a hildegard “how-to”- steps for the thoughtful preparation of a chant rebecca crow lister.pdf

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ON SEVERAL SOLO RECITALS, I have included one or more chantsby the medieval abbess Hildegard von Bingen. Audience reactionis overwhelmingly positive, and people afterward often commenton the immense beauty and depth of Hildegard’s music. The vivid

poetry set to soaring melodies certainly elicits a strong emotional response; yet,the fact that the chants are not accompanied by piano appears to make themstill more memorable. Somehow, the sound of the solo voice totally unadornedhas an immediacy and an accessibility to the spirit of the text. Performingwithout accompaniment certainly has its risks, and numerous voice colleaguesin the past have asked, “How do you do that?”—perhaps really meaning, “Whydo you do that?,” as many have admitted they cannot imagine singing a seven-minute song without some type of tonal reference. I probably would not haveimagined doing so either, had I not been expertly guided by teachers and men-tors in graduate school.

At the end of my first semester as a young graduate student, I came to astunning conclusion: I was, more than likely, never going to be Tosca, MadamaButterfly, or even Violetta. I had a light, flexible voice, an excellent sense forlanguages, and was a solid musician, yet I knew my voice did not have theweight or power of an operatic voice. At best, I would have a chance at soubretteor light lyric roles, competing against thousands of other young sopranosjust like me. I seriously wondered if I had chosen the right career path.

My teacher suggested I sing for the early music ensemble director, whowas auditioning singers for a new group. I had always loved the madrigalsand songs I had sung as an undergraduate, and enjoyed the challenge ofsinging in a small ensemble. I auditioned, was immediately accepted, and anew world suddenly opened before me, with repertoire that suited not onlymy voice, but also my sensibilities. Later, I became the coach for the BaroqueEnsemble; performed on numerous chamber recitals with other students,faculty, and guest artists; and gained confidence in my abilities as a singerand actor. Upon beginning a professional career after graduate school, I hadsolo opportunities placed before me about which I could have only dreamed.I am so thankful I was guided in this direction.

At this point, I have been teaching at the college level for more than a decade,teaching private voice, diction, literature, and pedagogy. While I present allstyles to my students, I remain committed to the cause of early music, althoughadmittedly, it is difficult. We all face the reality that there is only so much time

A Hildegard “How-to”: Steps for theThoughtful Preparation of a ChantRebecca Crow Lister

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in a school year to expose our students to the repertoirethey need to know. Yet, upon reflection, one realizes thatthe vast majority of the music we teach and sing was writ-ten after 1750. One could even venture to suggest mostof us follow the maxim, “we teach what we ourselves weretaught.” In our short undergraduate careers, most of uslearned standard arias, mélodies, lieder, and song cyclesappropriate to our own voice classifications. Perhaps wedabbled here and there with repertoire before 1750; someof us even sang in madrigal groups or chamber ensem-bles exploring the intricate beauty of a Palestrina massor a lively chanson by Jannequin. For the most part, how-ever, our repertoire stayed—and still stays—after Bach’sdeath, when, to some minds, solo vocal music “reallybegan.” We all know solo music existed throughout thecenturies, but this knowledge is gained principally in ourmusic history classes, rather than through actual reper-toire learned in voice lessons. More than likely, few of ushave ever heard chant sung in church, much less in a con-cert; but that is what chant used to be—part of daily life.I first became acquainted with chant while writing aresearch paper on the fascinating and enigmatic com-positions of Hildegard von Bingen.

Hildegard von Bingen (1089–1179) was a scholar,composer, amateur scientist, and visionary. She was alsoa nun, and later a religious leader of one of the mostpowerful abbeys in Germany. Because she was a nun,chant to her was literally like breathing: it was a dailyoccurrence. It was not only part of holy praise in theChristian monastic tradition, it was also her own uniqueform of self-expression. Hildegard von Bingen was thetenth child of Hildebert and Mechthild von Bermersheim.1Her family was of noble birth and lived near Alzey, Rhein -hassen in West Germany. At an early age, Hildegard waspromised by her family to the Benedictine monasteryof Disibodenberg. Hildegard became a nun some timeduring her teenage years, and later became the magis-tra (spiritual teacher) at Disibodenberg.2

As a young girl, Hildegard had strange visions thatfrightened her. These visions were so overwhelming thatshe was often struck ill. In 1141, after having kept hersecret for many years, she finally decided to record thevisions with the help of a monk named Volmar.3 Theresult was a collection known as Scito vias Domine(Scivias), meaning “Know the Ways of the Lord.”4 Eachof her visions is carefully dated, and is recounted in the

manner of the prophetic books of the Bible, no doubtlending credence and legitimacy to Hildegard’s visions.Hildegard was also very careful about what she revealedfrom her visions. More than likely, she knew that theCatholic Church did not recognize a vision as beingvalid unless it reflected Church doctrine and the SupremeOrder of the Church Hierarchy.5 Her visions are of reli-gious subjects, mostly of saints and other allegoricallypersonified characters. The images Hildegard describespulsate with life, and seem to differ from the calm, balanced scenery and subjects found in most medievalartwork. The visions are lavishly illustrated in three man-uscripts, and their creation was supervised by Hildegardherself.6 The original color illustrations are lost, but aphotocopy survives.

Hildegard’s fame as a visionary and mystic soon spread.Pope Eugenius III gave her his blessing and even readsome of the Scivias at a meeting of bishops.7 Pilgrimsand notable historical figures travelled from great dis-tances to see Hildegard and ask her for advice abouttheir lives.8 She was known not only for the Scivias, butalso for works that studied the anatomy of the humanbody and how to heal its diseases, as well as some booksabout plants and animals. Because she was a healer, shemay have used these books for her own reference.

