Nature is not mute, but modern

man is deaf. - Terence

Mckenna

(Food of the Gods, 1992: 179)

A GLOBAL

CRISIS

Suzie Jane Nimmo, 2016

Ahimsa Plant Healing

� of�2 51

Pablo Amaringo’s (1938-2009) series of landscapes, that have come to be known as

ayahuasca visions, look like Edenic paradises. Los Cachiboleros (fig. 1), for example, is densely-2

populatedwithflowers,vines, leavesandtrees,andteemingwithamyriadofcoexis]nghuman,

animal, vegetal,hybrid, celes]al andunearthlybeings. Thehighly saturatedpain]ngsdepict the

ar]st’sotherworldlyvisionaryexperiences,a^eringes]ngtheentheogenicbrewayahuasca. This3

s]cky,foul-tas]ngteaconsistsofacombina]onofthebanisteriopsiscaapivine(fig.2)withoneof

a number of hallucinogenic plants such as psychotria viridis. For millennia, the indigenous4

popula]onoftheAmazonhasusedayahuasca. Thebrew,whichissaidtohaveaheadyessence5

reminiscentof the forest, contains themostpotentpsychoac]vecompoundknown,DMT (N,N-

dimethylryptamine). Consuming it induces violent gastrointes]nal purging and spectacular6

LuisEduardoLunaandPabloAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions:TheReligiousIconographyofaPeruvian2

Shaman,Berkeley:NorthAtlan]cBooks,1991;HowardC.CharingandPeterCloudsleyeds.,TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo,Vermont:InnerTradi]onsInterna]onal,2011.

AyahuascaistheQuechua(Na]veAmericanlinguafrancaoftheAndes)nameforthebrew.Itisalso3

knownasyajé,caapi,natem,pindé,andkarampi.LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.10;JohnRyanHaule,JunginThe21stCentury,Volume2:SynchronicityandScience,Hove:Routledge,2011,p.32;LesleyWylie,Columbia’sForgoOenFronPer:ALiteraryGeographyofthePutumayo,Liverpool:LiverpoolUniversityPress,2014,p.183.Thisessayreferstoayahuascaasan‘entheogen’,meaning‘achemicalsubstance,typicallyofplantorigin,thatisingestedtoproduceanonordinarystateofconsciousnessforreligiousorspiritualpurposes’.‘Entheogen’,OxfordDicPonaries,OxfordUniversityPress,2016,<hjp://www.oxforddic]onaries.com/defini]on/english/entheogen>dateaccessed29/03/2016.Foradiscussionoftheproblema]cminefieldofterminologysurroundingayahuascaandDMTseeRickStrassman,DMT:TheSpiritMolecule:ADoctor'sRevoluPonaryResearchintotheBiologyofNear-DeathandMysPcalExperiences,Vermont:ParkStreetPress,2001,p.30.

Wylie,FronPer,p.183;J.C.Callawayetal.,‘Pharmacokine]csofHoascaAlkaloidsinHealthyHumans’,4

JournalofEthnopharmacology,Vol.65,1999,pp.243-56,(pp.243-4).

Es]matesrangefrom3500to8000yearsofuseinindigenousAmazoniancultures.SeeMarleneDobkinde5

RiosandRogerRumrrill,AHallucinogenicTea,LacedwithControversy:AyahuascaintheAmazonandtheUnitedStates,SantaBarbara:ABC-CLIO,2008,p.8;JeremyNarby,CosmicSerpent:DNAandtheOriginsofKnowledge,London:Phoenix,1999,p.154;andDennisJ.McKenna,‘Ayahuasca:anEthnopharmacologicHistory’,R.Metznered.,Ayahuasca:Hallucinogens,Consciousness,andtheSpiritofNature,NewYork:Thunder’sMouthPress,1999,pp.187-213,(p.190).Haule,Jung,pp.32-3;Wylie,FronPer,p.183.

Haule,Jung,pp.36-7;McKenna,‘AnEthnopharmacologicHistory’,1999,p.198;Callawayetal.,6

‘Pharmacokine]cs’,p.244;EtzelCardeñaandMichaelJ.Winkelman,AlteringConsciousness:MulPdisciplinaryPerspecPves,Vol.1,Oxford:Praeger,2011,p.95.

� of�3 51

visions. In1985,Amaringobeganpain]ngthesevisions,makinghisinternalexperiencevisibleto7

theexternalworldforthefirst]me. Assuch,thepsychedelicaesthe]csthatresultedhavebeen8

viewedas insights intotherichvisual landscapeofayahuasca. In thisnarrow interpreta]on, the

subjectmajerof thepain]ngs comes from the imaginary realm, far removed from thephysical

experience.

However, underneath the layers of fantas]cal imagery, reality pervades Amaringo’s

pain]ngs.‘Reality’ isnotoriouslydifficulttodefine,anddebatesaboutitsnaturehaveformedan

en]rebranchofmetaphysics,knownasontology. Consideringitsmul]valentinterpreta]onsand9

problema]c associa]ons with truth, this essay defines it as that perceived to exist objec]vely.

Whenthepain]ngsareviewedclosely,smalldetailsrela]ngtotheglobalecologicalcrisisbeginto

emergefromthedensejungleundergrowth. Thiscrisisisbeingpropelledbythecurrentcarbon-10

dependant Anthropocene epoch defined by deforesta]on, polar mel]ng, rising of sea levels,

DMTisendogeneousinhumans,andthoughttobeproducedinthepinealglandandreleasedinduring7

birth,psycho]ccrisis,near-deathexperiencesanddeath.Strassman,DMT,p.69.Whentakenorallyitiseasilydeac]vatedinthestomachbymonamineoxidase(MAO).However,thealkaloidsprovidedbythebanisteriopsisplantfunc]onasMAO-inhibitors,keepingDMTac]veandallowingittobeabsorbedintothebloodstream.Wylie,FronPer,p.183;DobkindeRiosandRumrrill,AHallucinogenicTea,p.1;D.B.deAraujo,etal.,‘SeeingWiththeEyesShut:NeuralBasisofEnhancedImageryFollowingAyahuascaInges]on’,HumanBrainMapping,publishedonlineinWileyOnlineLibrary,2011,pp.1-11<hjp://www.iceers.org/docs/science/ayahuasca/de%20Araujo%20et%20al_2011_Seeing_with_Eyes_%20Shut.pdf>dateaccessed29/02/2016.

DennisJ.McKenna,‘EarlyEncounterswithPabloAmaringo-PainterofVisions’,TheAyahuascaVisionsof8

PabloAmaringo,Vermont:InnerTradi]onsInterna]onal,2011,pp.4-8,(p.4);JeremyNarby,’MakingtheInvisibleVisible’,TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo,Vermont:InnerTradi]onsInterna]onal,2011,p.9;HowardG.CharingandPeterCloudsley,‘TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo.InterviewwiththeAr]st’,SacredHoop,issue53,2006,pp.16-19,(p.17).

‘Ontology’,OxfordDicPonaries,OxfordUniversityPress,2016,<hjp://www.oxforddic]onaries.com/9

defini]on/english/ontology>,dateaccessed28/03/2016;PaulL.Nunez,Brain,MindandtheStructureofReality,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010,p.14.

Theterm‘ecological’canbedefinedas‘rela]ngtoorconcernedwiththerela]onoflivingorganismsto10

oneanotherandtotheirphysicalsurroundings’.‘Ecological’,OxfordDicPonaries,OxfordUniversityPress,2016,<hjp://www.oxforddic]onaries.com/defini]on/english/ecological>dateaccessed24/02/2016.’Crisis’canbedefinedas‘a]meofintensedifficultyordanger’.‘Crisis’,OxfordDicPonaries,OxfordUniversityPress,2016,<hjp://www.oxforddic]onaries.com/defini]on/english/crisis>,dateaccessed19/04/2016.Forwhatiswidelyconsideredtobethedefini]vestatementofscien]ficconsensusconcerningtheanthropogenicnatureofclimatechangeanditsassociatednetworkofecologicaldisturbancesseeB.Metzetal.eds.,ClimateChange2007:MiPgaPon.ContribuPonofWorkingGroupIIItotheFourthAssessmentReportoftheInter-governmentalPanelonClimateChange,IPCC,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity,2007.

