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A level GeographyTectonic activity and
hazardsPowerPoint presentation by
Médecins Sans Frontières / Doctors Without Borders (MSF)UK
Schools Team: Mary Doherty and Severa von WentzelMarch 2013
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MSFGeography Working Group
MSF would like to thank the members of the working group for their contributions and help in developing these materials:
Janet Carlsson of Alleyn's School
Adam Thomas former MSF Logistician
Ed Jennings of Hayes School Bromley
John Lyon of the Geographical Association
Nicky Martin of Coloma Girls Convent School Croydon
Rick Vasconcellos of Acland Burghley School Camden
Jo Woolley of Dulwich College
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This PowerPoint• Tectonic Activity is presented as a PowerPoint Presentation
to facilitate use by teachers. The footer on many slides includes Note for teachers.
• It is anticipated that teachers will use slide sorter and select the slides appropriate to their students and their specifications and develop a customised slideshow.
• For teaching and learning, view as a slide show to benefit from animation
• When planning, teachers will find it helpful to start from the normal view which shows the footers and the Note for teachers.
• Teachers can click to videos, websites etc. directly from the slides when in the slide show mode.
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Guide to this presentation
References to teaching specifications. Definitions in violet Action for students Further info Video Direct quote Key Link to appendix A Back to contents Contents
Contents
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Organisation of this Presentation
.Presentation structurePART I
Introduction
Teaching specificationsYour research and writingExemplar slides for your case studies
PART IISection 1 Tectonic hazards and causes
Section 2 Tectonic hazards: physical impactsSection 3 Tectonic hazards: human impacts
Section 4 Responses to tectonic hazards
Appendix A Further info (Hyperlink)
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ContentsPART I
Organisation and guide to this presentationAwarding body specificationsYour research, case studies and writingExemplar slides for your researchStarting your case studies
PART II - Section OneTectonic hazards and causes Event, hazard or disaster?Defining tectonic events and hazardsSeismic wavesPrimary and secondary effects of earthquakesPlate tectonics, GPS
PART II - Section TwoTectonic Hazards: Physical impactsEvent ProfilesTectonic impactsMind map exercisePhysical factorsHuman factorsFault action
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Contents (cont’d)PART II - Section Three
Tectonic hazards: human impactsGeophysical and hydro-meteorological hazards and trends Why do people live in tectonically active areas?Dregg’s Disaster ModelDisaster Risk EquationSpecific hazard impacts: human and economic costsExemplar table for your research: hazard impacts over timeHaiti (2010) Earthquake Prediction
PART II - Section Four Responses to tectonic hazardsCoping with tectonic hazardHaiti housing crisis actionInsight into humanitarian workThe work of a MSF logisticianCholera and GISSocial MediaDisaster Risk ReductionEarly warning
Appendix International humanitarian SystemFurther Info on Haiti
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AQA Unit 3: SeismicityThe causes and main characteristics of earthquakes:• focus and epicentre; seismic waves and earthquake
measurement.• Tsunamis – characteristics and causes.
Two case studies of recent (ideally within the last 30 years) seismic events should be undertaken from contrasting areas of the world.
In each case, the following should be examined:•the nature of the seismic hazard;•the impact of the event;•management of the hazard and responses to the event.
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OCR A2 Geography: Global issues
What are the hazards associated with earthquake and volcanic activity? Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are caused by plate tectonics and bring distinctive impacts to an area and these vary from place to place.
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have a range of environmental and social impacts on the areas affected, which create a range of human responses to the hazard. The study of an earthquake and of a volcanic eruption to illustrate the: • tectonic processes involved in creating these hazards; • scale and types of impacts (environmental, social and economic), together with the concept
of primary (initial impacts – destruction, casualties, landslides, fires) and secondary impacts (including disease, infrastructure problems, resettlement);
• human reaction in both the short term (emergency rescue) and long term (planning & management).
Why do the impacts on human activity of such hazards vary over time and location? The degree of impact on an area reflects its level of economic and technological development as well as the population density. Impacts can vary over time from immediate to long term. The study of contrasting examples to illustrate a: • contrast between countries at either end of the development continuum and between rural
and urban areas, to compare the impacts of, and reactions to, at least two contrasting types of earth hazards;
• comparison of impacts over short and long time periods for at least two contrasting types of earth hazards.
