshina-Pankova (2006) in the FL university context; Troyan (2013, 2014, 2016) in the early FL
education context; de Oliveira and Lan (2014), Ramos (2012, 2014, 2015), Schleppegrell,
(2001, 2004, 2006), and Schulze (2011) among others in the L2 context; and Colombi (2002) in
the university-level heritage language speakers context. Therefore, the present study extends the
current literature on the positive impact of the genre-based approach on students’ writing to a
less commonly-taught language (Arabic) in the FL university context.
5.1.2 Effect of the genre-based approach on students’ writing of the stages of the Recount
The results from the quantitative analysis of students’ pretest and posttest scores on each
stage (i.e., Title, Orientation, and Sequence of Events) as measured on the genre-based
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assessment instrument showed an improvement in the Title and Orientation stages and no
improvement in the Sequence of Events stage. This result was also supported by the findings
from the qualitative analysis of the pretest and posttest for the three focal students from three
different achievement levels (high, mid, and low). All three students included only the Sequence
of Events stage on the pretest compared to including all three stages on the posttest. This finding
suggests two interpretations. First, since the genre was a Recount, and the main body of a
Recount is the Sequence of Events, this stage was the most salient feature for students, and the
one they implicitly understood even before participating in the genre-based unit. This
observation means that during instruction, instructors might need to emphasize the Sequence of
Events stage less than the other stages. It is quite possible that students had awareness of this
stage from other languages they know, which they applied in the new context, writing an Arabic
Recount (Achugar et al., 2007). In other words, students might bring awareness of the stages of
the genre that they implicitly or explicitly understood from other languages they know.
Therefore, during the genre-based instruction, it is essential to perform initial assessment
of all students’ genre-writing to identify their needs in the specific discourse moves of a
particular genre. In turn, this assessment would be valuable in informing the planning of the
genre-based instruction that will target those needs. This assessment will also highlight the
features that will need more emphasis during instruction.
Additionally, a comparison between the target and native language genres will also
highlight the cultural and lexico-grammatical features that are different in both languages
(Carretero & Taboada, 2014) and that are more likely to require emphasis during instruction over
those features that are similar in both languages. One reason for this is, as discussed earlier,
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students may bring awareness of how genres work from other languages they learned (Achugar
et al., 2007).
Second, the students’ inclusion of only one stage at the start of the genre-based unit
indicates that students from the three achievement levels viewed writing as mono-dimensional
(Troyan, 2013; Roca del Larios, et al 2008). That is, students’ writings on the pretest were only
listing of events in chronological order (i.e., Sequence of events stage) without any consideration
of the required stages or other lexico-grammatical features of the Arabic Recount genre (Martin,
2009;Yasuda, 2011). Thus, students focused on completing the task based on their previous
knowledge of the genre, rather than writing a Recount as one type of story (Christie &
Derewianka, 2008; Rose & Martin, 2012) with a social purpose that includes specific features
(e.g., the Orientation stage that thematically progresses while foregrounding the character in the
Theme and includes a circumstance of time to set the timeframe of the Recount). After the
genre-based unit, students became aware of the other stages without which the purpose of the
genre (i.e., giving information about the character and her chronological daily events) (Martin,
2009) would not be achieved. Although, Zach, the low-achieving student, included
underdeveloped stages in his Recount, his writing, however, shows that even the low-achieving
student benefited from genre-based instruction that raised his awareness about all three stages of
the Recount.
In addition to this evidence from the posttest, students’ responses on the post-study
survey showed that all three students had awareness of the three stages of the Recount. This
awareness was exhibited in students’ abilities to describe those stages and the purpose of each
individual stage. Even though, all three students from the three different achievement levels
showed awareness of the stages of the Recount, it was only Thomas, the high achieving student,
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who expressed an explicit, but, general understanding of the social purpose of the Recount: “the
assignment is a review of either events or individuals and their lives.” In other words, it was only
Thomas who showed a sign of a metacognitive awareness of the Recount, yet his purpose is to
satisfy the assignment. As for the other two students, they showed awareness of the individual
stages of the Recount without articulating its overall social purpose. Interpretation of this
finding is in the next section
5.1.3 The effects of the prompt on writing
The high achieving student’s generalized understanding of the social purpose of the
Recount and the mid and low- achieving students’ lack of awareness of the social purpose may
be attributed to the prompt that asked students to describe how the Recount works without giving
them a context as a reference. This finding reinforces Schleppegrell and her colleagues' (2014)
argument about the importance of a writing prompt that highlights the purpose and stages of the
genre being studied. In this study, the prompt that asked students to describe the Recount did not
specify the context of the Recount. Rather, it stated: “Your friend in the other Arabic class has
an assignment to write a Recount genre; he asked you for help. How would you explain to
him/her how to write a Recount genre? (You may use Arabic/English or illustrations to answer
this question.” Instead of an authentic context, the prompt was framed as an explanation of ‘the
assignment’ as the context, which could be the reason for students’ lack of attention to the
purpose of the Recount and for Thomas’ description of the purpose of Recount as an assignment
devoid of an authentic social purpose. A prompt that would make the context explicit to students
would state: “Your friend in the other Arabic class is asked to write a Recount genre about
professor’s Kristen’s daily routine to be published in the university newspaper; he asked you for
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help. How would you explain to him/her how to write a Recount genre? (You may use
Arabic/English or illustrations to answer this question.” This edited prompt makes the context of
the Recount explicit and visible to students (i.e., whom it is about, who the audience is, and what
mode the writer should use). This context situates the Recount in its social purpose, which is
giving information to the university community in a newspaper article about professor’s
Kristen’s daily routine. Therefore, in this revised assignment the context becomes clear.
The finding also supports the importance of keeping the context in focus during the
genre-based instruction (Dreyfus, Humphrey, Mahboob, & Martin, 2016), because it is through
the context of the genre (i.e., written for whom, about what, and how) that students are able to
envision its social purpose (discussed further in the next section).
5.1.4 The expression of the three Metafunctions in the Recount
Based on the results from the quantitative comparison of students’ pretest and posttest
scores for their expression of the three metafunctions, an improvement was found for the Textual
and Ideational metafunction and no improvement for the expression of the Interpersonal
metafunction. The improvements on the Textual and Ideational metafunctions indicate that
students were able to express more content (i.e., Ideational metafunction) in a textually coherent
way (i.e., Textual metafunction) on the posttest compared to the pretest. Furthermore, the
findings from the qualitative analysis of the focal group of students’ Recount genre writing
corroborated the findings from the quantitative analysis.
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5.1.4.1 The Expression of the Textual metafunction
Textually, while all three students from the three achievement levels organized their texts
as typical of the Recount genre (i.e., events chronologically ordered), one noteworthy
improvement was in their referencing of the character using the morphological marking on the
verb, rather than repeating the name or subject pronoun in the Theme or the Rheme. Through
the use of the morphological marking on the verbs, they avoided the unnecessary redundancy of
explicitly mentioning the name of the character, while still keeping the text cohesive. This
change, albeit subtle, shows that making the organizational features of the text explicit and
visible to students supports their appropriation of a nuanced Arabic lexico-grammatical feature
that is not found in their first language.
This finding indicates that the genre-based approach does not compromise the learning of
grammar, but on the contrary, it is supportive of learning the grammar and its function in relation
to the text. The genre-based approach contextualized grammatical structures in coherent and
meaningful texts. It is through text-based instruction that students were able to more clearly see
the function of the lexico-grammatical features that they would not have been able to see at the
sentence level. For example, in this study, students were able to see how cohesion was achieved
in the text in the absence of an explicitly stated subject noun or pronoun, a feature they would
not have been able to see in an isolated sentence taken from the text. Therefore, if any program
fears that the genre-based approach is not supportive of their grammar objectives they should
reconsider the supportive role of full text analysis in the acquisition of specific lexico-
grammatical features of the target language.
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5.1.4.2 The Expression of the Ideational metafunction
Additionally, the qualitative findings for the Ideational metafunction (i.e., Experiential
meaning and Logico-semantic relations) from the comparison of the pretest and posttest for the
focal group of students also provided evidence that students appropriated a variety of language
resources to express the content of the Recount. This improvement related to each student’s
achievement level, meaning, the high achieving student included a larger variety (i.e., doing,
verbal, and sensing processes10) and quantity of processes (i.e., 21 processes) than the mid
achieving student (i.e., 19 processes of doing and sensing). Additionally, the mid-achieving
student included a larger variety and quantity of processes than the low achieving student (only
15 doing processes). This same improvement was also noted in students’ expression of the
Logico-semantic relations. The high achieving student expanded some of the clauses by using
more types of conjunctions (i.e., و [and], لكن [but], and ألنھا [because]) than the mid-achieving
student. In turn, the mid-achieving student used more types of conjunctions (i.e., و [and] and لكن
[but]) than the low achieving student (i.e., و [and]). Thus, both the quantitative and qualitative
findings indicate that the explicit instruction, a routine procedure in the genre-based approach,
supports students’ expression of the content of the Recount.
5.1.4.3 The Expression of the Interpersonal metafunction
The lack of improvement in the realization of the Interpersonal metafunction points to the
fact that students were not attentive to the evaluative language resources. This type of language
expresses evaluation of people or things in the Recount, judgment of the character’s behavior, or
expression of the character’s feelings. In the Recount, the evaluative language creates the tone
10 There are several types of processes (sensing, verbal, doing, etc.) in SFL that are expressed by a verb.
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of the Recount and paints the portrait of the character. This finding may be interpreted as
students needing more emphasis, during the teaching/learning cycle, on the function of the
evaluative language resources that create the tone in the Recount and that paint a portrait of the
character. During the deconstruction phase of the teaching/learning cycle (TLC), the instructor
used one model text and gave equal attention to the lexico-grammar that expressed each of the
three metafunctions in that model text. It could be that more than one model text is needed as
examples to explicitly call students attention to the forms and functions of the evaluative
language in the Arabic Recount. During the TLC, the expression of the Interpersonal
metafunction was practiced: first, by changing the evaluative language resources that created the
tone of the model Recount text from a positive to a negative tone; second, while editing another
Recount; and lastly, while co-writing a Recount with their instructor. It is possible that students
needed additional practice for the use of the evaluative language.
It is through these linguistic resources that the author expresses attitudes and feelings, as
well as makes, supports, or undermines his point of view in different social contexts (Achugar,
2009; Ryshina-Pankova, 2016; Unsworth, 2001). These language resources also contribute to
constructing social realties (Halliday, 1993). Thus, in the FL education context, it would be wise
to raise students’ awareness of the function of these language resources in a genre as simple as
the Recount and build on this awareness in more complex genres, such as in Argumentative
genres where the writer argues for one point of view (i.e., exposition genre) or discusses more
than one point of view (i.e., discussion genre) (Rose & Martin, 2012). This awareness will lay
the foundation for a critical approach to FL literacy (Achugar, 2009; Ryshina-Pankova, 2016;
Unsworth, 2001).