While life at Disibodenberg was fulfilling for Hilde -gard, she decided to establish her own convent on theRhine near Bingen after a vision prompted her to doso. In 1150, she and a group of her sisters left Disiboden -berg to seek a settlement on the Rupertsberg. Usingher noble family’s connections, Hildegard secured theland and fought for a charter.9 Hildegard herself super-vised construction of the buildings of her abbey anddedicated it in 1152. Although she was never officiallycanonized by the Catholic Church, her feast day is cel-ebrated on September 17, the day she died.10 She livedto be quite old (eighty-three) and accomplished muchduring her life, despite the fact that she was a femalein a male-dominated society. Numerous sources onHildegard’s life and writings are available for furtherresearch.11

The majority of the knowledge I have about chantcame during a life-changing program I attended in 1994in Vancouver, British Columbia. The Vancouver MedievalProgramme is a two-week event focusing on the per-formance of all types of medieval repertoire. The year I

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attended, the program was led by the members of medievalmusic ensemble Sequentia (Benjamin Bagby, BarbaraThornton, and Elisabeth Gaver). Sequentia’s reputationremains unmatched in the field of early music, not onlybecause of the members’ ability to perform, but also theirtalent for teaching medieval repertoire in fresh new ways.In this modern century, music is learned mostly on thevisual level. The main objective of the course, therefore,was to reawaken aural skills we all had as children, andto retrain our ears in learning, memorizing, and inter-nalizing music. Various activities were offered, includ-ing large and small group singing, as well as solo work;improvisatory skills were also explored. After taking thiscourse, I gained a new sense about how to learn chantby always using the text as the starting point.

Certainly, many problems arise regarding the practi-cal process of learning and teaching chant. Followingare some frequently asked questions regarding how toprepare a chant for performance.

Question 1: I don’t feel comfortable reading neu-matic notation but want to try a Hildegard chant.What do I do?

Those who are purists (this term is not used disparagingly)in the early music world suggest using the fine editionsof the neumatic notations of Hildegard’s chants. Twomanuscripts are the main sources for Hildegard’s musi-cal output. They are known as the Dendermonde man-uscript (Rupertsberg, c. 1175, often called ManuscriptD) and the Riesenkodex manuscript (Rupertsberg, 1180–1190, often called Manuscript R). Both are published infacsimile editions.12

This is, of course, the best way to know exactly whatwas on the original page, and to be true to it. BarbaraThornton, one of the founding members of Sequentia,felt the neumes themselves translated information aboutthe piece, including “the relative length of syllable, ofline movement, [and] ornamental aspects . . . [B]y uti-lizing the signs skillfully, the whole sense of oratoricalthrust of a line of text can be made evident—even in itstheological point of view.”13 If singers want to gain a newskill and garner insight on medieval chant, they shouldlearn to read neumatic notation. Realistically, however,most modern singers do not know how to read medievalneumes and are more comfortable with modern notation.Neumatic notation can be quite complicated; it is com-

prised of various squiggles and markings to indicatepitches (sometimes groups of pitches), rather than noteheads. Couple these difficult-to-read markings alongwith difficult-to-read texts, and it is easy to see how per-formers can feel immediately intimidated. Since the goalof this article is to spread knowledge and interest in bothhearing and performing Hildegard’s music, if moresingers will feel confident performing her music usingmodern editions, then so be it. Using modern notationis perfectly acceptable.

Several books focusing on the music and lives of femalecomposers contain excerpts from Hildegard’s largerworks, or in some cases, an entire chant or sequence.14

While online sources offer some editions of Hildegardchants, it would be best to check them against facsimi-les of the manuscripts. Christopher Page’s often usedmodern edition of Hildegard’s Sequences and Hymnswas published in conjunction with the Gothic VoicesCD, A Feather on the Breath of God: Sequences and Hymnsby Abbess Hildegard of Bingen.15 Additionally, HildegardPress publishes numerous chants that are edited byMariane Richert Pfau.16

Of those that are available, Pfau’s editions seem to bemost helpful to the modern performer. Explanatorynotes at the beginning of each collection are quite thor-ough, as Pfau offers general information about Hilde -gard’s life, the context of her chants, and suggestionsfor performance. What makes Pfau’s editions unique,however, is that she has attempted to capture the neu-matic notation within the modern transcription itself. 17

While it is unclear what the exact modern-day equiva-lent rhythmic values are for neumatic notation, it wouldseem some differentiation in length was likely present,and Pfau attempts to provide this. For example, in theoriginal neumatic notation, a tiny, u-shaped squiggleor punctum indicates a single note. There are manycases, however, where two or more notes (called bi-punctum for two notes, tri-punctum for three notes,etc.) appear on the same line or space above a singlesyllable. In her modern editions, Pfau transcribes themas several repeated note heads, yet they occur on onesyllable, as they do in the manuscript source. It wouldseem that these repeated extra notes could indicatelonger duration of the syllable. Perhaps pulsations areanother effective way to perform these punctum, but itsoriginal intent is lost.


A Hildegard “How-to”: Steps for the Thoughtful Preparation of a Chant


Other neumes are performed more quickly, and Pfautranscribes them as tiny notes; most of these appear withinmelismatic passages (see Example 1, on “quia”). Anotherornamental neume having a quick duration is the quil-isma. Both Page and Wilson postulate the quilisma canbe treated as a trilled or tremulous note.18 More than likely,however, quilismas simply fill in an ascending third. Theliquescent neume consists of a main note quickly followedby a note of shorter duration. The shorter note is mostoften a “liquescent consonant” (l, m, or n), and is sung“on the way to the next syllable.”19 Pfau transcribes liques-cents in this manner, to show both the main note, and theliquescent consonant: . Example 1 shows how liques-cent notes occur on the n and m of “contemptus,” andagain on the n of “mundi.” The singer can actually phonateon these sounds, but the duration of the small note will becomparatively shorter than the duration of the main note.

Some neumes consist of more than one pitch. The pesand clivis indicate two pitches, while the torculus andporrectus indicate three. In the modern notation, Pfauindicates these groups of notes with slurs (Example 1,the slurs used above the first two notes of “quia” and on“est”). The modern performer, therefore, can make amore informed decision about the durations of the notesand their relation to each other when using this edition.The Christopher Page edition does indicate some ofthese neumes (quilismas, for example), but not in thesame level of detail Pfau. Other rhythmic performanceconsiderations will be discussed later in this article.