� of�4 51

hurricanes,fires,deser]fica]on,biodiversityex]nc]on,andpollu]onofair,landandwater. This11

essayarguesthattheayahuascavisionscontainalatentecologicalagenda.Firstly,itconsidersthe

scholarly and art-historical framework surrounding the pain]ngs. This highlights how they have

beenmarginalised and seeks to challenge their categorisa]on as outsider art. It then unearths

overlookeddetails that reveal thepain]ngs’grounding inecological issues. Itexamineshowthe

Amazonrainforestprovidedthear]stwithareverencefornatureaswellasexposinghimtosevere

casesofenvironmentaldestruc]on. Itdeconstructs theprevalent themeof the rainforest in the

pain]ngs,showingthattheyarenotsimplyutopianorotherworldly,butcanbedirectlyrelatedto

thedeforesta]on. Itwill lookatplantconsciousness,agency,andtheemergingevidenceof links

betweenayahuascaandecologicaloneness.Finally,theessayconsidershowAmaringo’sagendais

unfoldingwithintheglobalcontextofincreasingscholarly,pharmacologicalandpopularinterestin

ayahuasca,andanawakeningtothecrisistowardswhichtheplanetcon]nuestohurtle. 12

THEOTHERWORLDLYVISIONSOFANOUTSIDER

Theecologicalconcernsembeddedwithinthepain]ngsarenotdiscussedintheliterature

surrounding Amaringo. Theworkswere first introduced to theworld inAyahuasca Visions: The

Religious Iconography of a Peruvian Shaman (1991), a collabora]ve publica]on between

anthropologist Luis Eduardo Luna and Amaringo. The text focused on the mythology of the13

ribereños culture and ajracted ajen]on within the fields of anthropology, ethnobotany, and

JanZalasiewiczetal.,‘TheNewWorldoftheAnthropocene’,EnvironmentalScience&Technology,Vol.11

44,no.7,2010,pp.2228-31;PeterJohnStoej,GlobalEcopoliPcs:Crisis,Governance,JusPce,Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,2012,p.3.

AlanC.Braddock,‘Ecocri]calArtHistory’,AmericanArt,TheUniversityofChicagoPress,onbehalfofthe12

TheSmithsonianIns]tu]on,Vol.23,No.2,Summer2009,pp.24-8<hjp://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/605707>dateaccessed01/04/2016,p.28.

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,1991.13

� of�5 51

psychology. Yet, thepain]ngshave receivednoconsidera]onwithinarthistory.Whencontent14

has been discussed, the focus has mostly been on the psychedelia and science-fic]on

iconographies,suchasthespiritsandspaceships.Andwhilsttalesoftheintrepidpsychonautare

fascina]nganddeservefurtherstudy,themeaningofthisimageryisnuancedandcantellanother,

verydifferentstory.Despitethear]sthavingsuggestedthatecologywasoneofhiskeymo]vesfor

pain]ngthevisions,suchaconnec]onhasnotyetbeendeveloped. 15

Within the exis]ng art historical framework, Amaringo’s pain]ngs are posi]oned in the

categoryofoutsiderart. Thisperipheralparadigmdescribesworkscreatedoutsideofthesocial16

and culturalmainstream, by ‘ar]sts’more inclined towards their own innerworld than the ‘art

world’. Amaringoseemstofitthecriteriaperfectly. Hispain]ngsareaesthe]callysimilartothe17 18

workofacceptedoutsiderar]stssuchasMinnieEvans(1892-1987)(fig.3). Theyareoriginal,in19

thattheyarethefirsttopaintayahuascanarra]ves.Moreover,Amaringoworkedinisola]onand

RibereñosaredescendantsofdetribalisedAmazonianIndians,offspringofAmazonian-Europeanand14

Amazonian-Africanunions,anddescendsofearlyimmigrantsfromdifferentareaofBrazil,PeruandotherAndeancountries.LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.44.CharingandCloudsleyeds.,TheAyahuascaVisions,2011;RenéeHanson,IdenPtyandMemory:TranscribingOralHistoriesofPlantAnimismintheUpperAmazon,(MastersThesis)UniversityofKansas,AvailablefromProQuestDisserta]onsandThesesdatabase,(UMIno.304858462),p.63,72;BennyShanon,TheanPpodesofthemind:charPngthephenomenologyoftheAyahuascaexperience,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2002,pp.99,105,116,118,122-5,134,173-5,212,257,323,412.

Howeversuchaconnec]onisimplicitinLunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.9,p.21.Amaringo15

providedcommentariestothepain]ngsincludedinbothLunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions(1991),andHowardC.CharingandPeterCloudsleyeds.,TheAyahuascaVisions(2011).

TheEnglishtermoutsiderartwascoinedbyRogerCardinala^erJeanDubuffet’sno]onofArtBrut,anart16

thatwasdirect,innocent,andcrude.DavidMaclagen,OutsiderArt:FromtheMarginstotheMarketplace,London:Reak]onBooks,2009,pp.7,81;StephenV.Beyer,‘TheShamanicArtofPabloAmaringo’,TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo,Vermont:InnerTradi]onsInterna]onal,2011,p.15.

DavidMaclagen,‘Bibliography’,JohnMaizels,RawVision:OutsiderArtSourcebook,Radlej:RawVision17

Ltd.,2002,p.31;SharonL.Kennedy,‘ParallelStartsOutsiderArtInsideCollec]ons’,SheldonMuseumofArtCataloguesandPublica]ons,Paper58,2010,<hjp://digitalcommons.unl.edu/sheldonpubs/58>dateaccessed29/01/2016.

Maclagen,OutsiderArt,p.164.18

MinnieEvans’workiscollectedbymajorgalleriessuchastheMuseumofModernArt(MoMA),NewYork,19

see‘MinnieEvans’,ArPsts,MoMa,<hjp://www.moma.org/collec]on/ar]sts/7524>dateaccessed28/04/2016.

� of�6 51

wasself-taught,aswellasbeingaconvict,amesPzo,andashaman. Thepoli]callyproblema]c20

link between his work and psychedelia pushes it further towards the fringe. Yet without this

connec]on,hisworksmaynothavebeenconsideredofany interestatall.Evenwithin thesub-

category of psychedelic art, which has ajracted a significant body of art-historical literature, a

discussionofayahuascaartisabsent. Furthermore,itiseasytoconsiderthecolourfulaesthe]c21

ofworks, suchasYacuCaballo (fig. 4), in loaded terms like ‘primi]ve’, ‘crude’, ‘naive’ and ‘low’,

highligh]ngthatunderlyingbiasesareo^enbroughtto interpreta]on. Butsuchframeworksof22

judgement could be socio-culturally constructed, and beneath them, the ecological value of

Amaringo’s work remains. Amaringo sat the edges of both the indigenous tribal and the23

developing industrialised worlds as amesPzo. These were o^en incompa]ble, with the former

embracing ‘animism’, a worldview that ajributes a living soul to plants, inanimate objects and

natural phenomena, and the lajer ‘anthropocentrism’, a contras]ng viewpoint regarding

humankindasthemostimportantelementofexistence. Fromhissubjectposi]onasanoutsider,24

Amaringohadtheperspec]vetoseethattheecologicalcrisiswasthreateningthecentreofboth

spheres.

MesPzoreferstoamixedraceperson,especiallywithSpanishandAmerican-Indianparentage.Lunaand20

Amaringo,AyahuascaVisions,pp.24-5.Amaringowasimprisonedatage20forforgingbanknotes.PabloAmaringo,‘AutobiographyoftheAr]st’,TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo,Vermont:InnerTradi]onsInterna]onal,2011,pp.18-23,(p.20).

SeeforexampleKenJohnson,AreYouExperienced?HowPsychedelicConsciousnessTransformedModern21

Art,London:Prestel,2011;Maclagen,OutsiderArt,p.164.ChristopherGrunenberg,etal.,TheSummerofLove:PsychedelicArt,SocialCrisisandCounterCultureinthe1960s,TateLiverpoolCri]calForum,Liverpool:LiverpoolUniversityPress,2006.

RobertoVenosa,‘AHolyMessageofAbsoluteBrilliance’,TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo,22

Vermont:InnerTradi]onsInterna]onal,2011,p.12.Foradiscussionoftheissuessurrounding‘primi]ve’artseeSallyPrice,PrimiPveArtinCivilisedPlaces,London:UniversityofChicagoPress,1989.

DavidE.W.Fenner,ArtinContext:UnderstandingAesthePcValue,Athens:SwallowPress/OhioUniversity23

Press,2008;AlfredGell,ArtandAgency,AnAnthropologicalTheory,Oxford:ClarendonPress,1998,pp.81-3.

Gell,ArtandAgency,p.9;‘Animism’,OxfordDicPonaries,OxfordUniversityPress,2016,<hjp://24

www.oxforddic]onaries.com/defini]on/english/animism?q=animism+>dateaccessed01/04/2016;‘Anthropocentric’OxfordDicPonaries,OxfordUniversityPress,2016,<hjp://www.oxforddic]onaries.com/defini]on/english/anthropocentric?q=anthropocentrism#anthropocentric__7>dateaccessed01/04/2016.

� of�7 51

Nonetheless, the term outsider is problema]c in many ways. The exhibi]on Parallel25

Visions:ModernArPstsandOutsiderArt(1992)attheLosAngelesCountyMuseumofArt(LACMA)

challenged the separateness of this art form, examining how outsiders influencedmodernists

firmly situated in the art historical canon. Similarly, this essay challenges the categorisa]onof26

Amaringo’swork,demonstra]ngthatit isnotasalientothear]s]cmainstreamastheliterature

mightsuggest,bydrawingparallelswithso-calledavant-gardeandenvironmentalmovementsthat

have become central to the narra]ve of Western art. The essay is also the first to take an27

ecocriPcalapproachtoAmaringo’spain]ngs.EcocriPcism,arecentaddi]ontotheplethoraofart-

historicalmethodologies,examinesenvironmentalissuesinculturalprac]ces. Itemphasisesthe28

entwinementofecologicaldamagewithalready-exis]ngpajernsof social inequality in termsof

geography,race,class,andgender,drawingtogetherdiversestrandsofresearch. Withoutsucha29

focus, thepain]ngs’ latentecological connota]ons canbeoverlookedand they remain internal,

psychedelic,andotherworldly.