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The lack of improvement in the Interpersonal metafunction could also be attributed to the
context of the Recount (i.e., write a Recount about your professor Kristen to be published in the
university newspaper) given to students during the independent construction phase of the
teaching/learning cycle. Even though the context sounds authentic, it is a simulated one with a
hypothetical audience, which points to the constraints of teaching a FL language in the artificial
environment of the classroom. Students were presented with the content (i.e., information about
the professor and her daily events in a video they watched), an audience (i.e., the university
community), and a mode (i.e., writing). Nevertheless, students might not have perceived the
Recount classroom writing task as a social text with a clear goal and purpose in a cultural
context. This implication agrees with Schleppegrell et al.'s (2014) argument that “the notion of
genre as a social process is key here, as the genre approach is not in service of teaching ‘a genre,’
but instead about teaching a process construing meaning purposefully in writing” (p.38). The
social purpose contextualizes the teaching of the genre as a process for expressing purposeful
meaning in writing, which students might have ignored. Thus the genre-based approach needs to
be accompanied by authentic purposes for creating text (Van Lier, 1996). An authentic context
can be realized by creating contextualized opportunities to students with a real audience, such as
writing on a blog for Arabic speakers, writing for a web pal, or writing for other Arabic learners
in the same or other institutions.
Despite the lack of a statistically significant difference between pretest and posttest in
students’ expression of the Interpersonal metafunction as measured on the genre-based
assessment instrument, the qualitative analyses of the three high, mid, and low achieving
students’ texts showed that the change in students’ expression of the Interpersonal meaning
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related to their achievement level. This relationship is similar to what was found for the
Ideational metafuntion. The interpretation of this relation is discussed in the next section.
5.1.5 The genre-based approach and its relationship to students’ overall achievement
The findings from the qualitative analysis of the three focal students’ writings (from three
achievement levels: high, mid, and low) reveal that the students’ improvements were not
uniform. More specifically, the changes in each student’s expression of the Ideational and
Interpersonal metafunctions were related to each student’s achievement level. These findings
suggest that the genre-based approach allows students to make progress at their level of
proficiency. Despite their differing levels of proficiency, all students progressed but not to the
same degree (Achugar & Carpenter, 2014; Donato & Tucker, 2010).
This finding on the relation between student achievement level and student improvement
agrees with previous literature on the direct role language proficiency plays in writing for
language learning and development (Manchón, 2014; Manchón & De Larios, 2007; Ruiz-Funes,
2015). However, Oretga (2012) argues that after a “certain threshold, proficiency becomes less
predictive of L2 writing expertise” (p.412). This present study was conducted with students at
the beginner level. Therefore, it would be interesting to investigate Ortega’s claim in future
research by conducting the same study with students with higher language proficiency and with a
more complex genre.
Oretga also maintains that students with high level proficiency (like Thomas in
comparison to Henry and Zach) are more likely to give attention to high-level cognitive
processes. In the case of Recount writing, one high-level cognitive process is the expression of
Interpersonal metafunction. To realize this metafunction, students must make choices to
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evaluate the character, express the character’s feelings, and judge the character’s behavior with
the intention to create a tone in the text and to paint a portrait of the character. This process
requires a higher level of cognitive processing than, for instance, sequencing the text in
chronological order with the circumstance of time in the Theme (e.g., في الساعة الثامنة تذھب الى
Expression of the Interpersonal metafunction requires .([At 8 AM, she goes to the office]المكتب
making linguistic choices from a variety of networks in the language system in comparison to the
choices needed to express the chronological order of events. This observation could explain why
Thomas (the high-achieving student) was the only student who created the tone and painted the
portrait of the character in his Recount through his choice of evaluative language. Additionally,
this observation is another indication that some features of the genre, the features of the
Interpersonal metafunction being one, need more emphasis during instruction than others.
5.1.6 Summary and future research on the genre-based approach
To recap, in this study, the genre-based approach supported students’ appropriation of the
stages and lexico-grammatical features that are typical to the Arabic Recount, although this
appropriation was not uniform for all students. It also reveals the features of the Recount genre
that need more emphasis than others during genre-based instruction. Therefore, future research
should expand the scope of this study to conduct an initial diagnosis of students’ knowledge of a
given genre that will inform the genre-based planning, instruction, and assessment of students’
needs for specific discourse moves of a particular genre.
Additionally, a comparison of texts in the same genre from both the target and students’
first language (in this case, English), prior to genre instruction, will provide valuable information
on the differences in the cultural features of the genre that are most likely to need emphasis
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during instruction. This comparison will also meet the culture and comparison goal area of the
National standards (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project., 2013). Looking
forward, future research questions to explore might include: (1) What are the differences in the
features of the Arabic and English Recount genre (or any other genre)? (2) How does explicitly
teaching the differences between the stages and lexico-grammatical features of the genre in the
target and students’ first language support students’ writing in the genre?
This study also points to the significance of crafting writing prompts that clarify and
make explicit the purposeful context of the genre. The prompt should situate the social and
cultural purpose in an authentic context because it is through this context that the purpose of the
genre becomes visible to students. Furthermore, the study showed the importance of constantly
keeping the context in focus during the teaching/learning cycle (TLC) in order to support
students’ genre writing for a social purpose. Thus, a future research question might be: What are
the practices that FL instructors need to follow to emphasize and make visible the purposeful
context during the TLC?
5.2 GENRE-BASED APPROACH AND THE ACTFL FRAMEWORK
In their statement of philosophy, ACTFL (2012) placed culture and language at the core
of FL education. They called for all FL educators to teach language and culture so that students
are able to communicate appropriately using the target language. However, none of the ACTFL’s
documents (e.g., proficiency guidelines (ACTFL, 2012a), World-Readiness Standards for
Learning Languages (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project., 2013), or
NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-do statements (ACTFL, 2015)) explains how teachers can support
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students’ attainment of this goal. This study’s findings show that a genre-based approach to
teaching writing in Arabic (i.e., the presentation mode of communication, in ACTFL terms) that
makes visible the typical stages and the lexico-grammatical features for each stage expected by
that culture supported students’ writing of a culturally-informed Recount. Thus, integrating
language and culture via the genre-based approach improved students’ Arabic Recount writing
and met the ACTFL’s statement of philosophy.
This finding echoes Troyan’s (2016) argument that the “genre-based approach enables a
deeper, more culturally sensitive, and more systematic realization of the goals for foreign
language instruction than those that are outlined in these frameworks [ACTFL proficiency
guidelines–writing, NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-do statement, and The World-Readiness Standards for
Learning Languages]” (p.321). A similar argument was made by Byrnes (2012) regarding the
same documents for collegiate foreign-language education. She maintained that these
frameworks are not enough to support students’ advanced multi-literacies development (i.e., high
level of competency in a wide variety of genres), especially in a university department where the
focus is on the interpretation and creation of texts. As a result, Byrnes and her colleauges (2010)
designed and implemented a genre-based curriculum for a four-year German Literature and
Culture university program. Both Troyan with elementary school Spanish learners and Byrnes
with college German learners noted improvement in their students’ language development after
the implementation of the genre-based approach.
Therefore, based on the findings in this current study and supported by Troyan’s and
Byrnes’ arguments, I suggest that the functional view of genre that informs the genre-based
approach can pave the way for the ACTFL frameworks to include the examination of language
in its social and cultural context through a textual approach to language teaching and language
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learning. For example, a change in the ACTFL framework can start with describing writing
proficiency for each level based on the different genres of that culture and their typical features.
This description will provide a clear road map to the attainment of language proficiency that is
much more nuanced than a mere grammatical ability devoid of cultural context since a genre is a
linguistic realization of a culture. In the next section, I discuss possible future research in respect
to this suggestion.
5.2.1 Future Research on describing language proficiency and teaching Arabic, a
diglossic language
Looking ahead, describing different writing proficiency levels based on genres’
realizations requires making decisions on which genres and which features of each of these
genres students are expected to have control of at each level of proficiency. Other decisions
should be made about the contexts of the genres for each level. That is to say, decisions should
be made about the content of the genres (e.g., personal daily events, historical events, or a
scientific discovery), the audience for whom the genres are intended (e.g., a friend, newspaper
readers, or academic readers), and the written mode of communication (e.g., a letter, an email, or
an essay) that students are expected to know at each proficiency level.
I acknowledge the complexity of this work. However, describing writing proficiency
informed by genres is especially valuable for teaching Arabic, a diglossic language (Ferguson,
1959) (i.e., a language with high and low varieties). In Arabic, the switch between the two
varieties of the language (modern standard Arabic (MSA) for the high variety and colloquial for
the low variety) depends on the audience of the text, the mode of writing, and content of the text.
However, those varieties may functionally overlap (Bassiouney, 2009). Due to this dual nature of
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the language code, some questions related to teaching Arabic are still being debated among
scholars (e.g., Wahba, 2006; Younes, 2006), such as which variety (i.e., MSA or colloquial) to
teach first? Should the two varieties be taught at the same time? How to teach the overlap of the
two varieties? The genre-based approach and a clear description of the ACTFL proficiency based
on genres could provide an answer to these questions and direction for teaching a diglossic
language such as Arabic.
This textual approach teaches literacy in writing as making linguistic choices from the
language system in relation to the genre and the sociocultural context in which the genre occurs.
Those choices could be either made from the MSA language networks or from the colloquial
language networks. As a result, the genre-based approach and the description of ACTFL
proficiency guidelines informed by genres will support teaching Arabic as it is actually used,
rather than teaching Arabic as either the colloquial language or modern standard Arabic. It will,
therefore, put an end to the long debated issue about which Arabic variety to teach and initiate
the teaching of Arabic as unified Arabic.
Teaching Arabic as unified Arabic will provide a new perspective that starts with the
analysis of Arabic texts to identify their typical lexico-grammatical features, similar to the type
of analysis performed on the Recount genre in this study. Subsequently, during instruction, these
features whether from the MSA or colloquial variety, will be made visible to students during the
teaching/ learning cycle. Thus, the unanswered questions on which variety of Arabic to teach
will become: (1) What are the characteristics of the different Arabic genres? And (2) how does
the genre-based approach support the teaching of unified Arabic?
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5.3 METALANGUAGE USE DURING GENRE-BASED INSTRUCTION
5.3.1 Metalanguage: a functional concept
The findings on the use of metalanguage during the joint construction stage of the
teaching/learning cycle showed that students used either their own terminology to explain the
functional meaning of their lexico-grammatical choices or SFL metalanguage (for Experiential
metafunction). Students also were able to write Arabic texts in response to their instructor’s SFL
metalinguistic prompts. These findings indicate that the SFL metalanguage, in conjunction with
the students’ own unique ways of understanding this terminology, contributed to the way
students organized their understanding of the typical features of a written Arabic Recount and
produced one of their own. Students used their own terminology, as opposed to verbatim and
formal SFL terminology, to describe the function of the lexico-grammar supporting what Greeno
(2012) refers to as a functional concept as opposed to a formal definition.