Question 2: Your pronunciation of the Latin soundeddifferent. Why did you sing the words that way?

In the Preface to Singing Early Music, Timothy McGeeeloquently illustrates the need for historically informedpronunciation.

It seemed to me that if we are to recreate the music of thoseearly centuries as faithfully as possible to the intentions of the

composers, our first concern should be to perform it with thesounds the composers expected to hear . . . Correct pronunci-ation will not by itself guarantee a historically correct vocal per-formance any more than will the use of the correct instrument;numerous other matters must also be taken into account: tonecolor, musical style, appropriate techniques, ornamentations,etc. But pronouncing the words correctly is definitely a step inthe right direction, and the correct pronunciation will also influ-ence some of the other vocal elements, especially tone color.20

Singing Early Music is an excellent resource for the mod-ern performer. Each chapter describes the historical andgeographic influences on languages, as well as a diachronicsound chart for each. Consonant and vowel spellingsand their corresponding International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA) pronunciations also appear.

Pronouncing Hildegard’s texts can be researched ina chapter devoted to the pronunciation of Latin inGermany during Hildegard’s lifetime.21 The best rule ofthumb seems to be to use a Germanic approach to con-sonants. For example, spellings of /v/ will become [f],and spellings of /qu/ will become [kv].22 An IPA tran-scription of one of Hildegard’s most famous chants, “Oviridissima virga,” appears at the end of the chapter. Theaccompanying CD allows the reader to hear the poem readwhile following the IPA transcription. Listening to themany fine recordings offered by Sequentia may also helpin this area. The performers were coached rigorouslybefore each recording, and the group’s founders, BarbaraThornton and Benjamin Bagby, steeped themselves inthis repertoire, having internalized it on the deepest lev-els possible.

A word here: no one truly knows exactly how thesewords sounded; nevertheless, an attempt to learn thepossibilities is worth the effort. Pronunciation of Latinwas not standardized until centuries after Hildegard, soit would make sense that certain regional influenceswould occur.23 If the idea of adding a more Germanic


Rebecca Crow Lister

Example 1. “O Ecclesia,” Sequence. Symphonia armonie celestium revelationum, 19, line 5. Copyright Carl Fischer, LLC onbehalf of Theodore Presser Company (Hildegard Publishing Company), 1998. From Chants for Saint Ursula and 11,000Virgins. Used by permission; all rights reserved.


flavor to the Latin pronunciation is not preferable, thenusing ecclesiastical Latin is fine; consistency is the key.Mastering diction should be the performer’s top prior-ity before the melody is ever attempted.

Question 3: I have no idea where to begin. Can you suggest a process of learning aHildegard chant?

Approach the text with the same methodic approach aswhen considering Mozart recitative. First, find—or iffluent in medieval Latin, create—a translation of thetext.24 Possibly the most highly regarded translationsand discussions of Hildegard’s songs are found in BarbaraNewman’s Saint Hildegard of Bingen: Symphonia: A CriticalEdition of the Symphonia armonie celestium revelationum.25

Newman provides excellent poetic analysis, as well astranslations for all songs contained in the Symphonia,Hildegard’s collection of songs and visions.

When performing Mozart recitative, knowing every-thing about the character and his/her relationships andinteractions with other characters is of primary concern.Hildegard chants are not usually told from a specific char-acter’s point of view, yet a complete understanding of theimages in the poem, especially if biblical allusions arepresent, is of utmost importance.26 Use of personifica-tion is prevalent in Hildegard’s poems. For example, thecharacter Ecclesia, mentioned numerous times in variousHildegard chants, is the personification of the Church,“the cosmic and celestial Bride of Christ.”27

In addition, poetic imagery is vital in indicating whenthe song may have been performed within the liturgi-cal calendar. In “Ave, generosa,” for example, a hymn tothe Virgin, Mary’s destiny as the bearer of Christ isdescribed in earthy detail. Perhaps it was intended to beperformed during the Advent season, rather than dur-ing Lent. Thus, returning to the Mozart recitative anal-ogy, no singer would learn a recitative without learningabout the scene itself and its place within the entire opera.It is equally important, therefore, to understand a chant’sliturgical setting within the Church year.

Knowing the chant’s place within the church’s dailycalendar must be considered, too. Is the chant a hymn, asequence, a responsory, or an antiphon? Each can beloosely defined within the liturgical context and each fol-lows certain poetic and melodic tendencies; each is per-formed at specific points within the Divine Office, as

required by the Benedictine Rule.28 Responsories, forexample, tend to feature melismatic, ornate melodic lines,contain the “Gloria Patri” and a refrain (called a repe-tenda), and were most commonly performed at Matins.29

Hymns, on the other hand, tend to be more syllabic, andusually end with “Amen.”30 They were sung throughoutthe Offices (Matins, Lauds, Prime, etc.), but not duringthe Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, etc.).31 Interestingly,Hildegard is considered a “maverick,” in that the poeticforms of her chants do not always fall neatly into the nor-mal chant structures.32 Many are through-composed andare, compared to her contemporaries, much freer in style.Her lack of formal training could be the reason for herunusual style. Yet, because they were directly inspiredby God, as she claimed, they seem to capture a sense of otherworldliness.

After discerning the background and liturgical con-text of the chant, attention should focus on the poemitself. Write the words down by hand. This is beneficialfor a number of reasons. Copying the words in correctpoetic format allows one to see the rhyme scheme aswell as rhythmic tendencies. It is also worthwhile in thatwriting the words helps the writer absorb those words.If one is proficient, typing does not require much thought.The physical act of writing can aid in remembering eachword. (This technique can be utilized for repertoire of allstyle periods—it does not have to be an exercise specifi-cally for medieval repertoire.)