JohnMaizels,RawVision:OutsiderArtSourcebook,2002,p.32;DavidMaclagen,OutsiderArt:Fromthe25

marginstothemarketplace,London:Reak]onBooks,2009,pp.7-8.

CarolS.ElielandMauriceTuchman,ParallelVisions:ModernArPstsandOutsiderArt,Princeton:26

PrincetonUniversityPress,1992,p.1.Publishedinconjunc]onwiththeexhibi]onParallelVisions:ModernArPstsandOutsiderArtshownattheLosAngelesCountyMuseumofArt,1992.However,ParallelVisionsreceivedcri]cism,suchasreducingoutsiderarttoinspira]onforinsiders,seeKenJohnson,‘SignificantOthers-TravellingArtExhibi]onMountedbytheLosAngelesCountyMuseumofArt:‘ParallelVisions:ModernAr]stsandOutsiderArt’’,ArtinAmerica,81,no.6,June1993,pp.84-8.

Foradiscussionoftheissuessurroundingmodernismandtheavant-gardeseeRosalindE.Krauss,The27

OriginalityoftheAvante-GardeandOtherModernistMyths,London:MITPress,1986.Forasurveyofthe1960slandartmovementandsubsequentenvironmentalartseeJeffreyKastner,LandandEnvironmentalArt,London:Phaidon,1998.

Themovementwasini]atedintheearly1990sbyliteraryscholarLawrenceBuell.Americanarthistorians28

AlanC.BraddockandCharlesIrmscherwerethefirsttooutlinetheapproachofecocriPcisminarthistory.BraddockandIrmschereds.,AKeenerPercepPon:EcocriPcalStudiesinAmericanArtHistory,Tucaloosa:UniversityofAlabamaPress,2009,p.3;AlanC.Braddock,‘Ecocri]calArtHistory’,AmericanArt,TheUniversityofChicagoPress,onbehalfoftheTheSmithsonianIns]tu]on,Vol.23,No.2,Summer2009,pp.24-8,(p.28)<hjp://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/605707>dateaccessed01/04/2016.

YatesMckee,‘ArtHistory,Ecocri]cismandtheEndsofMan’,OxfordArtJournal,OxfordUniversityPress,29

2011,pp.1-4.

� of�8 51

THESHAMAN-ARTISTANDTHERAINFOREST

The context of Amaringo’s life cul]vated the environmental agenda that lies behind the

pain]ngs.In1938,hewasborninPuertoLibertad,asmallsejlementlocateddeepintheverdant

PeruvianAmazon. Hisfamilyreliedontheforestforsurvival,farmingcrops,fishing,hun]ngand30

gathering. In1953,AmaringomovedtothePucallpa,wherehewouldremainandlaterpainthis31

visions. Hishomeandstudiowaswooden,modest,andsurroundedbytheforest. Acomparison32 33

canbemadetoPaulGauguin(1848-1903),whoalsospent]mepain]ngataremotestudiointhe

tropics (fig. 5). The evident similari]es between the two figures complicate the outsider

perspec]ve on Amaringo. Gauguin is o^en considered to have been a pioneer of the symbolist

movement, andhighly influen]al to theFrenchavant-garde,with somegoingas far as to claim

thathe‘ini]atedtheartofmodern]mes’. AliketoAmaringo,hespenthisearlylifeinPeru. His34 35

works inspired by his experiences in Tahi] are surprising similar to Amaringo’s visions. In both

Amaringo’sHuarmiTaquina(2005)(fig.6)andGauguin’sMahananoAtua(DayoftheGod)(1894)

(fig.7) lush landscapesare formed inbrightblocksofblue, yellow, red,pinkandgreen. Further

similari]esincludeimageryofunspoiltnature,harmoniousindigenousfigures,semi-nudefemale

forms, and central dei]es. Gauguin’s mythologised narra]ve tells of a desire to escape

LunaquotesAmaringo'sdateofbirthas1943inAyahuascaVisions,butitismorefrequentlycitedas30

1938.LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.21;PeterCloudsley,‘Preface’,TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo,Vermont:InnerTradi]onsInterna]onal,2011,pp.xii-xiv;JorgeVelásquezPortocarrero,‘Foreword’,TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo,Vermont:InnerTradi]onsInterna]onal,2011,p.ix.

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.21.31

ArildAngelesenandDavidKaimowitzeds.,AgriculturalTechnologiesandTropicalDeforestaPon,32

Wallingford:CABI,2001,p.214.

McKenna,‘EarlyEncounters’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.4.33

RenéHuyghe,LeCarnetdePaulGauguin,Parigi,1952,quotedinVictoriaCharles,PaulGauguin,London:34

Sirocco,2011,p.13;CindyKang,‘PaulGauguin(1848–1903)’,HeilbrunnTimelineofArtHistory,NewYork:TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,2000–,March2011,<hjp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gaug/hd_gaug.htm>dateaccessed29/04/2016.

Kang,‘PaulGauguin’,np.;Charles,PaulGauguin,p.13.35

� of�9 51

industrialising forces to a pris]neparadise, a concern facedbyAmaringomany years later back

acrosstheSouthPacific. 36

Amaringo’secologicalagendaisevidencedbyhisworkwiththeUskoAyarschool,whichhe

founded inthe1980s. HetaughtstudentshowtodepictAmazonianplants,animals, riversand37

peopleandtheirrela]onships,producingworkssimilartothelandscapemuralthatcanbeseenin

thephotograph(fig.8). Themissionoftheschool,asestablishedbyAmaringo,was(andremains)38

thepreserva]onanddocumenta]onoftheecosystem,indica]ngthatitwasoneofAmaringo’stop

priori]es. At the 1992 Earth Summit in Brazil, Amaringo was elected to the United Na]ons39

EnvironmentalProgramme(UNEP)Global500RollofHonour, in recogni]onhisachievements in

theprotec]onandimprovementoftheenvironmentthroughUskoAyar(fig.9). Thisisevidence40

thathisagendawasrecognisedbyexternalbodies.TheschoolwaslocatedinPucallpa,acitythat

was ‘lijlemore thanavillage’whenAmaringoarrived in1953,butquicklyexperiencedmassive

growth. 41

In1946,Pucallpahadonly4000inhabitants. In1961,ithad26,391,andin1981,thishad42

grownto97,925. By2005,theyearinwhichYacuCaballo(fig.4)waspainted,thepopula]onhad43

bloated to 259,830. Major pull factors to the area were the abundant land and produc]on44

opportuni]es,resul]nginaneconomyrevolvingaroundtheexploita]onoflocalnaturalresources,

Kang,‘PaulGauguin’,np.;WayneV.Andersen,Gauguin’sParadiseLost,NewYork:VikingPress,1971.36

Amaringo,‘Autobiography’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.23.37

LuisEduardoLuna,‘TheNew,Syncre]c,Ayahuasca-basedReligions’,J.P.Harpignies,ed.,VisionaryPlant38

Consciousness:TheShamanicTeachingsofthePlantWorld,Vermont:InnerTradi]ons,2007,Ch.13,np.

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,pp.29-30.39

Amaringo,‘Autobiography’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.23.40

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.22.41

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.23.42

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.23.43

SaulBernardCohen,TheColumbiaGazeOeeroftheWorld:PtoZ,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,44

2008,p.3087.

� of�10 51

including]mber. Observing thehuman impacton the landscape,Amaringospokeofhow ‘The45

dirtroadtothecapital…cutrightthroughthevirginforest,anditwasanimpressivesighttosee…

suchimmensetreesgrowingbytheroadside.’ Heexpressedaweathowsuchtalltrees(averaging46

around 25 to 30 m), were cut to the ground. Amaringo’s choice of the word ‘virgin’ in his47

statement is loaded,notonly iden]fyingtheareaashavingbeenundisturbedold-growthforest,

but also framing civilisa]on as an infringement upon the natural environment. Similarly, he48

nostalgicallydescribedhowtheforest‘remainedrela]velyintact’duringhisearlylifeinPucallpa,

implyingthatitwouldlaterexperiencedestruc]on. InYacuCaballo(fig.4),aLupineBlanca,one49

of the tallest trees in the Amazon, extends up and out of the le^ side of the composi]on.