According to Greeno (2012), a functional concept is “a cognitive entity that has meaning
in a kind of activity, in which it contributes to the way participants organize their understanding
of what they are doing” (p. 311). Extending Greeno’s definition to my context, the terminology
that students used to explain their lexico-grammatical choices is the cognitive entity that made
meaning during the activity of co-writing the Recount. This terminology supported and shaped
their thoughts to produce a Recount with their instructor. In this respect, the functional concept
(i.e., students’ own terminology) mediated student activity when writing the Recount. This
explanation is supported by student production of Arabic text that contributed to the composition
of a Recount with its expected features. This observation explains how students understood the
functional concept and applied it (Greeno, 2012). Even though the portability of these functional
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concepts to other genre-based writing tasks has not been investigated in this present study, it
would be interesting to address this question in the future (further discussed in the summary and
future research section 5.3.3).
5.3.2 Use of L1 for metalanguage
During instruction, the metalanguage that related the choices of the lexico-grammar to
their function was in English (i.e., L1) (Levine, 2012). This instructional choice was the right
one for the context of this study (Moore, 2013). L1 use allowed students to support their lexico-
grammatical choices by explaining the choice’s function even when they could not produce the
exact SFL term. That is to say, the use of L1 gave students the means to rephrase SFL terms in
their own words (as they did for the Textual metafunction), which would not have been possible
to do in the target language for students at the beginning level of instruction. Thus, students’
verbal thinking (in this case, about the functions of lexico-grammar) expressed in L1 mediated
their understanding of the new language (Arabic) (Al Masaeed, 2016; Brooks & Donato, 1994;
van Compernolle, 2015).
The aim of this study was not to teach SFL metalinguistic terms; rather, it was to use a
meaning-focused metalanguage (e.g., Moore & Schleppegrell, 2014; Schleppegrell, 2013;
Schleppegrell, Greer, & Taylor, 2008) that would support the talk about language choices during
the joint construction of the Recount. L1, therefore, helped to attain this purpose, which echoes
the aim in Schleppegrell and her colleagues’ studies. However, unlike the present study,
Schleppegrell and her colleagues met their purpose through L2 metalanguage, but the durations
of their studies were longer than the three-week period of this study. Therefore, it could be that
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L2 metalanguage needs a longer time to be taught and learned, which was beyond the scope of
this study.
5.3.3 Summary and future research on the use of metalanguage
The findings in this study show how metalanguage is a functional concept (Greeno, 2012)
that students and their instructor used to organize their thoughts to jointly construct a Recount.
The findings also show that the use of L1 supported students’ expression of the functional
concepts that they would not have been able to express in L2 at their elementary stage of
language proficiency. For future research, it would be interesting to investigate the potential and
portability of these functional concepts to answer the following questions: (1) How did students
use functional metalanguage during the teaching/learning cycle in a subsequent genre-based
unit? (2) How do students re-interpret SFL metalanguage in functional terms? (3) How do the
functional concepts and definitions of SFL metalanguage change over time as students encounter
new genre?
5.4 READING COMPREHENSION AND THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH
The statistical quantitative analysis showed that there was no relationship between the
students’ posttest writing scores and their reading comprehension scores. This finding reinforces
Rose and Martin’s (2012) observation that the support for reading is marginalized or absent
during the teaching/learning cycle and more intensive scaffolding procedures for reading
instruction needs to be incorporated in the cycle to increase student ability to comprehend a text.
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As a result, Rose and Martin (2012) included additional steps to the teaching/learning cycle,
creating a new model named reading to learn. Their new model was not used during this study.
5.4.1 Future research on reading comprehension
Further research must expand the scope of this study to investigate the reading to learn
model in Arabic language contexts, similar to Ramos' (2012, 2014, 2015) studies in English as a
second language contexts. A research question to explore is what is the relationship between
reading and writing after the “reading to learn” model is implemented in an Arabic as a less-
commonly-taught language university course?
5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
This study showed that the genre-based approach supported students’ Arabic Recount
genre writing, contributing to the expansion of their linguistic repertoire and literacy in written
Arabic. Based on student performance, this study identified some of the Recount features that
required additional emphasis during instruction, such as the lexico-grammar that expresses the
Interpersonal metafunction. This type of study can be extended to other genres to describe the
particular challenges students encounter with different forms of writing. It can also help develop
support for Arabic teachers to encourage student participation in writing and reading tasks in the
different genres. Of course, this instructional remark implies that teachers need extensive
professional development on functional analysis of language, text, and genre. One obstacle to
moving the Arabic language teaching forward is that teachers are not equipped with the linguistic
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knowledge that they need to analyze texts and make the language functions of texts visible to
students in a comprehensible way. The work of (Derewianka, 1990) provides a good example of
how elementary teachers in Australia are introduced to a functional analysis of various genre
commonly taught in the elementary school English language arts curriculum.
Even though the Recount genre is one of the least complex of the numerous genres that
exist within sociocultural contexts, it is significant because it can function as an antecedent
genre. That is, the Recount can become part of a student’s repertoire that can then be built upon
and used to learn new genres (Devitt, 2004; Schleppegrell et al., 2014). For example, in the
Exposition genre, the purpose of which is to argue for a point of view and that consists of three
stages (Thesis ^11Argumentation ^ Reiteration (Rose & Martin, 2012)), a Recount might be part
of the Argumentation stage. Additionally, a Recount can be part of a macro-genre, such as a
web page, which is a combination of different genres, sometimes of different modalities (Martin
& Rose, 2012). Thus, it would be interesting to explore whether students could transfer the
linguistic features of the Recount genre to other genres in which the Recount functions as a part.
For example, in the post-study survey, students expressed interest in exploring how complex
genres, such as narrative and argumentative, work in Arabic.
On a personal note, as the instructor and researcher in this study, I can say that genre-
based instruction with its textual approach to language teaching and learning provided me with a
systematic way for teaching how the Recount works. This systematic view was facilitated by the
SFL framework that equipped me with the tools (i.e., lexico-grammatical patterns realizing the
Textual, Ideational, and Interpersonal metafunctions) and the means (i.e., metalanguage) to draw
student attention to the features of the Arabic Recount. Students anecdotally echoed my
11 The symbol ^ denotes “followed by.”
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appreciation of this approach; one student, for instance, voiced, “Now we know what we are
doing.” As a result of this study and of students’ positive reviews and achievement, the Arabic
language program at the university where this study took place asked me to design a genre-based
writing syllabus for a third-year course.
An important implication of this approach regarding teacher education is that the
application of this method will require training teachers to unpack different genres by analyzing
how they work. Teacher understanding of how different genres work will support shifting the FL
teaching paradigm from emphasis on designing lessons that highlight grammar that is
decontextualized from the sociocultural context (such as the example given in the Introduction
chapter on p. 2) to teaching language in relation to the sociocultural and purposeful context in
which it occurs.
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APPENDIX A
TRANSLATION FOR STUDENT’S WRITING SAMPLE
In the city of Pittsburgh there are four universities. The city has a lot of areas. In Oakland area,
there is University of Pittsburgh. This university has fourteen schools. The university has a tall
building. The tallest building of education was “Cathedral of Learning”. In the university there is
a lot of students.
The university also has a lot of hospitals because it is a big city. A lot of students study in the
city in order to obtain a job at the hospitals.
In the city the weather is very cold. The city does not have grass because of the snow. The city
has sunny weather sometimes but the weather is always cloudy.
In the city is the public library. This library has books and computers. There are restaurants
close to the library where people eat and drink after studying. The city is the best in
Pennsylvania!
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APPENDIX B
PARTICIPANTS’ DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY
Please fill in the survey below:
1) Name……………………………….. 2) Age……………. 3) Gender M/F
4) Degree being sought BA/ BSc MA PhD
Major(s) of study………………………..………………………..
Minor(s)……………………………………………………… Certificate(s)
………………………..………………………………..
5) Languages other than English that you can speak, read, or write
(1)…………… (2)…………………….
6) Where do use the language (s)?
Language 1…………………………………………….................................
Language 2…………………………………………………………………
7) For what purposes do you use the language (s)?
Language 1……………………………………………......................
Language 2………………………………………………………….
8) How frequently do you use the language (s)?
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Language 1……………………………………………..........
Language 2………………………………………………………….
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APPENDIX C
NEWSPAPER ARTICLE AS ARTICLE FOR A MODEL TEXT FOR THE ARABIC
RECOUNT
(AbuTare, 2003)
بعد وینتھي قھوة بفنجان یبدأ «الملك حیاة في یوم: »«البركة» في افطاره ویتناول الصحف یقرأ.. باكرا یستیقظ
الملفات وسط اللیل منتصف !
كتب: ماھر ابو طیر: یقف الملك عبدهللا الثاني على مشارف عید جلوسھ، ونحو سنة جدیدة في مھنتھ كملك، وغیر
« الخاصة»لھ، ال یعرف عنھ، ویبقى جانب مثیر لألھتمام من حیاتھ، مستورا، ال یراه سوى الذي یكتب عنھ في حلھ وترحا
.وبعض المقربین منھ
!فكیف یبدأ نھار عبدهللا الثاني، وكیف ینتھي؟! في أي ساعة یستیقظ الملك؟! وماذا یفعل في ساعات الصباح االولى؟
من اللیل یخلد الى النوم، وماذا یفعل طوال النھار، غیر ذاك الذي متى یلتقي اوالده؟! متى یضحك ومتى یغضب؟! في أي ساعة
التي ال تشبع فضول الناس، وال تروي عطشھم حول ما یجري في قصر البركة، او في الدیوان « الجافة»تنقلھ االخبار الرسمیة
؟! ممن یتلقى «المملكة السعیدة»ي الملكي الھاشمي.. ثم ھل یقرأ الملك رسائل الناس؟! وكیف یتلقى معلوماتھ حول ما یجري ف
!المكالمات الھاتفیة؟! وھل ضیع الملك لمساتھ االنسانیة التي عرف بھا، وعرفھا الذین عاشوا معھ حیاتھ العسكریة والمدنیة؟
» في ذكرى جلوس الملك على العرش، تحاول ان تصف یوما في حیاة ملك مملكة تحیط بھا الصعاب واالنواء، فما « الدستور
امام العادیات« واسط البیت»رت شراع مركبھا، وال اھتز تكس .