Next, underline all accented syllables. Rhetoricalemphasis must be observed, and this allows the per-former to feel the natural rhythm of the text. Speak thetext aloud, over and over, leaning on or slightly length-ening accented syllables.33 Some editions indicate wherepauses can occur with a half or full horizontal line. Theonly grammatical markings in Hildegard’s chants arecapital letters beginning sentences and periods endingsentences. Hildegard follows a fairly predictable patternin most of her songs, in that sentences ending with peri-ods most often end on a “full cadence,” that is, on thetonic or final note.34 In general, at the ends of verses andafter periods are where the longest pauses should betaken. Determining the length of other “cadences” canprove to be more difficult, though, once again, Hildegardtends to terminate on the final or the fifth at phrase end-ings.35 Singers must use their own sense of where, accord-ing to the text, is the best place to breathe, making an




effort to preserve textual integrity and clarity. Fluencyin textual pronunciation must be mastered before learn-ing the melody.

Look at the music and determine the mode. Each ofthe church modes had specific moods associated withthem. Hildegard, for example, draws often upon themysterious aspects of Modes III and IV (much laterreferred to as Phrygian and Hypophrygian modes) forher most spiritual poetry, whereas the brighter ModeVII is often reserved for joyful texts.36 Many moderneditions indicate editorial suggestions for raised or low-ered intervals to preserve the appropriate mode. Per -formers can then make their own choices about how tosing certain intervals.

Look now at the textual setting and the melodic con-tour. Is it mostly syllabic, or is it peppered with intricatemelismatic passages? On what words do melismas appear?Slowly sing through the melody alone, treating each noteequally, just to get a sense of the contour and note anystrange leaps requiring extra practice. Note if the leapsare there to highlight a particular word or group of words.

Begin putting the text and melody together very grad-ually, sometimes just two words at a time. One way ofbuilding a musical phrase is the “snowball technique”—start at the beginning of the phrase, singing just the firstword, then the first and second words, then the first,second, and third words, etc. This technique can alsobe utilized in reverse—the same idea, but starting withthe final word of the verse, and going backward. Whilethis may seem tedious, the technique reveals how eachword “springs” from the previous word, both in poeticand musical gesture. Memorization can be aided by the“snowball technique” as well, as the sheer amount ofrepetition helps ingrain the melody in the mind. This, ofcourse, is the ultimate goal: to memorize the chant.37

Such painstaking methods of practicing may seemdaunting to many students and performers. Taking suchtime to learn one song may not seem worth the effort.Perhaps taking a more “instrumentalist” approach topractice is what is needed when trying to absorb a chant.Instrumentalists often practice in a more proactive, delib-erate way. An instrumentalist will isolate a phrase oreven one note, and play it over and over again, tryingdifferent fingerings, bowings, and articulation. Singerscould learn much from the practice habits of instru-mentalists, focusing not only on the melody, but on the

intricacy of the tonal inflection found in every word ofa song. Repetition is vital, as is attention to detail. Learninga chant is much different than learning a hummable,memorable, predictable aria, and therefore requires dif-ferent ways of practicing.

Question 4: There are no dynamic, rhythmic, ortempo indications. How do I perform this?

Unless indicated by an editor, no score markings tell per-formers how long to hold a note, or how loudly or slowlyto sing it in most chants. Initially, it may feel like per-forming “blind” with no sense of direction. While thisis a frightening feeling, it can also be quite freeing. Asthe guardian of this chant, a performer can confront theseissues and have the artistic freedom to make informedchoices, using the text as the main guide. The meaningof the text will most often determine the dynamics used,as well as the tempo. A song of wonder, such as “Quiaergo femina,” should have a slower overall tempo to reflectthe introspective quality of the text, while the joyful“Hodie aperuit” will move more quickly, to lend bril-liance to the melismatic passages. The same is true fordynamics. Pulling back the dynamic level on the words“dulcissima virga” (sweetest virgin), for example, willreflect tenderness.

Developing a rhythmic sense is probably the mostdifficult issue in this process. During the twelfth cen-tury, notated regular rhythms were not part of the tra-dition, or if it was, the tradition is now lost.38 Severaltheories of rhythmic duration have been offered, but arenow eschewed by most scholars of medieval music.39

Instead, it is the natural poetic stresses and instincts thatwill determine how to perform the notes. Lean on stressedsyllables, sing on consonants following a liquesent, quicklyarticulate melismatic notes, and let the overall contourof the phrase aid in dynamic shaping. Detailed back-ground work done prior to this (finding an accuratetranslation, speaking the text repeatedly, determiningthe chant’s purpose in the daily and yearly Church cal-endar, etc.) will inspire the performance. Returning to theMozart recitative analogy: rhythms and notes of recita-tive are followed, but somewhat loosely, and are alwaysa servant to textual nuance and comprehension.

In the “Introduction” to his transcriptions of Hildegardchants, Page suggests keeping regular quarter note stress;in other words, to maintain a consistent pulse through-


Rebecca Crow Lister


out.40 The ensemble Gothic Voices version of thesechants presents a very even, rhythmic pulse that is seem-ingly rigid at times. Sequentia’s recordings are quite dif-ferent, and are more true to the spirit of the poetry.Scholars refer to the unbridled, “rhapsodic” tone andvivid imagery of Hildegard’s poems.41 Also characteris-tic is Hildegard’s use of superlatives and exclamations, as,for example, in “O fons purissime” (O purest fountain).42

Such poetry requires a similar sense of abandon, obvi-ously within reason and taste, and use of the text as theever present guide.

As was mentioned earlier, Pfau’s modern transcrip-tions are a helpful bridge between neumatic notationand modern notation. For example, there are many per-formance possibilities for the phrase from an intriguingchant, entitled “O virga mediatrix” (Example 2). It is anarresting poem, in that the speaker addresses Mary directlyabout intensely personal, even sensual images. The poemdepicts Mary as a holy mediator, a verdant branch, whosewomb bore “the beautiful flower which came forth inpurest integrity from your fastened intimate space.” 43

When considering the text of the phrase in Example 2, thestressed syllables (indicated by capital letters) are “CLAU-si pu-DO-ris TU-i.” The performer can use more dynamicweight on the notes above accented syllables, and lessdynamic weight on the unaccented syllables. Additionally,the singer can utilize dynamics that seem to mirror themelodic shape of the line—increasing dynamic level as theline ascends, and gradually decreasing as the line descends.The goal is to vary volume levels of phrases, while main-taining a flexible yet sensitive approach to syllabic inflec-tion. It is also important to remember that the slurs in

Pfau’s editions refer to how a neume appears in the man-uscript—if it is a single pitch or a group of pitches—asdiscussed previously.