Amaringopainted‘guardians’ intheactofprotec]ngthetree, linkingtotheriskthespecieswas

facinginreality. 50

TheAmazonisasiteoffolkloreandmythologyontheonehandandintenseeco-poli]cal

debate on the other. Therefore invoking the same paradox between otherworldliness and the

ecological crisis that imbues the ayahuasca visions. The region and the pain]ngs are51

predominantly inhabited by flora and fauna. This is heightened by the ‘noisy’ features of the52

rainforest that are pictured, such as birds, insects and running water. Centuries of human53

AngelsenandKaimowitz,eds.,TropicalDeforestaPon,p.214;MiguelPinedo-Vasquez,et.al.,eds.,The45

AmazonVárzea:TheDecadePastandtheDecadeAhead,London:Springer,2011,p.xi;Chris]anAbizaid,‘AnAnthropogenicMeanderCutoffalongtheUcayaliRiver,PeruvianAmazon’,GeographicalReview,AmericanGeographicalSociety,Vol.95,No.1,January2005,pp.122-135,(p.123).

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.22;Amaringo,‘Autobiography’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.21.46

Cur]sFreese,ReportontheColumbianandPeruvianPrimateCensusingStudies,Ins]tuteofLaboratory47

AnimalResources,Washington:Na]onalAcademies,1975,p.19.

Chris]anWirth,GerdGleanerandMar]nHeimanneds.,Old-GrowthForest:FuncPonal,FateandValue,48

EcologicalStudies,Vol.207,Berlin:Springer,2009,p.5.

Amaringo,‘Autobiography’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.21.49

Amaringo,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.53.50

Abizaid,‘AnAnthropogenicMeander’,p.122.51

Hanson,‘Iden]tyandMemory’,p.70;RichardEvansSchultes,WheretheGodsReign:PlantsandPeoples52

oftheColumbianAmazon,London:Synerge]cPress,1988,p.54.

Beyer,‘ShamanicArt’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.12;LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,pp.39-41.53

� of�11 51

interven]on havemade the Amazon the core of the planet’s deforesta]on problem. In Peru,54

despitenewregula]onsfrom1999to2005,newforestdisturbancesoccurredatarateof632to

645squarekilometresperyear. Dataindicatesthat86%ofthisdeforesta]onwasconcentratedin55

Pucallpaandtheroadnetworkaroundthecity(includingtheroaddescribedbyAmaringo). This56

increasedby400%from1999to2005,whichhappenstohavebeenapar]cularlyac]veperiodof

pain]ng for Amaringo. Much of the logging stemmed from the]mber trade,whichAmaringo57

wouldhavewitnessedwhilstworkingatPucallpaport. Thelogswerestockpiledhere,ascanbe58

seeninAlexWebb’sstrikingphotographs(figs.10and11).

Pucallpa was, and remains, a violent hotbed of environmental issues. In this context59

Amaringowasexposedtoillegalloggingandotherac]vi]essuchasriverpollu]on,slashandburn

farmingandanimalagriculture:

Allhumanbeingsshould…puteffortintothepreserva]onandconserva]onoftherainforest,andcareforitandtheecosystem,becausedamagetothesenotonlyprejudicesthefloraandfaunabuthumanityitself.EvenintheAmazonthesedays,manyseeplantsasonlyaresourceforbuildinghousesandtofinancelargefamilies.Peoplewhohavefarmsandraiseanimalsalsocleartheforesttoproducefoodstuffs.Mes]zosandna]veIndianslogthelargesttreestoselltoindustrialsawmillsforsubsistence.Theyhaveneverheardof

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.9.54

Pinedo-Vasquez,et.al.,TheAmazonVárzea,p.xi.55

Pinedo-Vasquez,et.al.,TheAmazonVárzea,p.xi;M.Soudreetal.,‘Adaptabilityofsixna]veforesttree56

speciestodegradedlandsinPucallpa,PeruvianAmazon’(2001),S.Kobayashiet.al.eds.,RehabilitaPonofDegradedTropicalForestEcosystems,WorkshopProceedings,2-4November1999,Bogor,Indonesia,pp.123-8,(pp.123-4).

Pinedo-Vasquez,et.al.,TheAmazonVárzea,p.xi.57

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.23.58

SeeforexampleAndreaKarateandShaylaHarris,‘Corrup]oninPeruAidsCu�ngofRainForest’,The59

NewYorkTimes,18/10/2013,<hjp://www.ny]mes.com/2013/10/19/world/americas/corrup]on-in-peru-aids-cu�ng-of-rain-forest.html>dateaccessed24/03/2016;ScojWallace,‘QuadrupleHomicideinPeruvianAmazonPutsCriminalLogginginSpotlight’,NaPonalGeographic,12/09/2014,<hjp://news.na]onalgeographic.com/news/2014/09/140911-peru-amazon-illegal-logging-chota-alto-tamaya/>dateaccessed24/03/2016;DanCollyns,‘AerialpicturesrevealrampantillegallogginginPeru'sAmazonforest’,TheGuardian,07/09/2015,<hjp://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/sep/07/aerial-pictures-reveal-rampant-illegal-logging-in-perus-amazon-forest;>dateaccessed24/03/2016.

� of�12 51

thewordecology!I,Pablo,saytoeverybodywholivesintheAmazonandtheotherforestsoftheworld,thattheymustlovetheplantsoftheirland,andeverythingthatisthere! 60

Amaringowas familiarwith the term ‘ecology’ and understood the crisis to be both global and

anthropogenic(origina]nginhumanac]vity).Thisissupportedwhenhelatersaid,‘Ifeelagreat

sorrowwhen treesareburned,when the forest isdestroyed. I feel sorrowbecause I know that

humanbeingsaredoingsomethingverywrong.’ Themaincausesofdeforesta]oniden]fiedby61

Amaringocorrelatewiththoseestablishedinscien]ficstudies,sugges]ngthathewasaninformed

andreliableobserver.

Waterconsump]onandpollu]onarefurtherissuesthatAmaringowaslikelytohavebeen

awareof.Chris]anAbizaidhasshownthatthecourseoftheUcayaliwasmanipulatedtoimprove

transporta]onofgoodsandpeople,withunknownenvironmentaleffects. This is theriverthat62

Amaringodescribed seeing fromhishomewhen theymoved toPucallpa,and the river that fed

Pucallpa port. The dynamism and porosity of water in Yacu Caballo (fig. 4) creates a visual63

slippagebetweenhumansandnature.Awaterfalloutlinestwoyacuhuarmi(waterwomen),and

merges intoa river.The riverblends into theblueandwhitepajernedclothingof the shamans

ridingthecolourfulheadofayucumana(giantsnake)intheforeground(fig.12).Themediumof

gouache allowedAmaringo to easily blend forms and blur the boundaries between human and

rainforest. Yet, the pain]ngs do not always depict this as a harmonious rela]onship. Tension

becomes a key theme in pain]ngs such as Los Cachiboleros (fig. 1) where human figures only

occupytheright-handcornerofthecomposi]onandareoverwhelmedbyvibrantbotanyandall

kindsofbeings. This is evident in thedetail (fig.25)which showsa smallfigurewith theirback

PabloAmaringo,‘Foreword’,PeterCloudsleytrans.,HowardC.CharingandRossHeaven,PlantSpirit60

Shamanism,Vermont:Des]nyBooks,2006,p.xi;CharingandCloudsley,‘InterviewwiththeAr]st’,SacredHoop,p.19.

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.34.61

Thehumanimpactofthisanthropogenicmanagementhasbeenthecompletealtera]onofitscourseand62

thestrandingofaboutadozenvillagesandthetownofMasisea.Abizaid,‘AnAnthropogenicMeander’,p.124.

DobkindeRiosandRumrrill,AHallucinogenicTea,p.143.63

� of�13 51

turned from the viewer, reaching up towards an enormous plant which overshadows them.

Amaringostatedthat ifwedestroytheplantswe ‘cannotsurvive’,wedestroyourselvesbecause

ecologyentwinesourfates. 64

Amaringo’sconcernforplantsisalsoar]culatedintheforewordheprovidedforthebook

PlantSpiritShamanism(2006), inwhichheconstructsapowerfulargumentfortheirvitalrole in

ecology,

Plantsareessen]alinmanyways:theygivelifetoallbeingsonEarthbyproducingoxygen…theycreatetheenormousgreenhousethatgivesboardandlodgingtodiversebutinterrelatedguests;theyareteacherswhoshowustheholis]cimportanceofconservinglife.…Theconsciousnessofplantsisaconstantsourceofinforma]onformedicine,alimenta]on,andart,andanexampleoftheintelligenceandcrea]veimagina]onofnature.…ThusIconsidermyselftobethe‘representa]ve’ofplants,andforthisreasonIassertthatiftheycutdownthetreesandburnwhat’sle^oftherainforests,itisthesameasburningawholelibraryofbookswithouteverhavingreadthem. 65

Amaringo challenges anthropocentric idea that humans are supremely intelligent. He even

posi]ons his work as ‘representa]ve’ of plants, linking it to an agenda to discourage further

deforesta]on.However, this sourcewas notwrijen in rela]on to the pain]ngs, so the issue of

whether his values translated into his art might be raised. Amaringo directly stated that he

intended his art to be a ‘tool for the conserva]on of the Amazon environment.’ Such an66

ecological stance comes across strongly, par]cularly in the me]culously detailed renderings of

botany.