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یستیقظ الملك مبكرا
معھ، یومھ یبدأ بفنجان قھوة عربیة، لكنھ یفضل في االغلب القھوة سریعة « قصر البركة»یستیقظ الملك باكرا، ویستیقظ
الصباح الباكر، یقرأ االردنیة منھا، ثم الذوبان، عینان تمر عجلى على عناوین الصحف المحلیة، التي تصل القصر یومیا ومنذ
العربیة، ولھ عادة في قراءة یومیة لبعض الصحف المطبوعة باللغة االنجلیزیة، یغرس قلمھ على اعمدة الجرائد، یسطر تحت
ھ الكالم، واحیانا یكتب مالحظة سریعة على ورقة، او على مفكرتھ الخاصة، التي تنتقل معھ من مكان الى مكان، في حقیبت
الخاصة التي تحوي أھم اوراقھ، ویكمل تلك القراءات باالطالع على التقریر االعالمي الیومي المعد في القصر الملكي باللغتین
العربیة واالنجلیزیة، واحیانا، یطلب اصل مادة صحافیة، بعد ان اثاره ملخصھا لسبب او آخر، واحیانا، ال یجد وقتا لالطالع
وقت متأخر جراء انشغالھ على مضمون التقریر اال في .
بعدھا، ینصرف الى اداء تمارین ریاضیة محدودة فما عاد وقت الملك یسمح لھ بممارسة ریاضات اخرى، كان مولعا بھا، كما
.كان والده من قبلھ، مثل سباقات السرعة للسیارات الریاضیة، غیر ان ریاضة الحكم ھي االكثر مشقة
كة رانیا، اال اذا غادر الملك یومھا فجرا للمشاركة في مناورة عسكریة، االفطار مع الملكة، االفطار في اغلب االحیان مع المل
وبعدھا یغادر الملك الى مكتبھ في الدیوان الملكي الھاشمي، احیانا عبر طائرة ھلیوكبتر واحیانا عبر موكب سیارات، وال یجد
ناس غالبا في المنطقة الممتدة من الھاشمیة، مرورا باشارة سید قصر رغدان حرجا في الوقوف عند اشارات المرور، یراه ال
خلدا الضوئیة، الشاھدة على التزام الملك بقانون السیر، وحتى نقطة وصولھ، دون ارھاب او ترھیب في الشوارع جراء مرور
في بلد ال یخاف فیھ الملك من الناس، فھم عیونھ وسیاج العرش« الموكب الملكي» .
ى الملك وھو في سیارتھ، یلوحون بأیدیھم، یرد علیھم، وفي قلبھ ألم من اجل طموحات شعبھ والتي یرغب ینظر االردنیون ال
بتحقیقھا، من تحدیث حیاة الناس في البوادي مثلما قصد في زیاراتھ الى ثالث بوادي في االمس القریب، وحین اطلق مصطلح
ثیر الملك فھم افكاره بشكل ال یریده، فتنمیة العشیرة وتقویتھا في عبر تحدیث حیاة الناس وتشغیلھم، فیما ی« تقویة العشیرة»
البوادي كان مقصودا بھ حث الناس على التعلیم والعمل الحرفي والتخلي عن فكرة ان الدولة ھي المعیل لكل واحد. وفي احیان
ئق واالوراق الحساسة في مكتبھ في كثیرة یتحول قصر البركة الى ورشة عمل، فیما الفاكس الخاص للملك یتلقى فیضا من الوثا
حیث یقیم، واحیانا یصل المسؤولون لمقابلة الملك، عبر طریق خضراء شجریة، وفي حوزتھم ملفات لخطة او « قصر البركة»
قضیة یعمل على بلورتھا وتنفیذھا، فیما امسى الملك یفضل ان تأتیھ االقتراحات من مستشاریھ مكتوبة، مبررة، مفسرة، بعد ان
ت ھذه االقتراحات تأتي احیانا شفویة من المقرب او المستشار، او مكتوبة احیانا اخرىكان .
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وتارة، تحاصر المواعید الملك في مقر اقامتھ، یستقبل ضیوفھ، وحتى اولئك الذین یطلبون منھ موعدا لوضعھ في اجواء ما یدور
یرد طارقا على بابھ، فھو قصر للملك والرعیة في آن او تقدیم معلومات حول شأن مھم، وقصر البركة ال« البلد»ویجري في
.»معا
یصل الملك الى دیوانھ، یطلع النھار السیاسي على مملكتھ، ویدور الكالم، وتتخذ القرارات، یدور الھمس بین المستشارین
انتظاره، ویبدأ یوم عند مدخل القصر یكون رئیس دیوانھ وكبار مستشاریھ في«.. وصل سیدنا»وموظفي التشریفات واالعالم..
الملك یتوزع على اولویات عدة ما بین قراءة ملف مھم، او االطالع على تقریر حساس، او متابعة رسالة، اوقراءة مذكرة
سطرھا احد مستشاریھ لیوقع علیھا قابال بھا او رافضا ما فیھا، وغالبیة االقتراحات التي تصلھ بشأن عوام الناس، یباركھا، وال
ا خائبین، وتنھمر المواعید، وما بین الموعد والموعد، موعد آخر، وكالم وھموم الداخل والخارج تنزل على الكالم یرد اصحابھ
بین الملك ومن حولھ، في جلسات تضم شخصا او شخصین، واحیانا الصف االول في القصر الملكي، كلھ، واحیانا بوجود وزیر
.او مسؤول
قنوات سریة *
وھي قدرتھ على االستماع واالستیعاب وھو طویل االناة، رحب الصدر، یمنح من ال یعمل فرصة حتى ومیزة تحكى عن الملك،
یعمل، فاذا لم ینجح شاء هللا امرا كان مفعوال، وان اعجبھ رأي اخذ بھ من دون مكابرة، وكما یسمع یحب ان یستمع لھ، والنقاش
من اقاویل وتكھنات « البلد»الجالسین بمعرفتھ كل ما یجري في في حضرة الملك تمیزه الجدة والرصانة، واحیانا، یفاجىء
او ما قالھ مسؤول، او تقصیر ھذا او ذاك بالذي طلبھ الملك، احیانا، كالتقریر الذي وعد « رأي الناس»واشاعات، واطاللتھ على
رة وكبیرة، واشارات وتواریخ بھ وزراء أن یقدموه حول انجازات وزاراتھم كل ثالثة اشھر، فیما مفكرة الملك تحوي كل صغی
سائال متسائال.. عن الذي « التاریخ المنتظر»حول تعھدات لمسؤولین، ومطالب طلبھا الملك، لیفاجأ ھؤالء بالملك یعود الیھم في
ومن حولھ ال یستطیعون االدعاء دائما بأنھم یعرفون ماذا یخطط وبماذا یفكر.. « صاحب مفاجآت»انجز فعلیا. غیر انھ یبقى
یجمع المالحظات، المالحظة تلو المالحظة، حول اداء المسؤول، حتى یظن المسؤول، ان االخطاء « النوع الكتوم»ھو من و
تمر سریعا، فیما اثبتت قصص كثیرة، ان عنفوان الملك وعسكریتھ وقوتھ في باطنھا، ھدوء كھدوء البحر، ما یلبث اال وینقلب،
یا سیدي ماذا سنفعل في مشروع مدینة عمان »، وذات مرة سألھ احدھم بقولھ.. حین یفیض بئر الملك غضبا جراء اي تقصیر
فرد الملك بقولھ في ذات الجلسة«.. االعالمیة ..
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» وھو یعلق بمرارة جراء تضییع االفكار الجمیلة وتبدیدھا فیما حولنا یرقبون المشھد، وینتزعون بذكاء «.. ھیو، صار في دبي
.اجمل ما فیھ
لملك، صاحب مفاجآت، ومن حولھ ال یستطیعون االدعاء بأنھم یعرفون دائما ماذا یخطط، وھو شخص عملي، وكما قلت یبقى ا
تربطھ بشباب « قنوات سریة»بل تعب وشقاء، لیل نھار، من أجل الناس، وھو الذي یعتمد على « الحكم لیس وجاھة»یؤمن ان
لیب مكتومة وغیر متوقعة، وال یبقى العرش ملونا بما یریده ھذا او العھد الجدید، ورجاالتھ، فتتدفق علیھ المعلومات یومیا بأسا
ذاك، فمع حق االتصال الھاتفي الذي منحھ الملك للمئات، وفر الملك وسائل اخرى حتى تتدفق علیھ المعلومات والوثائق
لملك الف عین في سماء علیھ ان یعترف بأن ل« القصر الملكي»والدراسات والمذكرات حول قضایا مختلفة، ومن یعرف اسرار
وھي عیون مستورة، ال تتوقع الكثرة ان ھذا ھو دورھا، اذ ال وظیفة رسمیة لھا، وال مخصصات شھریة « المملكة الرابعة»
تصلھا، وفي المحصلة فان الملك یحمي شعبھ وبالده قبل ان یكون مشغوال بنفسھ وعرشھ، غیر ان ھدوءه طالما اشعر من
عن الموضوع او القصة ألول مرة، فیما ھو ذھنیا یطابق المعلومات التي لدیھ مع ما یسمع، یقارنھا، امامھ، بأن الملك یسمع
.یصل الى الصحیح بطریقتھ الخاصة
برنامج حتى العصر *
كثیرا ما یغادر الملك دیوانھ، على غیر ترتیب مسبق، یكون احد المقربین منھ عارفا بسر الملك ذاك النھار، یغادر الملك على
غیر ترتیب مسبق فیزور مستشفى او مؤسسة لتفقد احوالھا، من حولھ من اشقائھ ال یخفون عنھ صغیرة او كبیرة، ومعھم تلك
التي ال یعرف عنھا الناس، وال تعرف ذات القنوات عن بعضھا البعض، وكلنا یعرف زیاراتھ المتكررة « القنوات المكتومة»
ف على التقصیر، وساءه في الزیارات المتكررة ان ادارة ھذا المستشفى، القدیمة، الى مستشفى البشیر، حین زاره مرارا فوق
فشلت في تحسین اوضاعھ، فأوعز باقصاء المدیر وطاقم من العاملین فیھ، واستبدلھم بجھاز اداري جدید، واشرف بنفسھ الشھر
كلف االردني، ولیس احب الى قلب الملك من ان عدیدة على مراقبة ما تم تحسینھ في ھذا المستشفى الذي ینفق علیھ من مال الم
یطلع على رسائل مواطنیھ، ال تفوتھ واحدة، وبرید الملك فیھ عشرات الرسائل، یقرأھا بتمھل وبتأن، فھي نبض الرعیة، یلمسھ
ت من مخاطبة مواطنیھ لھ من دون تكلف، یشكون، یشتكون، یعرضون ویطلبون، وكثیرا ما التقط في تلك الرسائل حكایا
:مؤثرة، كحكایة ابن شھید من اربد، كتب للملك بحسرة قائال
» مشتكیا بحسرة وألم من حالھ وحال اسرتھ، فما كان من الملك اال ان اكرمھ مالیا، ألكثر من مرة، « قبر ابي الشھید للبیع..