Next for consideration are the repeated notes occur-ring throughout the lines. These repeated notes abovethe same syllable (Example 2, repetitions of B4 above the“clau” of “clausi”) could be held longer and drawn out.Such dramatic lengthening can also occur on the repeatednotes on A4 above the “si” of “clausi.” Contrasting theseheld notes are the tiny notes appearing above “tui”(Example 2, end of line 1). These little notes seem toindicate a descending melismatic flourish, and can beperformed quickly, before lengthening again on thelarger notes following them. The second line of the exam-ple culminates on a dramatic G5, then finishes withanother descending flurry of notes before settling onthe final syllable (Example 2, line 2). The singer can nowpause and prepare for the next phrase.

Finding a breath plan that makes textual and emo-tional sense can be challenging, too. As long as singersuse the text as a guide, keeping adjectives connected totheir nouns, adverbs with their verbs, etc., a breath canbe added. Catch breaths can be inserted when needed,even in the middle of melismas. Bach arias, for exam-ple, contain melismatic passages that are many meas-ures long and simply cannot be done in one breath. Thesame is true here. In Example 2, the performer coulddecide to carry through the phrase “clausi pudoris,” andlater take a catch breath somewhere in the melisma of“tui.” Another possibility would be to take a discreetbreath after “clausi” and sing “pudoris tui” in one breath.Singers must analyze the melismatic passage as a melodic



Example 2. “De Sancta Maria—O virga mediatrix (Alleluia).” Symphonia armonie celestium revelationum, 26, lines 3–4.Copyright Carl Fischer, LLC on behalf of Theodore Presser Company (Hildegard Publishing Company), 1997. From Vol. II:Chants for the Blessed Virgin Mary. Used by permission; all rights reserved.


“sentence” and decide where the “punctuation” shouldgo, according to how the melody is shaped. This meansthat no chant will ever be performed the same way—itwill be performed according to each singer’s instinctsand ability. Again, no one knows exactly how these chantswere performed rhythmically, so it is the performer’ssensibilities that should rule.

Question 5: The key of this chant is in a highrange and I’m a mezzo. Can I transpose?

A definitive answer to this question is difficult to deter-mine, but is more than likely yes. Judging from the diffi-culty of many of the chants, Hildegard must have hadseveral skilled singers at her disposal. Many of her workscontain florid melismatic passages requiring a solid senseof vocal technique. Some chants are keyed quite high,while others dip down significantly below the staff.Singing chants at written pitch may present consider-able challenges in some cases.

Singers should consider what their most comfort-able low notes are, what their most comfortable highnotes are, and the general tessitura of the chant. Theyshould then try singing the chant in a few different keysto find the most suitable one. Venture from the start-ing key by a half step, gradually raising or lowering thekey. For example, if the chant is in E minor, attempt itin E-flat minor or F minor first, then D minor or F-sharpminor, and so on. If the chant needs to be transposedmore than a major third to suit the voice, perhaps choos-ing a different chant would be more appropriate. A num-ber of Hildegard’s chants will not need to be altered tosuit any range. It is best not to change a chant’s keymerely to show off the upper range of a voice. Be surethat, when transposing, it is being done for vocal com-fort and not to foster vocal brilliance.44 Remember alsothat the ease of textual production and conveying ofmeaning is paramount.

The ethos of singing chant presents a challenge to a singer withmodern training—it is communal and transcendent, it doesnot cultivate individual characteristics but incorporates thevoice into a collective sonority and expression. It does not drawattention to itself or even to the specific piece, but rather turnsthe piece itself to a transcendent purpose.45

Some scholars might disagree with transposing a chantfrom the original key. Preserving the original key is cer-

tainly important, as it is closely related to the mode itself,and thus to its emotional mood.46 Thornton commentsthat Hildegard seems to draw upon the emotional impactof certain modes to heighten the meaning of her poetry.Bright major modes, especially those set in C, are uti-lized for “passages of highest energy and significance,”while the mysterious E mode is used “to depict the mys-teries she dares approach.”47 Thus, key centers must havehad some connection to Hildegard’s text setting, andshould be maintained if at all possible.

Another consideration is the function of the chantitself. Antiphons, for example, are directly connectedto the reciting of the Psalms, both textually and musi-cally.48 The images in the antiphon might foreshadow theideas of the Psalm to come.49 If the antiphon precedesthe Psalm, its last note is usually the reciting tone forthe upcoming Psalm. Also characteristic of mostantiphons is the ending “EUOUAE.” These are the vow-els present in the phrase “Et in seculum seculorum,amen,” and the notes indicated in most modern edi-tions show where the note changes should occur.50 Ifthe antiphon is performed as a “stand alone” piece in arecital and is not followed by a Psalm, then the key canbe appropriately transposed. If, however, the antiphonis performed along with a Psalm, it will be crucial toend with the correct reciting tone, using the appropri-ate “Et in seculum” ending.

While maintaining the original key of a chant is desir-able, one wonders what would happen if all singers wererequired to sing Schubert songs in their original keys.This would drastically reduce the number of songs avail-able to each of us; Schubert’s songs, more than likely,would be performed much less often; fewer audienceswould be exposed to the artistry of a gifted composer.The same is true for Hildegard’s music. More singersshould take on the challenge of learning something thatstretches their vocal and emotional limits, yet is in ahealthy range, and as a result, more audiences will expe-rience and enjoy Hildegard’s repertoire. If transposinghelps a singer feel vocally confident, then it can be donein an informed and judicious manner.

Question 6: I know nothing about this style andam worried I’ll do something wrong. How do Iknow I am performing this historically accurately?