Eachleaf,flowerandstemiscarefullycra^edinthelargecanvasMisterioProfundo(fig.13),

so that theyare iden]fiableas real specimens. Forexample, thebrightpurple leaveson the far

right belong to a lancePlla (Alternanthera sp.). In an accompanying commentary, Amaringo

describedhowthisplantcanbeusedtotreatarthri]s,alleviatestressandgastricproblems,heal

woundsandcurediabetes. Thear]st rendersplant specieswith indigenoushealingvalue that67

Amaringo,TheAyahuascaVisions,2011,p.157.64

Amaringo,‘Foreword’,Plant,Spirit,Shamanism,p.xi.65

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.30.66

Amaringo,TheAyahuascaVisions,2011,p.157-8.67

� of�14 51

are at risk of being lost. His experience as a vegetalista (amesPzo shaman deriving healing68

knowledgefromplants)relatestothesedetaileddescrip]onsofbotanyandlikelytoplayedapart

in forming his ecological agenda. In his ownwords ‘A shaman has in hismind and heart the69

a�tude of conserving nature’. Amaringowas further known as an ayahuasquero. The ar]st70 71

sang icaros (power songs which come from the plant) while pain]ng and suggested that their

healingac]oncouldbe transferred to theviewer. This createsanother linkbetweenconscious72

plants,ecologyand theworks,andsuggests thatAmaringocouldhave intendedhispain]ngs to

healtheworld.PlantconsciousnessisdescribedbyAmaringo:‘Everytree,everyplant,hasaspirit.

Peoplemaysaythattheplanthasnomind.Itellthemthattheplantisalive&conscious.’ InLos73

Cachiboleros (fig. 1) an unblinking eye occupies each leaf in the cluster found in the le^-hand

corner, and seventeen black pupils peer out at the viewer. By giving a plant eyes, Amaringo

suggeststhatitisac]velyawareofitsenvironment;itisconscious. 74

Notallof the imagery intheayahuascavisions isvegetal,andnotallof theteachersare

plants. InMisterio Profundo (fig. 13) a spaceship descends in the centre of the pain]ng, and

etherealbluebeingsemergefromit(fig.14).Aninterpreta]onofthisscenecouldreturnustoa

Amaringo,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.53.68

Thetermchamánor‘shaman’isarecentWesternimportintotheAmazoninthepastthirtyyears.69

Charing,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.175.

Amaringo,‘Foreword’,Plant,Spirit,Shamanism,p.xi.70

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,pp.12-13.71

Akeycomponentofhealingsessionsareicaros,powersongsinwhich‘theplanttalkstoyou,itteaches72

youtosing’.DonSolónTelloLozano,quotedinStephanV.Beyer,SingingtothePlants;AGuidetoMesPzoShamanismintheUpperAmazon,Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,2009,p.65;Beyer,‘ShamanicArt’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.16.Icarosrepresentatransferenceofthespiritoftheplantsintothebodyoftheshaman.LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.13;Charing,TheAyahuascaVisions,pp.xi,53.

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,1991,pp.33,46.73

‘Conscious’,OxfordDicPonaries,OxfordUniversityPress,2016,<hjp://www.oxforddic]onaries.com/74

defini]on/english/consciousness>dateaccessed29.03.2016.

� of�15 51

narra]ve of the outsider, disconnected from issues of reality. Yet Amaringo’s commentary75

suggestsotherwise:

Thespaceshipthathasarrivedfromadistantgalaxybringsspiritualbeingstoteach.…Theywarnoftheimbalanceofthebiospherecausedbyman’sdestruc]onoftherainforest.Throughnegligence,ignoranceandgreed,humanshaveprejudicedthedelicateweboflifeonwhichwedepend. 76

Againhechallengesanthropocentrism,bycrea]nganimagethatdeniesthesupremeintelligence

of humans, and ajribu]ng the global crisis to specific traits that focus on the Self. The web

metaphorcanbefoundinUnPtled(fig.15),inwhichagroupofhumanssitona‘delicate’yellow

web, conno]ng interconnectedness. One of the plants threatened within this global fabric is

ayahuasca, and its ceremonies are a key iconographic feature of the pain]ngs, such as in Las

NalpeasdelRenaco(fig.16).Thesescenes,wherehumansgatheraroundacentralcauldron,area

signalthatwearenotlookingatconven]onallandscapesbutayahuascavisions.Asapsychotropic

substance,ayahuascaistheepitomeofaconsciousplant.ToAmaringo,itwasapowerfulmedicine

andteacher. Ayahuasca isacrucialyetcomplex layer intherela]onshipbetweenthepain]ngs77

andecology,whilstfurtherblurringtheboundariesbetweenrealityandvision.Inanotherlevelof

paradox,theimageryisbothderivedfromplantsandconsciouslyaboutthem.

AYAHUASCALANDSCAPES

Thewoody,brownayahuascavinecano^enbeseenwindingitswayaroundfoliageinthe

workssuchasGeniosdelRenaco(figs.17and18).Althoughtheycloselyresembletherainforest,

the pain]ngs represent what neuroscience refers to as spontaneous imagery narraPves, and

RossHeavenprovidesanalterna]veinterpreta]on,sugges]ngthattheyarepersonalmetaphorsfor75

healing.Heaven,‘TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo’,ShamanicPlantMedicine-Ayahuasca:TheVineoftheSouls,Alresford:MoonBooks,2013,np.

Amaringo,TheAyahuascaVisions,2011,p.159.76

Amaringo,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.21.77

� of�16 51

therefore they could be termed ayahuasca landscapes. The ver]cal strips dividing the78

composi]oninCaspiMutkiy(fig.19)representrichlypajernedvisionsbleedingintooneanother.

Although ayahuasca has become a popular topic of scien]fic enquiry, much remains to be

understood about its nature. Cogni]ve psychologist Benny Shanon has observed that for

ayahuascadrinkerscoloursreachluminoussatura]onandintensity,andobjectsradiate,shineand

glijer. Thismightexplainwhy,althoughtherainforestisacolourfulplace,Amaringo’spain]ngs79

are intensified to a pitch beyondwhat canbe seen in thephysicalworld. The subjects that are

experiencedcanalsobeiden]fiedinAmaringo’svisions.CompilingresultsfromstudiesbyShanon,

MichaelHarner, ClaudioNaranjo on both indigenous and non-indigenous par]cipants, iden]fies

universal themes includingplantsandbotanical scenes,naturalis]candnon-naturalis]canimals,

en]tyencounters,distantci]es,landscapes,personalmaterialincludingone’sowndeath,oneness,

scenesofcrea]onandevolu]on,andgeometricdesigns. 80

Such topicsmight seem far from issues concerningAmaringo, such as deforesta]on, but

ayahuascaisactuallycloselylinkedtotherainforest.Itisacombina]onofAmazonianplantsthat

originatedinanimis]ccultures. Moreover,Ayahuascacreatesanecological-selfbyshajeringthe81

separa]onbetweenhumanandnature. Thethemeofonenesswiththeworldiscommon. As82 83

FrankEchenhofer,‘AyahuascaShamanicVisions;Integra]ngNeuroscience,PsychotherapyandSpiritual78

Perspec]ves’,BarbaraMariaStafforded.,AFieldGuidetoaNewMeta-field:BridgingtheHumaniPes-NeurosciencesDivide,ChicagoandLondon:UniversityofChicagoPress,2011,pp.153-203,(p.154).

Shanon,AnPpodesoftheMind,p.274.79

MichaelJ.Harner,‘CommonThemesinSouthAmericanIndianYagéExperiences’,Harnered.,80

HallucinogensandShamanism,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1973,pp.155-75,(p.172-73);ClaudioNaranjo,‘PyschologicalAspectsoftheYajeExperienceinanExperimentalSe�ng’,(1973),inHarnered.,HallucinogensandShamanism,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1973,pp.176-90,(pp.177-90);Echenhofer,‘AyahuascaShamanicVisions’pp.154-6;Shanon,AnPpodesoftheMind,p.274;CardeñaandWinkelman,AlteringConsciousness,p.95.

DobkindeRiosandRumrrill,AHallucinogenicTea,p.144.81

FreyaMathews,‘CommunityandtheEcologicalSelf’,EnvironmentalPoliPcs,Vol.4,No.4,1995,pp.82

66-100,(p.66).;D.Lukeed.,‘Ecopsychologyandthepsychedelicexperience’,TheEuropeanJournalofEcopsychology,Vol.4,2013,pp.1-8,(p.7);JeffBaker,AThreadintheVine:TheDeepEcologyofContemporaryAyahuascaDiscourse,(unpublishedthesis)SouthernCrossUniversity,2015,p.23.