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ولھا حكایة روتھا للملك في « فضة»واصطحبھ الى العمرة على حسابھ، ومثل ھذا، تأتي رسالة كتبتھا عجوز من الطفیلة تدعى
1967ابنة الطفیلة في سنة « فضة»رسالة ظنا منھا انھا طویت وضاعت بین الرسائل، الى ان جاءھا مرة متفقدا. فقد تزوجت
من جندي ینتمي الى ذات المدینة، وعندما دق نفیر حرب في حزیران من تلك السنة، لم یك قد مضى على زواجھا سوى سبعة
لبى الجندي العریس في اسبوع زواجھ االول نداء الواجب، تركھا على عتبة الباب تلوح لھ، وذھب الى الحرب ایام، وكان ان
في فلسطین، وكان في عداد الذین خاضوا معركة الخلیل واستشھد، وبعد اربع وثالثین سنة زارھا الملك فجأة في منزلھا،
دنانیر شھریا، وھي بالكاد تأتي معجنھا بالخبز، فیمد لھا الملیك ید التي لم تتزوج ثانیة تعیش على بضعة « فضة»واستقبلتھ
.العون، واللفتة التي تسربت وانتشرت من االفواه الى اآلذان اثارت االردنیین وجعلتھم اكثر اعجابا بملیكھم
ومما اثاره وحدث، كما كل صباح، ان قرأ الملك في احدى الصحف عن رجل معدم یعیش في كوخ صفیح مزروع غرب عمان،
اال یمیتھ ربھ قبل اداء فریضة الحج، وكان الملك وقتھا یعتزم الحج الى بیت هللا « بئر السبع»فیما قرأه تمني، الرجل، ابن
« الدیوان الملكي»الحرام، فأرسل من یخبر الرجل ان یتحضر الداء فریضة الحج، ویوم غادر الملك، كانت سیارة خاصة من
المطار لینضم الى وفد الملك على متن طائرتھ الخاصة، ویسافر معھ، وفي الدیار المقدسة، حل تنقل الرجل من كوخھ الى
الرجل الفقیر مع الملك في قصر الضیافة، ومعھ ام االماكن المقدسة، وحدث ان تاه الرجل خالل مناسك الحج فأوعز الملك الى
العثور على الرجل فینضم الى الوفد وبقي الملك ینتظر زھاء رجالھ بعدم تحریك الموكب الملكي امام الحرم المكي حتى یتم
.خمس عشرة دقیقة وبعدما تأكد من انضمام الرجل الى الوفد تحرك موكب الملك
وللملك لمساتھ العسكریة، ففي یوم من ایامھ زار قریة في االغوار الشمالیة، ھالھ ما رأى فیھا من فقر وجوع، غیر انھ ابتسم
ینساھا من رافقوه حین دخل بیتا فقیرا، واقترب منھ شاب في السابعة عشرة من عمره، مفتول العضالت، قائال یومھا ابتسامة ال
لھ : (یا سیدي المساعدات لیست ھي الحل، ارسلني الى الجیش احسن).. ابتسم الملك یومھا وامسك بالشاب من عضالتھ قائال لھ
.(: (وهللا بتنفع
العسكري طالبا منھ اخذ اسم الشاب وكافة تفاصیلھ حتى یدخل الجیش، الملك الذي خدم طوال عمره ونادى الملك على مرافقھ ..
بشكل خاص .. ولھذا مازح ذات مرة احد شیوخ العشائر، حین وجھ الشیخ سؤاال الى الملك، فلم « العسكر»في الجیش، یحن الى
الح الدروع سمعھم ھكذا) .. قاصدا انھ لم یسمع السؤال جراء یسمعھ الملك وقال لھ .. (سامحني یا شیخ، كل الذین خدموا في س
تأثیر صوت المدرعات والتدریبات العسكریة على اذنھ، دون ان یحرج الشیخ او یطلب منھ باسلوب جاف اعادة السؤال.
م وقساوتھا علیھم، وھو والملك، على مشارف العام الجدید في حكمھ، لم یفقد اللمسة االنسانیة لرعیتھ، وھو العارف بمضاء االیا
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یقدم االف المنح الدراسیة للطلبة، ویعالج االالف، وبنى مئات البیوت لفقراء ومحتاجین، وفي رمضان یساعد االف االسر،
.وینفق سرا على مئات البیوت والفقراء والیتامى
و زیارة مؤسسة او دائرة، او قریة ینتصف النھار، ما بین تلك المشاھد، استقبال مسؤول، قراءة ملف، بحث خطة اقتصادیة، ا
نائیة، او استقبال ضیف، وفي احیان اخرى یتلقى مكالمات من زعماء عرب واجانب، یبحثون ویتباحثون، فیما غداء الملك یأتي
ال یفرط في تناول اللحوم، یفضل « .. الطعام الصحي»متأخرا واحیانا بعد الخامسة مساء جراء ھذا االنھماك، یفضل الملك
االغذیة غیر الدسمة والفواكھ، مقل في كل ما ھو دھني ونشوي، وجراء عسكریتھ ال یفاجأ احد في قصر البركة حین یمضي
نھاره، احیانا، على شطیرة او كأس عصیر، وفي احیان اخرى وخصوصا في االجازات تلتئم االسرة على غداء، یطعم اوالده
لمن ھم في « الغذاء»طفال ، حین یخوض الملك، مفاوضات معھم، القناعھم بأھمیة بیدیھ، ولالمراء الصغار عنادھم مثل كل اال
في العقبة، وھو اسم قصر الملك في العقبة، فان الملك یخاف على « بیت البحر»عمرھم، واذا كانت اجازة نھایة االسبوع في
ر حسین، نجل الملك، ان یتعلم السباحة اوالده من بركة السباحة ومن ھدیر صوت البحر، مثل كل االباء، فیما شغف االمی
بطفولتھ كاملة« االمیر الصغیر»كوالده، غیر ان للملك، احساس االب، الذي یفضل ان یستمتع .
یشربھا ممزوجة بالحلیب وغالبا فان لھ فنجانھ « النسكافیھ»من یعرف الملك عن قرب یعرف انھ محب للقھوة سریعة الذوبان
الذي اعتاد على شربھا فیھ فالقھوة تبقیھ نشطا فتحفز الذھن في منطقة ال تنام لیال وال تھنأ نھارا« یرالمغ الكب»الخاص او ذاك .
وفي اجازاتھ یتسلل الملك احیانا الى خلوتھ یفتح حقیبتھ فیأخذ منھا ملفا سیاسیا او اقتصادیا فھو ما بین ھذا وذاك وفي سفراتھ،
یبدأ مبكرا یمضي االیام في سفره من اجل االردن وحث العالم على دعمھ اقتصادیا فان من حولھ یعرفون ان نھاره شاق ومتعب
وھي لیست سفرات من باب الراحة واالرتیاح، اذ ان سفراتھ متعبة وعلى متن الطائرة غالبا ما یخلع جاكیتھ، ویفك ربطة العنق،
وكثیرا ما یقترب من غرفة الطیار، « رس الخاصالح»لینشغل بجھاز الكمبیوتر خاصتھ، او قراءة كتاب او في محادثة افراد
ال یھدأ ونجوما تتألأل او سماء صافیة او ملیئة بالغیوم« عالما»متأمال منھا وعبرھا .
الملك في ساعات المساء
وفي « جیبا عسكریا»واحیانا یستخدم B.M.W ال یحب الملك الرسمیات، یقود سیارتھ بنفسھ، وھي من طراز مرسیدس او
اخرى یقود سیارتھ والى جانبھ الملكة رانیا او احد اشقائھ االمراء وفي جوالتھ یقود الملك سیارتھ والى جانبھ رئیس احیان
سباقات السرعة»دیوانھ ووزیر البالط وعدد من مستشاریھ، یحب الملك قیادة السیارات غیر انھ ما عاد یغامر بالمشاركة في «.
166
تھ ولیالیھ، متسعا من الوقت للوقوف على تحصیل انجالھ االمراءحسین وایمان في ویجد الملك على الرغم من ھموم نھارا
المدرسة فیما االمیرة سلمى صغیرة والكل مشغول بتدلیلھا ومداعبة الملك ومالعبتھ لبكره ووحیده یكاد یتلمسھا الحرس
.والعاملون في قصر البركة
یرتدیھ، فھو یفضل الجینز والسترة العادیة، غیر ان وقاره یبقى بارزا اال اذا ما اضطر الیھا، یظھر فیما « الرسمیات»ورفضھ
في مناسبات اخرى ویحب الملك ان « اللباس العربي»للعیان في حفاظھ على العادات والتقالید، وعلى ارتدائھ البدلة الرسمیة او
الكالم الجمیل»على « الفعل الجمیل»یطغى «.
مراء فیصل، علي، ھاشم، حمزة، مجتمعین او فرادى، وفي احیان اخرى یتلقى مكالمة من في العشایا یلتقي الملك اخوانھ اال
احدھم اذا كان مسافرا، او یتصل ھو بشقیقھ حمزة لالستفسار عن دراستھ الجامعیة واالطمئنان على احوالھ في دراستھ في
لیة، زین، رایة وایمان، ویعیش جوا اسریا سعیدا الوالیات المتحدة، وللملك لمسات خاصة في عالقاتھ بشقیقاتھ ھیا، عائشة، عا
وكثیرا ما یشاركونھ بعض اجازاتھ، وللملك عالقة خاصة باعمامھ وعمتھ، وكثیرا ما یتناول العشاء في بیت احدھم، وال ینسى
بعد انتھاء « لحالقةماكینة ا»الذین حجوا مع الملك قبل ثالثة اعوام ان الملك ذاتھ داعب شقیقھ االمیر علي بن الحسین متناوال
.مناسك الحج، مقصرا شعر االمیر على السنة في مشھد عائلي ال ینسى
غیر ان الحكم زاد في عمر الملیك، ویعلق الذین یعرفونھ بانھ كبر لسنوات، بعد تولیھ الحكم ولیس الشیب في شعره اال دلیال
الثالثة االمراء حسین، ایمان، سلمى، قطع الشوكالتھ مكافأة على ثقل المسؤولیات، غیر انھ یجد الوقت احیانا الطعام اطفالھ
واحیانا تجلس االمیرة سلمى صغرى بنات الملك في حضنھ لتراقب الكارتون على « الدالل»على تفوق دراسي، او من باب
.شاشة التلفاز بعینیھا البراقتین الجمیلتین
ھام التي انجزھا وتلك المقبلة، یشعر بالضیق مما یراه ویسمعھ احیانا، ال ینام الملك باكرا، وھذا معروف عنھ للخاصة، یتذكر الم
حین یزوره مسؤول سابق وبذریعة شرح واقع الحال، ینھش ھذا وینال من ذاك، « النمیمة السیاسیة»اكثر ما یمقت من ضیوفھ
وخططا واقتراحات وحلوال، وال یقبل في اسلوب یمقتھ الملك، الذي ال یحمد ھذا االسلوب بین السیاسیین، وینتظر منھم افكارا
صالونا لتصفیة الحسابات بین السیاسیین فھو اكبر منھم جمیعا وھمھ بان یبقى االردن اوال« صالونھ»الملك ان یكون .