Rebecca Crow Lister


This question weighs on the mind of many singers. Weall are afraid of performing “incorrectly.” This could bedue to the HIP movement (historically informed per-formance) itself. While at its root the HIP movementhas worthy intentions, the impression most singers havetoday is that a recipe for authenticity exists, and we asmusicians had better not stray from that recipe. Thisfear of somehow breaking an unwritten performancepractice law can be extremely inhibiting and intimidat-ing to some singers. They then shy away from early reper-toire because it is easier to sing something in a style theyalready know, that has everything clearly written out onthe page in modern notation, and that is formatted nicelyby an editor. Even worse, performers worry audienceswill be bored by medieval repertoire, so a flashy Rossiniaria appears in the place of anything medieval.

It was mentioned previously but needs to be repeated:no one really knows what singing sounded like priorto sound recordings. We have many modern recordedversions of how we think medieval music could havesounded; yet it is crucial to note that a description of thesound is not the same as the actual sound. In a fasci-nating article, Benjamin Bagby even proposes thisshocking sentiment:

Barring the discovery of time-travel, we shall never meet ourmaster. (And of course, there is always the terrifying sub-sce-nario of this time-machine fantasy: What would happen if wehad access to the original sound and to the master’s living art,but we simply did not like what we heard?)51

The “master” to whom Bagby is referring is the onething missing in our quest to discover what music trulysounded like: a living person or supreme example. Wehave some documentation of medieval music per-formance practice, though certainly not to the extentpresent in baroque sources. When reading early trea-tises on voice production, we can infer that accuracyof pitch, dynamic control, and beauty of tone were prizedthen as they are now. Yet, what would we, as singers liv-ing in the modern age, think if we were able to hear thetrue vocal quality of Hildegard’s nuns as they sang inthe Abbey at the Rupertsberg?

This, of course, leads to a murky controversy overthe vibrato question. Most singers would agree withMartha Elliott’s assertion that the main question regard-ing the presence of vibrato is the degree.52 The argu-

ment of how much, how fast, and how often remains asubject of debate, and cannot be addressed at greatlength in this article. Suffice it to say that Hildegard’srepertoire was sung six centuries before the bel cantotradition, before singing in large halls accompanied bylarge orchestras was the norm.53 A lighter approach todynamic levels (not breathy, or lacking in muscularenergy or air flow) is certainly appropriate. An entirely“straight tone” approach to this or any repertoire isdecidedly inappropriate, however. Gone are the days ofthe colorless, “boy soprano” voice often heard singingin early music. A full-bodied voice is desirable in anygenre of singing, and Hildegard chants are no excep-tion. When listening to the many recordings by Sequentiaand other ensembles that specialize in medieval reper-toire, voices in the ensemble range in color and inten-sity, but all use vibrato to some degree. Mahrt commentsthat “Some vibrato is in tune, i.e., well-centered uponthe pitch, and some is not. A discrete [sic] well-centerednatural vibrato that does not disrupt the tuning maynot be objectionable.”54 While straight-tone is undesir-able, so too is a wobbly, out-of-control vibrato whichcalls attention to itself and obscures the music itself—any music, from any style period.

Singers should investigate a more positive approachto the utilization of vibrato and its many expressive pos-sibilities. An excellent discussion appears in Hargis’s “TheSolo Voice in the Renaissance,” in which she describeshow vibrato can be an expressive device.55 Hargis arguesthat “Vibrato can warm the tone, adding direction andshape to long notes,” while “nonvibrato can deempha-size text on multiple repetitions of words or phrases, cansound mournful, angry, exhausted, humorous, [or] stern.”56

In other words, vibrato can be present or absent in thevoice according to the note values in the music and thedramatic context of the poetry. The ability to controlone’s vibrato is yet another expressive “trick” in any singer’sbag, whatever the style period or genre.

When learning repertoire to which one is unaccus-tomed, it is always best to seek good coaching fromsomeone who knows the style and can offer healthy tech-nical suggestions. If a singer wanted to coach an oper-atic role, he/she would seek out an experienced coachor teacher with a strong operatic background and solidcredentials. The same is true for early music. Finding ateacher or coach with training in early repertoire is pos-




sible, and strongly encouraged. Additionally, attendinga conference or workshop devoted to the preferred sub-ject matter (medieval, Renaissance, or baroque, for exam-ple) is incredibly beneficial. A number of workshopsand seminars dedicated to early music are advertised inEarly Music America and can be found on its website,www.earlymusicamerica.org.57 EMA also has a direc-tory that publishes the skills of each of its members, indi-cating their primary instrument and if they are a teacheror student.

Question 7: I am afraid of straying from the key.Can I use instruments?

Chants can stand alone. They do not need enhancement;they do not need an instrument or drone to validatethem, or to make them more exciting to an audience. Ifthe performer feels the chant’s text will be further high-lighted by a drone, then using one is an appropriatechoice. Do not add anything, however, merely to “spiceit up,” and singers must trust their own musicianship tostay tonally centered.

When listening to the recordings of Hildegard chant,one encounters a variety of possibilities for accompani-ment. The most common instruments are from themedieval era, and include the hurdy-gurdy (also calledthe symphonia and organistrum) and the vielle. Thehurdy-gurdy is primarily a drone instrument, and appearsin any number of sizes and shapes. The strings are gen-erally tuned to C and G.58 A handle attached to a small,wheel-like device is turned, which then “grates” on thestrings.59 Its sound is bright and almost reed-like in qual-ity. The vielle, on the other hand, has a more mellowtone quality. It is a small bowed instrument and is shapedlike a violin, but it is flatter and broader.60 Both instru-ments provide not only drones but melodic and coun-termelodic possibilities as well. There are a few drawbacksto using these instruments. The most obvious difficultyis finding them, as they are rare and can be troublesometo maintain. Because they use gut strings, they are diffi-cult to keep in tune. The other obvious drawback is find-ing a willing player who performs on these instrumentsprofessionally.