CardeñaandWinkelman,AlteringConsciousness,p.95.83

� of�17 51

oneayahuascadrinkercommented‘Ifeelpartoftheenvironment,notseparatefromit’. Ithas84

evenbeendescribedas‘alessoninecology’. Perhapsinspiredbyayahuasca,thepain]ngsbreak85

downthebinariesofSelfandOther.InLosCachiboleros(fig.1)greenrep]lianformsarecomposed

en]relyofplants(fig.25),whilstinElPrincipeDeLaVida(fig.23)awoman,surroundedbyleaves

withdis]ncthuman faces, givesbirth toa snake. Similarly, inYacuCaballo, snakespourdown86

into the river. Following the snakeon the rightbackwards, itwinds arounda treeun]l its body

graduallybecomesavine,whicheventuallybecomesbranches(fig.24). Inthesamescene,faces

emerge in the bark of trees and jagged edges of the rock face form solemn features. Applying

personhoodtoorganicmajerinsuchawayreflectsbringsethicsintotheecologicaldebate. This87

maybeaccusedofreinforcinganthropocentrismratherthanrejec]ngit,sinceitinsistsonrela]ng

to human form in order to generate compassion. Nonetheless, the image is effec]ve in

encouraging an understanding of nature as a series of subjects and not just u]litarian objects.

Furthermore, through this dismantling of the Self, aswell the themes of nonlinearity,montage,

and the challenging of binaries, the works resonate with post-structuralist and postmodern

thought,crea]ngacontextforthepain]ngswithinarthistorythatgoesbeyondmodernism.

In addi]on to promo]ng environmental concern, ayahuasca oneness breaks down the

OutsiderArtparadigm.Forapersontobean‘outsider’theymustbeOther.Onenessisacommon

feature in the mys]cal discourses of all major religions, such as Chris]anity, Judaism, Islam,

Hinduism,SikhismandBuddhism. Forexample,inIslam,theconceptofwahdatalwujūd(unity88

MichaelSanders,Ayahuasca:AnExecuPve'sEnlightenment,Toronto:Sage&FeatherPress,2015.84

GerardoReichel-Dolmatoff,TheForestWithin:TheworldviewoftheTukanoAmazonianIndians,Devon:85

ThemisPress,1996,p.168.

Inthecontextofshipibomythology,thiswomanislikelytohavetheafflic]onboachicuchischa(pregnant86

byboa).Amaringo,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.28.

Hanson,IdenPtyandMemory,p.66.87

AntonGeelsandJacobA.Belzen,‘AVastDomainandNumerousPerspec]ve’,MysPcism:AVarietyof88

PsychologicalPerspecPves,vanInterna]onalseriesinthePsychologyofReligion,Amsterdam:Rodopi,2003,Vol.13,pp.7-16,(p.7).

� of�18 51

of being) is central to Sufism. Such doctrines were o^en realised in mys]cal, medita]ve or89

alteredstates,aliketothatinducedbyayahuasca,andhaveinspireddiverseartworks.Giventhis

context,theecologicalanddivineunitypicturedinthepain]ngsnowlookstobemuchlessofan

‘outsider’ idea,butratheronethatcentraltohumanexperience.Whilstthean]the]cal ideology

of neoliberal capitalism,which goes beyond anthropocentrism to individualism,may actually be

lesscentralthanitappears. 90

When TerenceMcKennawrote about the effects of the entheogen, he could have been

describingoneofAmaringo’spain]ngs,‘theworldbecomesanArabianlabyrinth,apalace,amore

than possible Mar]an jewel, vast with mo]fs that flood the gaping mind with complex and

wordless awe.’ The validity of Amaringo’s visions is supported through comparisonwith other91

psychedelicaesthe]cs.GrahamHancockandJohnRyanHaulehavecomparedAmaringo’sworksto

prehistoricrockandcaveart,suchasthatfoundatChauvetinFrance,thoughttobebyshamans

experiencingalteredstatesofconsciousnessaround32,000years. However,Amazoniancultures92

provide a firmer comparison. Theayahuascaart of the Shipibo tribe,with its striking red and93

blackpajerning,canbefoundinAmaringo’siconography.Forexample,thevaseintheforeground

MariejaT.Stepaniants,SufiWisdom,Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1994,pp.13-32.89

Foradiscussionofcapitalism,neoliberalismandtheenvironment,seeforexampleNaomiKlein,This90

ChangesEverything:CapitalismVs.TheClimate,NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2014;JohnBellamyFoster,RichardYorkandBrejClark,TheEcologicalRim:Capitalism’sWarontheEarth,NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress,2010.

TerenceMcKenna,Synthesthesia,NewYork:GranaryBooks,1992,p.258.AlthoughMcKennawas91

describingexperiencesonsynthesisedDMT,itsharesthevisual,idea]onal,spiritualandconsciousnessrelatedthemeswithayahuasca.CardeñaandWinkelman,AlteringConsciousness,p.95.

GrahamHancockdrawsparallelsbetweenthesemarkingsandthepain]ngs,highligh]ngthe‘same92

themes,pajerns,supernaturalen]]esandsymbols’occurringinboth.JohnRyanHauleagrees,describingtheparallelsasboth‘strikingandextensive’.BotharebasedonthepremisesestablishedbyJeanClojesthatthecavemarkingsweremadebyancientshamansinspiredbyalteredstatesofconsciousness.However,thislineagehasissuesandmorein-depthresearchisneededtooutlineanypoten]alconnec]ons.GrahamHancock,‘PabloAmaringo:ASpecialStateofConsciousness’,TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo,Vermont:InnerTradi]onsInterna]onal,2011,pp.10-11;Haule,Jung,p.34;JeanClojesandDavidLewis-Williams,TheShamansofPrehistory:TranceandMagicinthePaintedCaves,HarryN.AbramsPublishers,1998.

LeslieWyliehasiden]fiedyagé(anotherindigenoustermforayahuasca)aesthe]cssuchas93

fragmenta]on,non-linearity,heightenedsensorypercep]onandsynaesthesia(unionofdifferentsenses).Wylie,Fron]er,p.183.

� of�19 51

ofMisterioProfundo(fig.20)resemblesShipibovessels(figs.21and22).ButAmaringo’spain]ngs

are more representa]onal than the abstract designs found in indigenous pojery and tex]les.

Interes]ngly,it isonlya^erthesepain]ngsweremade,thatwebegintoseesimilariconography

appear.

The reliability of the pain]ngs as representa]ons of theayahuasca experience is largely

agreed upon by scholars with extensive first-hand experience of the subject. Amaringo partly94

ajributeshisecological concerns to thebrew,saying that ‘Whenone takesayahuasca,onecan

some]meshearthetreescrywhentheyaregoingtobecutdown.’ Thispassagesuggeststhat95

ayahuascapromptedthedepic]onofconsciousplants.Theimageofsufferingtreescomesacross

powerfullyinthepain]ngs,suchasintheanthropomorphictreetrunksstretchingacrossUnPtled

(fig.15).Automa]smandagencyarenotissuesthatexistoutsideofarthistorybutarecentralto

surrealismandotheravant-gardemovements. IncreasingAmaringo’sagency(whichisimportant96

if we are to consider his statements), is the fact that the pain]ngswere produced consciously,

unlike AndréMasson’s (1897-1987) automa]c drawings or JoanMiro’s (1893-1983) pain]ngs. 97

Amaringodidnotproducetheworkswhilsttakingayahuasca,butassertedthathehadtheability

to recall each of his visions, through chan]ng his icaros. These did not alter his state of98

consciousnessbutactedasmnemonicdevices recalling thevisions, fromwhichAmaringowould

ThesimilaritytoayahuascavisionsisassertedbyLuisEduardoLuna,DennisMckenna,HowardC.Charing,94

PeterCloudsley,andothers.DennisMckenna,forexample,describesAmaringoasa‘chroniclerofthevisionaryworldofayahuasca’.McKennawasthefirstWesternscholartocomeacrossAmaringoandhascompletedresearchonthepharmacology,botanyandchemistryofayahuascaoverthepastthirtyyears.Similarly,anthropologistJeremyNarbyhassaidthattheiconographystronglyresembleshisownayahuascavisions.WhilstLunahasshownthepain]ngstomanyvegetalistaswhosaytheyhaveseenthesameimagesthemselves.McKenna,‘EarlyEncounters’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.8;Narby,CosmicSerpent,p.60;LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.43.Haule,Jung,p.36.

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,p.34.95

RogerCardinal,AndréMassonandAutomaPcDrawing,SilvanoLevyed.,Surrealism:SurrealistVisuality,96

Edinburgh:KeeleUniversityPress,1997,p.79.

However,theissueofagencywithinsurrealistautomaPsmisalsocomplex.Cardinal,AndréMasson,pp.97

79-94.

CharingandCloudsley,‘Preface’,TheAyahuascaVisions,pp.xi-xii.98

� of�20 51

selectandcollateiconography.Ayahuascaalonedoesnotinspiresuchcomposi]ons.Unpickingthe

forcesbehindthepain]ngsis,therefore,acomplexprocess.

Furthersuppor]ngAmaringo’sagency,RossHeavenchallengedHowardCharing’sasser]on

thatAmaringowasa‘mastercommunicatoroftheayahuascaexperience’,rewordingittosaythat

he was ‘a master communicator of his own ayahuasca experience’. Addi]onally, it might be99

argued that direct transla]on of inner visions to outer imagery is impossible and requires

manipula]onfromthear]st,consideringthattheexperiencehasbeendescribedas‘beyondthe

scopeoflanguage’. RobertoVenosasharedthisconcern,100

Asanar]st,Iknowthatitwouldtakenumerouslife]mestobeabletopaintthevisionsfromjustoneayajourney…IdiscussedthiswithPabloandheagreedthattherewasnotacanvasorpalejelargeenoughtocapturethesmallestiotaoftheoverallAyahuascavisualstorm. 101

This suggests that Amaringo compressed his visions in order to interpret them in paint. The

thema]ccontentAmaringochosetoamalgamatehappenedtobe lacedwithecologicalconcern.