اي یثیر الخوف، اذ اثبت الملك قدرة فائقة«.. الملك بخوف»غیر ان الكثرة من السیاسیین باتوا یقولون عنھ سرا وفي خلواتھم..
.على تحطیم المخاطر، وتھمیش من انتزعوا ادوارا ال یستحقونھا
ال ینام الملك باكرا، یسھر في قصر البركة حیث یقیم او مكتبھ المنزلي مع االوراق الرسمیة والملفات التي ترسل الیھ، واحیانا
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.كثیرة یشرح الملك بقلمھ معلقا او مقترحا او آمرا بشأن نقطة ما
یاب، او احیانا بعدما یلون اللیل المطارح بالعتمة یتسلل الملك عبدهللا الثاني الى ضریح والده الحسین بن مرات، مع دغشة الغ
طالل، یقرأ الفاتحة ویقف دقائق في صمت قد تكون مفاجأة صامتة بین االبن وابیھ، او یجول في احیاء العاصمة متخفیا في
.سیارة وحیدة مراقبا حركة الناس ووجوھھم
یخبرون، یقف الملك في شرفة قصر البركة، یسرح بالنظر في بیوت الناس، ھمھم یأكل من صحنھ، وھم العرش یأكل ومرات،
من عمره عمرا لیبقى في منأى عن االنواء وغدرات الزمان، فیما شاغل لیلھ ان ال تخلو معاجن االردنیین من الخبز وان یتحسن
اقتصادھم وتتحسن ظروف حیاتھم
Translated by: Eliane Abdel-Malek
He wakes up early… reads his newspaper and eats breakfast at the "Barakeh". A day in
the life of a king starts with a cup of coffee and ends amidst files at midnight.
By Maher Abu Teir
King Abdullah the second observes the anniversary of his accession to the throne: yet
another year of celebration of his career as a king. Other than what is written about his clothes
and travels, little is known about the King. His exciting life remains private revealed only to his
entourage and people close to him. So how does King Abdullah's day start and end? At what
time does the King wake up? What does he do in the early hours of the morning? When does he
see his children? When does he laugh and when does he get angry? At what time does he sleep?
And other than the stiff news that is officially reported, which does not quench our curiosity of
what is happening in Barakeh Palace or the Hashemite Court, what does he do all day? Does he
actually read the letters sent by his people? And how does he receive the news of what is going
around in the 'happy Kingdom'? Who answers the phone calls? Did the King lose his famous
human touch known for it during his military and civil careers? In the occasion of the King's
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accession the throne, Addustur will attempt to describe a day in the life of the King who rules a
Kingdom surrounded by hardships.
The King wakes up early.
The King wakes up early and the Barakeh Palace wakes up with him. Although he
usually prefers an espresso, his day starts with an Arabian cup of coffee. He skims the local
newspapers that arrives early daily to the palace. He reads the local Jordanian papers first then
the international ones. He also has the daily habit of reading some English newspapers. He
underlines the important information in the columns or writes some notes on a small diary that he
carries, along with important documents, everywhere in his bag. He concludes his reading with
the daily press report that is prepared by his royal court in both Arabic and English. Sometimes
he asks about the source of a certain article and in busy days he reads the report at a later time.
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APPENDIX D
GENRE-BASED ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENT
Table 16. Genre-based assessment instrument
Stages of the Recount and its Lexico-grammatical Features realizing each metafunction
Stage 1: Title A nominal group that includes the circumstance of time, character, and an attribute
0
1
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Table 16. Genre-based assessment instrument (continued)
Stage 2: Orientation Introduction of the character Textual Metafunction -Introduce the character using a nominal clause with the name of the character in the Theme OR Introduce the character using a verbal clause with the name of the character in the Theme/Rheme Not including the introductory clause- information about the character from a combination nominal clause(s) with character as a pronoun in the Theme OR verbal clause(s) For the verbal clause character as morphological marking on the verb in the Theme Introducing the timeframe of the recount Experiential- In declarative nominal clause(s) nominal or verbal clause(s) Enticing the reader (hook): Interpersonal- Declarative clause(s) Evaluative language of the time (e.g., day) or event(s).
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1-2 1 1 1 1
3 > 2 2
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Table 16. Genre-based assessment instrument (continued)
Note. The numbers in red indicate the amount of lexico-grammar resources to receive 0, 1, or 2 points in each category.
Stage 3: Sequence of Events Textual Metafunction: First clause is a verbal/nominal clause with an explicit introduction to the character(s) in the Rheme/Theme For main events Start the recount of a new event with a verbal clause with circumstance of time in the Theme/Rheme For other events within the main event’s time frame For verbal clauses, the verb with morphological marking on the verb referencing the character in the Theme, OR For relational clauses, the pronoun referencing the character in the Theme Subject is mentioned explicitly other than in first clause Ideational Metafunction:
Experiential:
For the events Recounted processes , participant (character(s) or things), and circumstances of time/accompaniment/place OR Relational clauses Legico-semantic relations
Expansion to the clause
Interpersonal Metafunction
To recount events, Declarative clauses are used To recount events, all Verbs and in the present tense For Main and Detail events to create a tone Affect, Judgment, or Appreciation Force/ Focus Modality is expressed using the usuality “أحیانا sometimes and عادة usually, دائما always, etc."
0 <5 0 <9 0 0-1 2 <10 0 < 2 0 <14 0 0 <6 0 0 0-1 0
1 5-6 1 10-19 1 2-3 1 19-10 1 2-3 1 19-15 1 1 6-9 1 1 2 > 1
7> 2 20> 2 4> 0 20-30 2 4> 2 25-20 2 2 10> 2 2
Total / 28
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APPENDIX E
PRETEST AND POSTTEST
You will be asked to answer the writing prompt below in Arabic. You will have 50 minutes to do
so. Before you start writing please follow the instructions below.
Instructions:
1. Read the prompt carefully
2. First viewing : Watch the silent video of the story of professor Kristen so that you know
the whole story
3. Second and third viewing: while watching the silent video, on the note taking sheet that
your instructor gave you, write notes that will help you remember the events you will
write about.
4. You may use any language to write your notes
Prompt:
Your school newspaper is featuring your professor, Professor Kristen, and asked you to
write a short story about her daily routines. Watch the silent video and then write a story
describing یوم في حیاة االستاذة كریستن [a day in the life of Kristen].
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APPENDIX F
READING COMPREHENSION TEST
Read the Text and answer the questions below in ENGLISH. This text is from
a university newspaper featuring one of the students.
برنامج شریف االسبوعي
(Written By Shareef Dahdaleh)
سنة. أدرس في جامعة الیرموك في اربد شمال األردن ,تخصصي 21أنا شریف من األردن وعمري
العلوم السیاسیة وأنا في السنة الرابعة و األخیرة. أعمل وأدرس في نفس األ سبوع . أخذ محاضراتي ثالث
* الجامعة.مصاریفع ألساعد والدي في مرات في األسبوع: أحد, ثالثاء و خمیس وأعمل باقي أیام األسبو
دقیقة, بعدھا أذھب 45صباحا حیث أمارس ریاضة الجري لمدة 6:00یبدأ نھاري كل یوم الساعة
وھي المفضلة عندي ألن الدكتور یتكلم عن أخبار العالم. بعد 10:00الى الجامعة. أول محاضرة تبدأ الساعة
حیث أجتمع مع أصدقائي في الكافیتریا لنأكل الفطور 12:00الى 11:20ذلك عندي إستراحة من الساعة
أذھب الى المحاضرة الثانیة ومن ثم المحاضرة الثالثة. 12:00الشاي ونتكلم عن أخبارنا. الساعة ونشرب
بعد ذلك أعود الى بیتي ألعمل واجباتي.
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9:00خرج الى عملي من الساعة أما أیام العمل, فلھا برنامج خاص.عادة أبدأ نھاري بالجري ثم أ
الى
الساعة *موسوعة جینیس لألرقام القیاسیھحیث أعمل في مقھى انترنت في إربد في شارع دخل
4:00
من حیث عدد المقاھي ھناك. أحب عملي ألني أتعرف على كثیر من الناس.
Expenses مصاریف*
Guinness book of world record لألرقام القیاسیھ موسوعة جینیس *
Reading Comprehension Guide
Read the Text and answer the questions below in ENGLISH
I. What type of text is this?
II. What do you know about the character?
1.
2.
3.
III. What is the timeframe of the recount?
1.
IV. What is the sentence the writer used to entice his reader (i.e., make him interested) to
read the text?
1. ….………………………………………………………………………………….
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V. What are the events in the text and the details of the event if any:
1. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
3. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
4. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
5. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
6. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
7. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
8. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
9. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
10. ……………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………..
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APPENDIX G
READING COMPREHENSION RUBRIC
Reading comprehension rubric - Based on the text read- Student will get a 1 for the correct
answer and a zero for the wrong answer.
A. What type of text is this?
A Recount 0 / 1
B. Describe the Character? At least three of the following 0 1 2 3
1. Shareef is a male student at university
2. He is 21 years old
3. He has a job so he can help his dad in paying school tuition
4. He studies three times a week
5. He is from Irbid from north Jordan
6. Studies Political science
7. Work four times a week
C. Describe the timeframe of the recount?
1. Sharif’s daily routine during the week 0 / 1
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D. What is the hook in this recount?
1. Sharif works and studies during the week 0 / 1
………………………………………………………………………………………….
E. students are supposed to describe the events of the Recount and details of each event if
available.
0 = event or detail not present 1= every event present 1= for every detail present
Event Detail
1. Sharif’s day starts at 6 o’clock by running (for 45 minutes) 0 / 1
2. Then he goes to school 0 / 1
3. his first lecture is at 10 0 / 1
and is his favorite 0 / 1
Because he talks about the news of the world 0 / 1
4. After that from 11:20-12 he has a break
and he meets my friends in the cafeteria 0 / 1
to eat breakfast 0 / 1
and drink tea 0 / 1
to talk about our news 0 / 1
5. At 12 he starts the second lecture 0 / 1
6. then the third lecture 0 / 1
7. Then he goes home 0 / 1
to do the homework for that day 0 / 1
8. On working day he starts his day with a run 0 / 1
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9. Then he goes to work form 9-4 . 0 / 1
he works at a café in the street 0 / 1
that entered Guinness book of record for the number of cafes. 0 / 1
He loves his job 0 / 1
Because he meets a lot of people 0 / 1
===========
Total = / 26
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APPENDIX H
MODEL TEXT USED DURING THE DE-CONSTRCUTON PHASE
یوم في حیاة طالبة أردنیة
ع والدھا و تسكن م \سنة 20عمرھا \وھي طالبة في الجامعة االردنیة في عمان. \سلمى من االردن
تدرس أداب اللغة االنجلیزیة ألنھا تحب القراءة \و ووالدتھا و أختھا الصغیرة في شقة في عمان الغربیة.