Other possibilities are easier to find, and are just asappropriate for the time period. Human voices oftenprovide the best drones. For example, groups of studentscan provide a drone during a recital, intoning the tonic

pitch on [lu]. This is helpful, because as the melodic con-tour of the chant changes, the dynamic inflection of themelody varies; the students can then be shown wherethe drone should vary in dynamic intensity to bettersupport the melody. For added excitement, audiencesprovide the drone for a chant. Audience members willenjoy becoming a part of the recital, and their energy isinfectious to the performer.

Handbells can also provide an effective drone. Whilethis may not be historically “authentic,” it does providea sparkling effect in some of the brighter chants in majormodes. The bell can be rung on the beginning of each lineof poetry, or can be restruck as needed when the ringbegins to decay. For example, Hildegard’s “Hodie ape-ruit” joyfully recounts how Mary has flung wide the doorpreviously held closed by the serpent during Eve’s temp-tation. Utilizing handbells can enhance the radiance ofthis particular chant’s text. I do not feel bells work forall chants, and again, the performer should be judiciousin their use. 61

Question 8: Can students sing this repertoire?

The answer to this question is a resounding yes. Manyof my undergraduate voice students have enjoyed learnedHildegard chants as well as troubadour and trouvèresongs. These songs require much more time and repe-tition, however, so teachers should be prepared. Ourbrain and ears depend on patterns to help us rememberthings, especially music. Since many of Hildegard’s chantsdo not contain the normal organizational aspects onwhich we depend—hummable tunes, repetitive rhyth-mic patterns, symmetrical phrases, stable harmonic pro-gressions—learning and memorizing them can be adaunting task, to say the least. The old cliché rings true,however: anything worth having is worth working hardfor. The reward for the teacher, the student, the per-former, and the audience, is immense.

CONCLUSION

Ridding ourselves of “standard” repertoire we all knowand love is certainly not practical. Yet, some teachersmay feel that something would have to be deleted tomake room for chant in our teaching and performing. Thisarticle is not about deleting standard repertoire, butexpanding it. While we all enjoy teaching what we know


Rebecca Crow Lister


because we feel safe in our comfort zones doing so, it isimportant—even pleasurable—to step outside what is“normal” and step into repertoire that is just as inter-esting and valuable. It keeps the mind elastic and fresh,and helps us keep in step with our students.

Two summers ago at the NATS convention in Nash -ville, I had a short conversation with Robert Edwin. Wediscussed the fact that the classical singing world seemsto finally be embracing the commercial contemporarymusic world, or at least, acknowledging its place in thevoice studio. I hope the same will prove true for thecenturies’ worth of repertoire found in the repertoireprior to the Classical Period. The classical singing worldhas, seemingly, set itself apart from other vocal tradi-tions. It is time to rid ourselves of these boundaries andconsider the inherent value of music from all style peri-ods and genres, incorporating them in our modern per-formances.

NOTES

1. Ian Bent and Marianne Pfau, “Hildegard von Bingen,” GroveMusic Online, L. Macy, ed., http://www.grovemusic.com(accessed June 6, 2010).

2. International Society of Hildegard von Bingen Studies,“Frequently Asked Questions About Hildegard,” http://www.hildegard-society.org (accessed June 20, 2010). The exactage at which Hildegard took the veil is disputed by scholars,but the Hildegard Society asserts it was around 1112, at whichtime Hildegard was fourteen or fifteen years old. Hildegardis also referred to as an abbess and prioress in various sources.According to the Society, Hildegard was still under the con-trol of the Abbot of Disibodenberg throughout her career; yet,it is clear that she maintained a strong leadership positionwithin the abbey, and later, at Rupertsberg.

3. Bent and Pfau. The authors believe Volmar was more thanlikely one of Hildegard’s religious tutors as well.

4. Mother Columba Hart and Jane Bishop, trans., Scivias(Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1990), 22. Scivias consists ofthree books, each containing Hildegard’s dictated accountof her visions.

5. Katharina M. Wilson, ed., Medieval Women Writers (Athens:University of Georgia Press, 1984), xvi.

6. Kent Kraft, “The German Visionary Hildegard von Bingen,”in K. Wilson, 114.

7. Hart and Bishop, Scivias, 13.

8. Kraft, 113. The author states that Hildegard exchanged sev-eral letters with the infamous Frederick I of Barbarossa.Correspondence with two of the most powerful men in thecountry—the pope and the emperor—indicates that Hilde -gard’s celebrity was indeed significant.

9. Hart and Bishop, Scivias, 13.10. Bent and Pfau.11. The body of work encompassing Hildegard’s life, music, and

writings is vast. Additionally, the International Society ofHildegard von Bingen Studies maintains an annual confer-ence held in early summer focusing on cutting edge researchon Hildegard.

12. Barbara Newman, Saint Hildegard of Bingen, Simphonia: ACritical Edition of the Symphonia armonie celestium reve-lationum (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press,1988), 64–65. Additionally, the International Society ofHildegard von Bingen cites new digital versions of the man-uscripts that can be viewed (cf. Note 2 for website). Newmanis a prolific and noted Hildegard scholar.

13. Barbara Thornton, “The Voice: Poetics as Technique,” inter-view by Lawrence Rosenwald, in Ross Duffin, ed., A Performer’sGuide to Medieval Music (Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress, 2000), 287.

14. For example, see James Briscoe, ed., The New HistoricalAnthology of Music by Women (Bloomington: IndianaUniversity Press, 2004), and Martha Furman Schleifer andSylvia Glickman, eds., Composers Born Before 1599, Vol. Iof series, Women Composers: Music Through the Ages (NewYork: G. K. Hall, 1996).

15. Feather on the Breath of God: Sequences and Hymns by AbbessHildegard of Bingen, Gothic Voices (Hyperion A66039, 1981).

16. For a full catalogue listing, see Hildegard Press at www.hildegard.com. Hildegard Press is now operated by TheodorePresser Co., which is owned by Carl Fischer.

17. As will be discussed later in the article, because the exactnote values of neumes are not known, Pfau uses quarter noteswith no stems to indicate pitches. Detailed charts of theneumes and her modern notational equivalents appear inintroductions to all Pfau editions published by HildegardPress.