Thestyle,composi]on,mediumandscalewereselectedbyAmaringo.Therefore,itisclearthathis

mo]ves played a role and should be considered. The pain]ngs were informed by Amaringo’s

personalculturalandenvironmentalsurroundings,includingthedestruc]onoftherainforest.

OUTOFTHEAMAZON

Due to the interrelated nature of ecosystems and the significance of the area, the

Amazoniancrisis feeds into theglobalevent.The rainforest recycles themajorityof theplanet’s

carbondioxideandproducesabout20%ofouroxygen. Accordingly,Amaringo’senvironmental102

statementsaddressedaninterna]onalaudience.Althoughmanyfigures intheayahuascavisions

appear to be of Amazonian ethnicity, the works can be seen as globally-minded. Among the

Heaven,‘TheAyahuascaVisionsofPabloAmaringo’,ShamanicPlantMedicine,np.99

JoanParisiWilcox,Ayahuasca:TheVisionaryandHealingPowersoftheVineoftheSoul,Vermont:Inner100

Tradi]onsandBear&Co,2003,introduc]on,p.1.

Venosa,‘AHolyMessage’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.12.101

DobkindeRiosandRumrrill,AHallucinogenicTea,pp.143-4.102

� of�21 51

mesPza,ShipiboandCocamahealersinInConnecPonWithHealersinTimeandSpace(fig.26)isa

medita]ngHinduyogi,aCampaIndian,afemaleAfricanhealerandaTibetanlama. Theyareall103

linked by their use or knowledge of plants. Each is visualised in the centre of a separate104

ecosystem, though their ripplesmoveoutwards towardseachother, conno]nganetwork.Allof

these biospheres are united in one composi]on, in connecPon with one another. Circles

represen]ngtheEarthasawhole,areo^enfoundinthepain]ngs,forexample,thelargecentral

spheresurroundedbyleavesinChacrunaVersucum(fig.27).

Amaringoclearlyintendedhispain]ngstopromoteconserva]onofecology.Althoughthe

recep]onofthismessagedependsontheecologicalawarenessoftheviewer,theworksarebeing

distributed in documentaries, films and the internet, on plaÑormswhich similarly argue for the

preserva]on of flora, fauna and indigenous cultural prac]ces. Amaringo’s pain]ngs have also105

been linkedto increasedpopular interest inayahuascasincethe1990s. Aviewerwithoutany106

knowledgeofayahuascamightbeencouragedtotakepartinaceremonya^erencounteringthe

visions.Theymight thenexperience thedissolu]onofSelfandanthropocentric ideas thatcome

withayahuascaandbemoreconcernedabouttheglobalecologicalcrisisasaresult.Thiswould

suggestthatAmaringo’sworkis,insomeways,beginningtohavetherecep]onhedesired,ifnot

alwaysconsciously received in themindof theviewer.Amaringo’sworkshavebeenexhibited in

countries including theUnited States, France andBritain. The centre and peripherymodel of107

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,Vision13,np.103

LunaandAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,Vision13,np.104

SeeforexampleSe]Gershbergdir.,AyahuascaNature’sGreatestGi^,ThePathoftheSun,2014105

(<hjp://www.thepatho^hesun.com>)

Althoughtherearelikelymanyothercausescontribu]ngtothissurgeininterest,whicharenot106

discussed,indeeditislikelythatAmaringo’svisionshavecontributedtothephenomenon.Beyer,SingingtothePlants,np.;Beyer,‘ShamanicArt’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.15.

Beyer,‘ShamanicArt’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.16;Amaringo,‘Autobiography’,TheAyahuascaVisions,107

p.23;McKenna,‘EarlyEncounters’,TheAyahuascaVisions,p.8.

� of�22 51

outsider artbecomes complicatedwhen the outlanders operatewithin themuseum system, as

Amaringodid. 108

Art history is becomingmore transna]onal and pluralis]c,moving away from themeta-

narra]ves that create insiders and outsiders. At the same ]me, environmental concerns are109

increasinglyshi^ingtowardsthecentreofpublicconsciousness.Landandenvironmentalarthave

been a significant part of art prac]ce from the 1960s. Alike to Amaringo, thesemovements110

transformed the genre of landscape. Naziha Mestaoui’s 1 Heart 1 Tree is a contemporary

interac]ve projec]on of virtual forests onto city spaces around the globe. Crea]ng a sense of

onenesswithnature, thedigital treesgrow in rhythmwithhumanheartbeats.Aphysical tree is

grownforeachvirtualone,ac]velycomba�ngdeforesta]onwithac]veplan]nginPeruamong

otherplaces. Themo]vesof theproject are therefore strikingly similar to those found in the111

ayahuascavisions.Mestaoui’s1Heart1TreebeamedontotheEiffelTower (fig.28) toopenthe

UnitedNa]ons climate change conference, known as COP21. The conference resulted in 175112

countries signing the Paris Agreement on 22 April 2016, ‘Interna]onal Mother Earth Day’. 113

PlacingAmaringo’swork,with itsclearecologicalmessage, intothecategoryofoutsiderartnow

seemsinappropriate.

Maclagen,OutsiderArt,pp.7-8108

Foradiscussionofglobalisa]on,theartworld,andarthistoryseeHansBel]ng,‘FromWorldArtto109

GlobalArt’,TheGlobalContemporaryandtheRiseofNewArtWorlds,Cambridge:MITPress,2013,pp.178-185.

KastlerandWallis,LandandEnvironmentalArt,p.1.110

The1Heart1TreepartnersinPeruarePurProjetandACOPAGRO.‘TheReforesta]onPrograms’,1Heart111

1Tree,2016,<hjps://www.1heart1tree.org/cop21/places>dateaccessed23/04/2016.

Theresultofthisperformancewas53,254treesbeingplanted.‘Live’,1Heart1Tree,2016,<hjps://112

www.1heart1tree.org/cop21/live>dateaccessed23/04/2016.

Thelargestnumberofcountriestoeversignaninterna]onalagreementonasingleday.‘Record:177113

Par]esSignedtheParisAgreement’,COP21,22/04/2016,<hjp://www.cop21.gouv.fr/en/a-record-over-160-countries-expected-to-sign-the-paris-agreement-in-new-york-on-22-april-2016/>dateaccessed28.04.2016.

� of�23 51

CONCLUSION

The ayahuasca visions series intended to connect people to nature in the face of the

impending ecological crisis. Such an agenda was rooted in the par]cular environmental issues

witnessedbythear]stinPucallpa,suchastheviolentlycontroversialillegalloggingtrade,aswell

as in theayahuascaexperience.Thisecological concern isembedded in thepain]ngs indis]nct

ways. It is found in the vibrant and densely populated rainforest landscapes, with their

me]culouslyrenderedbotanicalspecimens, iden]fiedasmedicinalAmazonianplants.Theplants

haveeyes,faces,bodies,andconsciousnessandthereforecannolongerbeseeninasinanimate

objects. Similarly, hybrid forms transcend and dissolve the boundaries between Self andOther,

human, animal, plant, nature. It is also found in the imagery of ayahuasca ceremonies, which

encourage interest in themedicine and subsequent exposure to its ecologically-minded effects.

And lastly, in the domina]on of nature over humanity, warning of its devasta]ng power. The

pain]ngsandAmaringo’sstatementsappealtoaglobalaudience,ul]matelypicturingtheoneness

oftheecologicalsystem.

AmaringopresentedtheanimismoftheindigenousAmazonianworldasananswertothe

anthropocentric one he saw to be causing the destruc]on, challenging the tradi]onal view of

animism as ‘primi]ve’ and simplis]c compared to the ‘civilised’ world. Similarly, the114

categorisa]onofAmaringo’sworkasoutsiderartcanbecomplicatedbyresitua]ngitintermsof

modernistmovements suchassurrealismand landart. Theworkshavemoreofan avant-garde

lineagethanwemightexpect,whilsttheyalsosharethevisionofcontemporarydigitalartsuchas

1Heart1Tree. Inconclusion,althoughthevisionsmay,onfirstviewing,delineateaharmonious

rainforest, when considered alongside the ravaging of natural resources and ecosystems it

becomesclearthattheymayhaveafargreaterresonancewithintheglobalecologicalcrisis.Thus,

thevisionscanbeseennotanaliencuriosity,butasavalidvoiceintheeco-poli]caldebate.