تذھب الى الجامعة \ومن ھوایاتھا التنس و السفر الى أماكن جدیدة< لتتعرف على ثقافات العالم>. \والخیال.
\وھو أفضل یوم عندھا. \یوم الجمعةو تبدأ عطلة نھایة االسبوع \من األحد الى الخمیس
ومن ثم \تشرب الشاي مع عائلتھا \صباحا. 10:30یوم الجمعة تصحوا سلمى متأخرة في حوالي الساعة
تتناول الفطور الشھي < الذي یعده والدھا وھو العجة مع البصل و البقدونس.>
ھناك تجتمع مع أبناء \بة الغداء.تلتقي العائلة عند بیت جدتھا لتناول وج 2:00في حوالي الساعة
وبنات خالھا وخالتھا ویقضون وقتا ممتعا في الحدیث عن أخبار العالم.
\و بعد ذلك تخرج مع أصدقائھا وصدیقاتھا الى السوق التجاري (المول) \تعود الى البیت 4:00في الساعة
.وعادة یتمشون أو یذھبون الى السینما
ویبدأ روتین األسبوع مرة أخرى...\ة <حیث تعمل واجباتھا لألسبوع> یوم السبت ,ھو یوم الدراس
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Stages of the Recount Purpose of the stage and lexico-grammatical characteristics
Translation
A Day in the life of a Jordanian Student
I am Salama from Jordan and I am a student at the university of Jordan in Amman. I am
20 years old and I live with my father, mother, and younger sister in an apartment in east
Amman. I study English literature because I like reading and imagination. Some of my hobbies
are playing tennis and traveling to new places to get to know different cultures. I go to the
university from Sunday to Thursday and my weekend starts on Friday and it is my favorite day.
On Friday I wake up late at around 10:30 in the morning. I drink tea with my family then
I eat breakfast that my dad prepares and it is omelet with onions and parsley. At around 2:00 the
whole family meet at my granddad’s to eat lunch. There I meet with my cousins and we spend a
nice time talking about the world news. At 4:00 we return home and them meet with my friends
at the mall. We walk around or go to the cinema. Saturday is my studying day where I do my
homework for the week and my routine starts again.
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APPENDIX I
POST-STUDY SURVEY
At the end of the study students answered the following questions:
1. Did learning to write a Recount genre help you in the reading comprehension of the Recount
text? Explain.
1………………..2………………….…3…………….……4
Not at all a little somewhat a lot
Explain how your ability improved/ did not improve ….
2. Your friend in the other Arabic class has an assignment to write a Recount genre, he asked you
for help. How would you explain to him/her to write the Recount genre. (you may use
Arabic/English /illustrations to answer this question) .
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APPENDIX J
WORKSHEET FOR BUILDING THE FIELD
Connect the sentence with the corresponding pictures. Then draw one of your own presenting one event of your daily routine and write a caption.
في النادي,سامي یمارس ریاضة الجري
[in the club, Sammy practices running]
ھو یقرأ الجریدة على الكومبیوتر
[He reads the newspaper on the computer]
كل محاضراتي في المساء
183
[All my lectures are in the evening]
8:00سامي یخرج من البیت الساعة
[Sammy leaves home at 8:00]
صباحا 7:00سامي یصحو الساعة
[Sammy wakes up at 7:00 in the morning]
Figure 12. Worksheet for building the field
184
APPENDIX K
PRACTICE EVENT AND TIME
At what time of the day Sammy…..?
Time, Occurrences, & Linking of Events
Time Markers
[in the morning] في الصباح
185
[noon] ع
ند الظھر
[in the afternoon] بعد الظھر
[in the evening] في المساء
[at 1:00 o’clock, 2:00 o’clock, etc.] .....,الساعة الواحدة, الثانیة
[on Monday, Tuesday, …] ,وم الثالثاء,...ییوم االثنین
Linkers
[Then] ثم
[after that] بعد ذلك
. (مثال: بعد الفطور, بعد الجري, بعد الخروج)بعد.....
[after, for example after breakfast after running, after going out]
Occurrences
+( )- ( )
عادة أحیانا أبدا دائما
[never] sometimes usually always
186
APPENDIX L
PRACTICE EVENT FREQUECNY AND TIME
Ask your friends and report. Follow the example.
(Translation to English in brackets [ ])
\بعد الظھر \صباحا [morning/afternoon]
\مساء \ظھرا [Noon/ evening]
في أي ساعة؟
[At what time?]
االسم
[name]
[The event] الحدث
بعد الظھر[in the afternoon]
الساعة الواحدة[at 1:00 ]
أنثوني[Anthony]
یاكلون العشاء[eat dinner]
في اي ساعة تأكل العشاء؟ مثال: [example: At what time do you eat
dinner] یلتقون باالصدقاء
[meet with friends] یعودون الى البیت
[return home]
یبدأون العمل
[start to work]
187
\عادة \دائما أبدا \ أحیانا[always/often/ sometimes/ never]
االسم[name]
[The event] الحدث
دائما[always]
أنثوني[Anthony]
یدروسون في غرفھم[study in their rooms]
تدرسین في غرفتك؟\رس دمثال: ھل ت [Do you study in your room]
ینامون بعد الظھر
[sleep in the afternoon]
یقرأون االخبار [read the news]
یلعبون (الریاضة)
[workout]
ینزلون من البیت
[Leave the house]
188
APPENDIX M
VIDEO VIEWING GUIDE
قصة خالد
في االیام االخرى...
[During the other days…]
؟ماذا یفعل خالد [what does Khaled do?]
الوقت [time]
في الصباح[in the morning]
الظھربعد [in the afternoon]
189
؟ماذا یفعل خالد [What does Khaled do?]
الوقت[time]
في الصباح
[in the morning]
في المساء [in the evening]
-یوم الجمعة [on Friday]
190
APPENDIX N
WORKSHEET FOR CONCEPTS OF GENRE AND REGISTER
Genre and Register: Recipe Genre
Genre
1. What is the social purpose of the text?
2. Cross cultural question: What would be the social purpose of this type of text in English?
4. What are the stages of the genre and what is being achieved in each stage? (use table)
5. What is the text type (i.e., genre)?
Register
4. What is the text about?
5. Who wrote the text? For whom is the text written?
191
6. What is the social relationship between the writer and the reader?
(1 being formal and 4 informal )
Formal ……………………………….Informal
1………………2…………..3……………..4
Explain your answer……………………………………………………………………….
7. The channel of communication written/ oral/ email?
192
APPENDIX O
PRACTICE: LEXICO GRAMMATICAL FEATURES
The following sentences are from the Sequence of Events stage of Layla’s Recount on daily
routines
1. Put the sentences in order to make a recount. Notice the thematic progression.
2. Who are the participants? What type of processes and what is there function? What are the
types of circumstances used?
لیلى مذیعة في التلفزبون االردني.
[Leila is an anchor in the Jordanian TV]
وتذیع االخبار على شبكة ب.ب.س. العربیة < لتنقل لنا أخبار الدول العالم.>
[She broadcasts the news on Arabic BBC to give us the international news]
ث كثیرة. >یوم عملھا طویل < ولكن فیھ أحدا
[Her working day is long, but full of incidents occur]
.من النوم في الساعة السادسة والربع لیلى ستیقظتكل صباح
[Every morning Leila wakes up at quarter past six]
.ھامشط شعرتو \لبس تو \ دخل الحمامت
[She enters the bathroom, dresses up, and brushes her hair]
193
ومعظم عملھا في المكتب على الكومبیوتر وخارج \ 8:00ثم تنزل من البیت الى المكتب في الساعة
. في مكان الحدثالمكتب
[Then she leaves her home to go to the office at 8:00 and most of her work is
at the office on the computer and outside the office at the incident site]
.>منھا بعد قراءة الرسائل االلكترونیة (اإلیمیل) تبدأ بالرد علیھا < وھذا یأخذ وقت طویل
[After reading the electronic mail [email] she answers them and this takes a
long time]
وھذه االخبار \ئھا للكالم عن أخبار عائلتھا, وھي وقت االستراحة, تجلس عادة مع زمال 10:30في الساعة
دائما مفرحة.
[at 10:30 and that is the time of her break, she usually sits with her colleagues to talk
about her family news. And those news are always joyful]
194
APPENDIX P
ACTIVITY: TO ADD THE MISSING FEATURES OF THE RECOUNT
Make it Better- In-class Activity
(Brustad, Al-Batal, & Al-Tonsi, 2011, p.
This text does not follow the characteristics of the Recount of habitual event genre – Can you
make it better?
Note the stages of the Genre/ the Thematic progression / the use of processes- participants and
circumstances/ and the author’s evaluations throughout the text. Be critical!
. برنامج سامي في الكلیھ لیس فیھ\سامي مصطفى واحد من زمالء خالد وأصدقائھ في الجامعة
أي تدریس أو محاضرات في ھذا الفصل < ألنھ مشغول بكتابة رسالة الماجستیر وموضوع
رسالتھ ھو "البنك الدولي واالقتصاد في بالد العالم الثالث".>
ولیس فیھ مكان للدرا \بیت سامي صغیر إال یوم -سة, < ولذلك یذھب الى مكتبة الجامعة یومیا
حیث یقرأ ویكتب ویعمل على الكومبیوتر.> -الجمعة
وفي یوم االربعاء بعد الظھر یذھب سامي مع خالد وبعض زمالئھم اآلخرین الى النادي< حیث
اس>. خالد یحبیجلسون الى المساء یتكلمون عن الحیاة والمستقبل وأخبار الكلیة والبلد والن
الشطرنج كثیرا, أما سامي, فھو یحب شرب القھوة والكالم مع البنات.
195
[Sammy Mustafa one of khaled’s friends at the university. Sammy’s program at the at
college does not have any teaching or lectures during this semester because he is busy writing his
Masters thesis. The topic of his dissertation is the International Bank and economy in the third
world countries. Sammy’s home is small and does not have a place to study therefore he goes to
the library every day except Friday where he reads and write and works on the computer.
On Wednesday afternoon, Sammy goes with Khaled and other friends to the club, where
they sit till the evening talking about life, the future, and the news about college, the city and the
people. Khaled like chess but Sammy likes to drink coffee and to talk with girls.