18. David Fenwick Wilson, Music of the Middle Ages: Style andStructure (New York: Schirmer, 1990), 31. Also see ChristopherPage’s editorial notes in Abbess Hildegard of Bingen: Sequencesand Hymns (Newton Abbot, England: Antico Church Music,1982), ii.

19. D. Wilson, 31. Liquescents can appear above vowels as well.They most often occur upon the second less stressed vowelof a diphthong.




20. Timothy J. McGee, ed., Singing Early Music: The Pronunciationof European Languages in the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), x.

21. Harold Copeman and Vera U. G. Scherr, “German Latin,” inMcGee, 258–270.

22. Ibid., 262.23. A. G. Rigg, “Latin,” in McGee, 6–9.24. Christopher Page and Marianne Pfau include poetic trans-

lations in their editions. The translations prepared in theSequentia recordings by Peter Dronke and LawrenceRosenwald are also accurate and beautifully wrought.

25. Newman.26. An exception to this would be Hildegard’s Ordo virtutum.

In it, Alma (the Soul) struggles against the Devil’s temptations.With the help of the Virtues (such as Humility, Charity, andInnocence), Alma is freed from her early desires and defeatsthe Devil. This is one of the first liturgical dramas contain-ing both music and text; it has been recorded by Sequentia.

27. Newman, 311.28. Ibid., 13.29. Ibid., 14–15.30. Sylvia Glickman, forward to Hildegard Bingen, Music for the

Christmas Season, Vol. II, ed. and trans. by Marianne RichertPfau (Bryn Mawr, PA: Hildegard Publishing, 2004), i.

31. For a thorough discussion of the Divine Offices and the Mass,see D. Wilson, 37–60.

32. Newman, 16.33. Thornton, 276–277. In her interview with Rosenwald,

Thornton goes into great detail about the dynamic andintensely intellectual relationship between music and poetryin the medieval tradition. She describes how reciting text—not just speaking it—engages both the performer and audi-ence, and is the first step to learning any song.

34. Hildegard von Bingen, Chants for the Blessed Virgin Mary,Vol. II of Marianne Richert Pfau, ed., Symphonia armoniecelestium revelationum (Bryn Mawr, PA: Hildegard Publishing,1997), iii.

35. Ibid.36. Lawrence Rosenwald, translations for Canticles of Ecstasy,

Sequentia (Deutsche harmonia mundi D106292, 1994).37. Thornton, 277.38. Newman, 29.39. William P Mahrt, “Sacred Music: Chant,” in Duffin, 18.40. Page, ii.41. Newman, 30.

42. Peter Dronke, translations for Geistliche Gesänge, Sequentia(Deutsche harmonia mundi 77020–2-RG, 1983), 9.

43. Pfau, Chants for the Blessed Virgin Mary, vii.

44. Ellen Hargis, “The Solo Voice in the Renaissance,” in JefferyKite-Powell, ed., A Performer’s Guide to Renaissance Music,2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 9–10. While much of the vocal music from the Renaissance iskeyed in the low to medium range, Hargis cautions singersto avoid transposing songs to a more “operatic” range.

45. Mahrt, 17.

46. Glickman, ii.

47. Rosenwald, Canticles of Ecstasy, 6.

48. Hildegard von Bingen, Chants for St. Ursula and 11,000Virgins, Vol. VII of Marianne Richert Pfau, ed., Symphoniaarmonie celestium revelationum (Bryn Mawr, PA: HildegardPublishing, 1998), i.

49. Glickman, i.

50. Ibid.

51. Benjamin Bagby, “What Is the Sound of Medieval Song?”Early Music America 14, no. 2 (Summer 2008): 44.

52. Martha Elliott, Singing in Style (New Haven, CT: Yale UniversityPress, 2007), 14. Elliott discusses baroque music in this chap-ter, but the argument is relevant to medieval music as well.

53. Ibid., 17–18.

54. Mahrt, 17.

55. Hargis, 5–7.

56. Ibid., 6.

57. Bagby, 50, decries the fact that no American colleges or uni-versities contain programs emphasizing the performance ofmedieval music. While seminars and workshops are cer-tainly helpful, they offer but a superficial study of the reper-toire.

58. Robert Green, “Bowed Strings: Symphonia,” in Duffin, 327.

59. Will Apel, “Hurdy-gurdy,” The Harvard Dictionary of Music,2nd ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 395–396.

60. Ibid., pictured on 911.

61. In recital, I sang “Hodie aperuit” and used handbells as accom-paniment. The piece is in a bright mode keyed in A major.My accompanist brought four bells: A4, B4, C#

5, and E5. Webegan using just the A4 bell as drone. As the piece grew indynamic intensity, and as I entered my upper range, myaccompanist gradually added the other bells. Using the bellsenhanced the radiance of the text of this chant.


Rebecca Crow Lister


Rebecca Crow Lister grew up in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, nearthe Blue Ridge Mountains. She attended James Madison University inHarrisonburg, Virginia and earned a bachelor’s degree in music educa-tion. As a student of Roy Delp, Lister continued her graduate studies atthe Florida State University, where she received the master’s degree in voiceperformance in 1992, as well as the Certificate in Early Music. She earnedthe doctorate of performance from FSU in 1997.

Lister is Associate Professor of Music, teaching private voice lessons,vocal literature, voice pedagogy, and diction at Lebanon Valley College. Main-taining an active performing career, Lister has appeared several times

as a guest artist on various music series, including the St. Paul EarlyMusic Series (St. Paul, MN), the Lebanon Community Arts Series (Lebanon,PA), and the Goodman Series (Harrisburg, PA). Though early music is oneof her main interests, Lister performs repertoire from all style periodsand is a strong supporter and performer of chamber music, music byfemale composers, and art songs in Spanish by contemporary composers.In fall of 2009, Lister conducted sabbatical research on twentieth andtwenty-first century Spanish art songs in Spain and Latin America; sheis currently compiling a descriptive catalogue of these songs. She is afrequent master class clinician at various schools and colleges.




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