Gell,ArtandAgency,p.121.114

� of�24 51

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ILLUSTRATIONSLIST

Fig.1PabloAmaringo,LosCachiboleros,2002.Pucallpa,Peru.Gouacheonpaper,dimensionsunknown.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image:unknownauthor,‘LosCachiboleros’,GalleryofVisionaryArts,PabloC.Amaringo,AyahuascaHealingCeremonies,<hjp://ayahuascaceremonies.org/gallery3/index.php/Pablo-C-Amaringo/010-LOS_CACHIBOLEROS>dateaccessed11/08/2015)

Fig.2Unknownphotographer,BanisteriopsisCaapiVine.Digitalphotograph,2014,IsulaWasi,SanMar]n,Peru.(Image:Unknownauthor,‘Vineland2.0’,17/09/2014,ViewFromIsulawasi,<hjps://siteraku.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/img_3514i.jpg>dateaccessed29/02/2016)

Fig.3MinnieEvans,ThreeFacesinLushLandscape,1959.LongCreek,NorthCarolina.Oiloncanvaswithcollage,dimensionsunknown.AmericanFolkMuseumofArt,NewYork.(Image:AmericanFolkArtMuseum,<hjp://folkartmuseum.org/?p=folk&t=images&id=4325>dateaccessed28/04/2016)

Fig.4PabloAmaringo,YacuCaballo,2005.Pucallpa,Peru.Gouacheonpaper,57x77cm.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image:CharingandCloudsleyeds.,AyahuascaVisions,2011,p.52)

Fig.5JulesAgos]ni,HabitaPonduPeintreGauguin(HouseofthePainterGauguin).Photograph,1896,Tahi].PublishedinJulesAgos]ni,TahiP,Paris:J.André,1905,p.71.(Image:‘Gallica’,Bibliothèquena]onaledeFrance,<hjp://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58323509/f80.item.r=gauguin>28/04/2016)

Fig.6DetailofPabloAmaringo,HuarmiTaquina,ÍcarodeMujer,2005.Gouacheonpaper,57x77cm.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image:CharingandCloudsleyeds.,AyahuascaVisions,2011,p.86)

Fig.7PaulGauguin,TheDayoftheGod,1894.Paris,France.Oiloncanvas,68x92cm.HelenBirchBartlejMemorialCollec]on,ArtIns]tuteChicago,Chicago.(Image:‘TheDayoftheGod,1894byPaulGauguin’,PaulGauguin,<hjp://www.gauguin.org/the-day-of-the-god.jsp#prejyPhoto>dateaccessed28/04/2016)

Fig.8Unknownphotographer,Pablo(secondfromlem),circa1985,StandsWithHisArtStudents,DisplayingaMural.Photograph,c.1985.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image:Image:CharingandCloudsleyeds.,AyahuascaVisions,2011,p.6)

Fig. 9 Pablo Amaringo’s United Na]ons Environment Programme Global 500 Roll of HonourCer]ficate.1992,Brazil.(Source:UskoAyarSchool)

Fig.10AlexWebb,TheMajorLoggingPortontheUcayaliRiver.DigitalPhotograph,2011,Pucallpa,Peru. Magnum Photos. (Image: Magnum Photos. <hjp://www.magnumphotos.com/C.aspx?VP3=SearchResult&VBID=2K1HZOL7BECTLV&SMLS=1&RW=1268&RH=895> date accessed28/03/2016)

Fig.11AlexWebb,TheMajor LoggingPorton theUcayaliRiver.DigitalPhotograph,aerial view,2011, Pucallpa, Peru. (Image: Magnum Photos. <hjps://www.magnumphotos.com/image/NYC133864.html>dateaccessed30/04/2016)

� of�31 51

Fig.12DetailofPabloAmaringo,YacuCaballo,2005.Pucallpa,Peru.Gouacheonpaper,57x77cm. Usko Ayar School, Pucallpa, Peru. (Image: Charing and Cloudsley eds., Ayahuasca Visions,2011,p.52)

Fig.13PabloAmaringo,MisterioProfundo,2002.Pucallpa,Peru.Acryliconcanvas,250x150cm.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image:CharingandCloudsleyeds.,AyahuascaVisions,2011,pp.158-9)

Fig.14DetailofPabloAmaringoshowingspacecra^andayahuascaceremony,MisterioProfundo,2002.Pucallpa,Peru.Acryliconcanvas,250x150cm.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru. (Image:CharingandCloudsleyeds.,AyahuascaVisions,2011,pp.158-9)

Fig.15PabloAmaringo,UnPtled,1992.Pucallpa,Peru.Gouacheonpaper,dimensionsunknown.Usko Ayar School, Pucallpa, Peru. (Image: Unknown author, ‘Ayahuasca Art’, Ayahuasca Info,<hjp://www.ayahuasca-info.com/art/>dateaccessed11.08.2015)

Fig. 16 Detail showing ayahuasca ceremony, Pablo Amaringo, Las Nalpeas del Renaco, 2002.Pucallpa,Peru.Gouacheonpaper,54x61cm.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image:CharingandCloudsleyeds.,AyahuascaVisions,2011,p.112)

Fig.17PabloAmaringo,GeniosdelRenaco,2002.Pucallpa,Peru.Oiloncanvas,118x84cm.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image:Se]Gershberg,‘AHero’sJourneyThorughtheVisionaryEyesof the Shaman Ar]st Pablo Amaringo’, The Path of the Sun , 2014, <hjp://thepatho^hesun.typepad.com/.a/6a014e8a9ef749970d01a3fd1da3e6970b-pi> date accessed29.01.2016)

Fig. 18 Detail showing Banisteriopsis Caapi vines, Pablo Amaringo,Genios del Renaco, 2002.Pucallpa, Peru. Oil on canvas, 118 x 84 cm. Usko Ayar School, Pucallpa, Peru. (Image: Se]Gershberg, ‘AHero’s Journey Thorugh theVisionary Eyes of the ShamanAr]st PabloAmaringo’,T h e P a t h o f t h e S u n , 2 0 1 4 , < hj p : / / t h e p a t h o ^ h e s u n . t y p e p a d . c om / . a /6a014e8a9ef749970d01a3fd1da3e6970b-pi>dateaccessed29.01.2016)

Fig.19PabloAmaringo,CaspiMutkiy,2005.Pucallpa,Peru.Gouacheonpaper,57x77cm.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image:HowardG.Charing)

Fig.20Detail showingShipibopojery,PabloAmaringo,MisterioProfundo,2002.Pucallpa,Peru.Acryliconcanvas,250x150cm.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image:CharingandCloudsleyeds.,AyahuascaVisions,2011,pp.158-9)

Fig.21Unknownar]st,ShipiboPoOeryOlla,late20thcentury.Shipiboculture,UcayaliRiverbasin.Paintedclay,dimensionsunknown.Collec]onofHowardC.Charing.(Image:HowardG.Charing)

Fig.22Unknownar]sts,ShipiboPorOeryVesselsandUrns,c.19th-20thcenturies.Shipiboculture,Ucayali River basin. Painted clay, dimensions unknown. Huelva Provincial Museum, Huelva,Andalusia. (Image: Unknown author, ‘Shipibo Pojery Vessels and Urns’, Ministerio de Cultura,Spain, <hjp://www.spainisculture.com/en/obras_de_excelencia/museo_provincial_de_huelva/vasijas_y_urnas_ceramicas_shipibas.html>dateaccessed28.03.2016)

Fig. 23 Detail ofwomanwithboa chichuchishca, Pablo Amaringo,El Principe De LaVida, 2003.Pucallpa,Peru.Gouacheonpaper,57x77cm.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image:CharingandCloudsleyeds.,AyahuascaVisions,2011,p.27)

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Fig. 24 Detail showing snakes and river, Pablo Amaringo, Yacu Caballo, 2005. Pucallpa, Peru.Gouacheonpaper,57x77cm.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru. (Image:CharingandCloudsleyeds.,AyahuascaVisions,2011,p.52)

Fig. 25 Detail showing rep]lian-plant forms, and giant plant, Pablo Amaringo, Los Cachiboleros,2002.Pucallpa,Peru.Gouacheonpaper,dimensionsunknown.UskoAyarSchool,Pucallpa,Peru.(Image: unknown author, ‘Los Cachiboleros’, Gallery of Visionary Arts, Pablo C. Amaringo,Ayahuasca Healing Ceremonies, <hjp://ayahuascaceremonies.org/gallery3/index.php/Pablo-C-Amaringo/010-LOS_CACHIBOLEROS>dateaccessed11/08/2015)

Fig.26PabloAmaringo, InConnecPonwithHealers inTimeandSpace,c.1980s.Pucallpa,Peru.Gouache on paper, dimensions unknown. Collec]on of Luis Eduardo Luna. (Image: Luna andAmaringo,AyahuascaVisions,1991,Vision13)

Fig.27DetailofcentralsphereinChacrunaVersucum,CancióndelaChacruna,2003.Gouacheonpaper, 51 x 64 cm. Usko Ayar School, Pucallpa, Peru. (Image: Charing and Cloudsley eds.,AyahuascaVisions,2011,p.89)

Fig.28S]llfromNazihaMestaoui,1Heart1Tree,interac]vedigitalprojec]onontheEiffelTowerattheopeningofCOP21inParis,19/11/2015-04/12/16.(Image: ’Replay’,1Heart1Tree,2015,<hjp://www.1heart1tree.org/cop21/vod>dateaccessed23/04/2016)

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