196
APPENDIX Q
FOCUS GROUP OF STUDENTS PRETESTS AND POSTTESTS’ TEXTS
Zach’s pretest
كریستن یبدأ الیوم الساعة السادسة وربع. ھي زوجت<زوجھا> یوقظ
[Kristen starts the day at quarter past six o’clock.]
Sequence of Events
1
ثم تكل <تأكل> یفطر الساعة السابعة
[Her husband wakes her up then she eats breakfast at seven o’clock]
2
تخرج وتذھب عمل الساعة الثامنة وربع.كریستن
[She leaves and goes to work at quarter past eight o’clock]
3
<منزل> الساعة الخمسة اال ربع البیت ھي عمل في مكتب بعد الظھرویعود منزیل
[She works in an office in the afternoon and returns home at quarter to five o’clock]
4
وتذھب جیم الساعة الخمسة وھوالي ربع.
[she goes to the gym at five and about quarter]
5
بعة اال ثلث.ثم جیم تعود منزیل وزوج بدخن الساعة السا
[Then gym she return home and husband drinks at twenty minutes to seven]
6
197
Zach’s posttest
On the posttest, Zach wrote the following:
یوم في حیاة جید كریستن
[A day in the life good Kristen]
Title 1
كریستن تعمل في جامعة "س".
[Kristen works in university “X”
Orientation 2
ھي یوم ھذه:
[she day this] to mean <this is her day>
3
وربع. ٦ھي زوج یوقظ <زوجھا یوقظھا> في ھویاة<حوالي>
[she husband wakes [her] up around quarter past six]
Sequence of Events
4
ثم توقظ<تشاھد> التیلیفیسون.
[then wake up <watches> the television]
5
بعد تذھب یفطرأحوا<قھوة> سوداء وتخرج الى تذھب تعلم <الى العمل> في السیارة.
[after going take breakfast black coffee and leaves to go work in the car]
6
في تعمل <العمل> ھي یجلس على الكومبوتر.
[at work she sits on the computer]
7
تعمل الى السبعة <الساعة> الخمسة في بعد الظھر وثم تنزل منزل.
[she works till five o’clock in the afternoon and then she leaves home]
8
ھویاة <حوالي> الخمسة وربع تذھب الى الجیم.
[Around quarter to five she goes to the gym]
9
سبعة تنزل الجیم وتذھب منزل وتجلس مع زوز<زوج>السعة ال
[at seven o’clock she leaves the gym and goes home and sits with
husband]
10
وھم نقرا الجریدة ویدجن<یدخن>. ھذه حیاة كریستن
[They read newspaper and smokes. This is Kristen’s life.]
11
198
Henry’s pretest
في الصبح زوجي كریستن یوقظ <یوقظھا> في الساعة السادسة و ربع
[In the morning Kristen’s husband wakes her up at quarter past six]
Sequence of Events Stage
1
ثم تشرب قھوة وتشاھد اخبار في التلفزیون
[Then she drinks coffee and watches the news on TV]
2
ي الساعة السابعة تفطر مع زوج وكربستن عادة تأكل سیریل وتشرب قھوةف
[At seven o’clock she eats breakfast with her husband and Kristen
usually eats cereals and drinks coffee]
3
في الساعة الثامنة تخرج البیت وبعد ذلك تذھب الى المكتب
[At eight o’clock she leaves home then goes to the office]
4
في الساعة الثانیة عشر ونصف كریستن تعمل في المكتب وتشرب قھوة كثیرا
[At half past twelve o’clock Kristen works in the office and she drinks
a lot of coffee]
5
كریستن تعمل حتى الساعة الخامسة االربع وثم تعود البیت
[Kristen works till quarter to five then returns home]
6
في الساعة الخامسة وعشر دقائق كریستن تذھب النادي الراضة<الریاضي>
[At ten minutes past five Kristen goes to the sports club]
7
بعد ذلك في الساعة السابعة أال ثلث بعد الظھر تعود البیت وتجلس مع زوجي<زوجھا>
[Then at twenty minutes to seven in the afternoon she returns home
and sits with her husband]
8
Henry’s posttest
On the post-test, Henry wrote the following:
حیاة أستاذة في الجامعة
[A life of a professor in the university]
Title 1
تاذة في جامعة "س". تدرس اللغة العربیة.كریستن أس
[Kristen is a professor in university ”X”. She teaches the Arabic
Orientation 2
199
language]
كریستن تسكن في مدینة بیتسبرغ مع زوجھا.
[Kristen lives in the city of Pittsburgh with her husband.]
3
مدبنة كل یوم السبوع <االسبوع>.تحب تذحب <تذھب> الى ال
[She likes to go to the city every day of the week.]
4
كریستن تسحو <تصحو> في الساعة السادسة وربع دقائق.
[Kristen wakes up at quarter past six o’clock.]
Sequence of Events
5
في التلفزیون. زوجھا یوقظ مع قھوة. من ثم تشرب قھوة وتشاھد أخبار
[Her husband wakes her up with coffee. She them drinks coffee and
watches new on television.]
6
بعد ذلك تأكل الفطور مع زوجھا في الساعة السابعة وتأكل سیریل وتشرب قھوة.
[After that she eats breakfast with her husband at seven o’clock and eats cereal and drinks coffee.]
7
في الساعة الثامنة أال عشردقائق تخرج البیت في الجامعة.
[At fifty minutes to eight she leaves home to the university.]
8
تحب تدرس اللغة العربیة. من ثم تأكل الغذاء وتعمل من كمبیوترفي الساعة الثانیة عشر
ونصف.
[She likes teaching the Arabic language. She then eats lunch and
works from the computer half past twelve ]
9
بعد ذلك تعود البیت في بعدالظھر
[After that she return home in the afternoon ]
10
ولكن تنزل في الساعة الخامسة وعشر دقائق.
[But she leaves at ten minutes past five.]
11
من ثم تمشي الى النادي الضارع <الریاضي>.
[Then she walks to the sports club.]
12
بعد ذلك تعود البیت وتجلس مع زوجھا .
[After that she return to the house and sits with her husband.]
13
ال تحب دخن ولكن تحب زوجھا.
[She does not like smoking but she likes her husband.]
14
200
Thomas’ Pretest
In this sub-section Thomas’ pretest is analyzed. He wrote:
وربعمحمود یوقظ كریستن في الساعة السادسة
[Mahmood wakes Kristen up at six o’clock]
Sequence of Events stage
1
قھوة وثم ھي تشاھد التلفزیون وتشرب
[then she watches television and drinks coffee]
2
كرستن تفطر تشرب قھوة كثیرة وتقرأ جریدة ما محمود. ۷في الساعة .. ,
[at 7:00 Kristen eats breakfast drinks a lot of coffee and read
the newspaper with her husband Mahmood ]
3
نیة أال عشرة دقائق ھي تذھب الى العمل بعد ذلك في الساعة الثما
[after that at ten minutes to eight she goes to work]
4
كریستن تعمل و تغذاء في نسف <نصف> الساعة ۱۲٬30في الساعة
[at 12:30 Kristen works eats lunch in half an hour]
5
وتشرب قھوة ثم ھي تعمل كثیر
[and drinks coffee then works a lot]
6
وفي الساعة الخامسة إال ربع ھي تعود الى البیت
[And at quarter to five she returns home]
7
وبعد ذلك في الساعة الخامسة وعشرة دقائق كریستن تذھب الى النادي
[And then at ten minutes past five Kristen goes to the club]
8
دقائق ۸۰ي ھوادث <حوالي> كریستن في الناد
[Kristen is in the club for about 80 minutes]
9
وتنزل وتعود الى البیت في الساعة السابعة إال ثلث
[And she leaves and returns at twenty minutes to seven]
10
في البیت كریستن تجلس ما محمود
[At home Kristen sits with Mahmood]
11
ن <االن> یدخنا ھي ال تحب الدخن ومحمود یدخن ولكن ال یستطیع
[She does not like smoking and Mahmood smokes but he
cannot smoke now]
12
ثم كریستن سعیدة وتتكلم ماه
[Then Kristen is happy and talks to him]
13
201
Thomas’ posttest
On the posttest Thomas wrote the following:
یوم في حیاة االستاذة كریستن
[A day in the life of Professor Kristen]
Title
1
كریستن االستاذة اللغة العربیة في الجامعة "س"
[Kristen is a professor of Arabic language at the university “X”]
Orientation
2
زوجتھا <زوجھا> اسمھ محمود تسكن في المدینة وھي عندھا
[She lives in the city and she has a husband named Mahmood]
3
ھي تعمل في الجامعة كل یوم ولكن لیس تعمل في الیوم السبت
[She works at the university everyday but does not work on Saturday]
4
لھاوالیوم االول في االسبوع بعد الظھر مفض
[The afternoon of the first day of the week is her favorite]
5
زوجتھا<زوجھا> یوقظ ھي ٦٬۱٥كریستن تبدأ یوم في الساعة
[Kristen starts her day at 6:15 her husband wakes her up]
Sequence of events
6
وھي تشرب قھوة تشاھد التلفزیون البرنامج الطقس.
[She drinks coffee and watches television the weather forecast]
7
في مدینتھا الطقس مشمس
[In her city the weather is sunny]
8
-تحب قھوة –تشرب قھوة كثیرة ۷٬۰ثم في الساعة
[Then at seven o’clock she drink a lot of coffee- she likes coffee-]
9
<زوجھا> وتفطر سیریالسوتجلس ما زوجتھا
[And she sits with her husband and eats cereals ]
10
وعندھا جریدة
[And she has a newspaper ]
11
تذھب الى العمل ۷٬٥۰في الساعة
[At 7:50 she goes to work]
12
202
-ھي مشغولة كثیرا -بعد ذلك تعمل وعندھا الغذاء في نفس الساعة
[After that she works and she has lunch at the same time- she is very
busy-]
13
تعود الى بیتھا ٤٬٤٥ثم في الساعة
[Then at 4:45 she returns to her home]
14
تذھب الى النادي مفضلھا ٥٬۱۰وفي الساعة
[And at 5:10 she goes to her favorite club ]
15
ماء كثیر في النادي تعمل وتشرب
[At the club she works and she drinks a lot of water]
16
٦٬٤۰ثم تعود الى بیتھا في الساعة
[She returns to her home at 6:40]
17
وھي سعیدة ألنھا ما <مع> زوجتھا <زوجھا> ولكن ھو یدخن ولیس یستطیع أن یدخن
[And she is happy because she is with her husband but he smokes and
he cannot smoke now]
18
بعد ذلك زوجتھا <زوجھا> ال یدخن وھي سعیدة وتحب زوجتھا
[After that her husband does not smoke and she is happy and she loves her husband]
19
كم<ھم> تجلسون وتتكلمون على العالم
[They sit and they talk about the world]
20
203
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