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OCR A2 Geography: Global issues
How can hazards be managed to reduce their impacts? There are various ways to manage or reduce the impacts of hazards. The study of different approaches to managing earth hazards to illustrate: • the extent to which earth hazards are predictable; • the management strategies used to reduce the possible impact of a hazard; • the effectiveness of managing earth hazards.
Key Concepts: • The nature of hazards varies with location. • The nature of hazards changes over time and space. • Earth hazards consist of a variety of interdependent and interconnected activities and processes. • Physical geography and human activity are interdependent and their interaction can produce hazards. • The impact of such hazards varies over time and given location.• Populations and environments respond in a variety of ways to hazards.• The management of hazards results in opportunities and challenges.
Associated Skills: • Research into hazard events • Analysis of a variety of types of image • Map work at a variety of scales, eg hazard mapping • Statistical analysis, eg analysing patterns and severity of hazard • Use and application of GIS and other modern technology, eg forecasting of earthquakes and eruptions
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Assessment objectives
.You will need to:A01 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the content,
concepts and processes.
A02 Analyse, interpret and evaluate geographical information, issues and viewpoints and apply understanding in unfamiliar contexts.
A03 Select and use variety of methods, skills and techniques (including the use of new technologies) to investigate questions and issues, reach conclusions and communicate findings.
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PART IYour research and writing
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Synoptic research unit with case studies
• This unit provides flexibility in your study of geography.
• You will learn subject content and develop your learning skills, particularly, selection and analytical skills.
• You will study this unit for several months.*
• This is a synoptic unit that stresses the interrelation of specific issues to overall themes in geography.
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Edexcel global synoptic content
Your investigation of tectonic hazards, challenges and responses will need to highlight:
• Places, people and powerand
• Risks, vulnerability and patterns. People
PowerPlaces
Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.http://www. hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf
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The synoptic element of each enquiry question
Distil big concepts, implications and influences of tectonic activity and geography by looking at social, economic, political and environmental factors. These factors help organize and evaluate information around people, places and power.
• Social – about people, quality of life, health, education and prosperity
• Economic – about money, work, industry, jobs and prospects
• Political – about power, different viewpoints, policy and associated decisions
• Environmental – about landscape, plants, animals, water, air and resources
Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.; http://www.hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf
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Synoptic content and MEDCs and LEDCs
To compare and contrast case studies from MEDCs and LEDCs (more and less economically developed countries), use pairs such as:
• Positive and negative• Primary and secondary• Direct and indirect• Short and long term• Human and physical• Micro and macro
Further info on more and less economically developed countries – contrasts in economic and human development, development indicators, statistics and correlations and indices:http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/development/contrasts_development_rev1.shtml
Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.; http://www.hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf
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Your researchAction for students:1. Start an “Earthquakes” folder for your research and
case studies.
2. Throughout your study extract the key information about the tectonic event and retain the findings and maps in your folder.
3. Remember to add references (sources) for the work of others and to add definitions for key terms by compiling a glossary of definitions in your folder.
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Case studies in this presentation
The Haiti Earthquake (2010) and Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011) will be the main point of comparison in your research.
Earthquakes such as Sichuan, China (2008), L’Aquila, Italy (2009) and Van, Turkey (2011) also
feature.
In this presentation exemplar slides in the introduction and information for your research in subsequent sectionswill guide you through the process, leaving the active research and case studies to you.
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Source: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/caribb/special/caribout.htm
Contents
Action for students: Label the map to show Haiti, Dominican Republic, major towns and bodies of water
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Source: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/caribb/special/caribout.htmContents
Action for students: Label the map to show Japan, major towns, bodies of water and neighbouring countries.
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Your study, research, written notes and examination
Action for students:
Writing skills: • Plan and stick to your organisation with introduction, main body and conclusion linking back to the question.• Apply theories, models and graphs, for example, event profiles.• Include good definitions and sources.
Further info:The Geographical Association’s “A2 Examinations: Developing your skills in extended writing” http://www.slideserve.com/elsa/a2-examinations-developing-your-skills-in-extended-writingDunn, C. and K. Adams’ “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.http://www.hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf
Do not describe only. Be clear what the command words expect you to do:• Discuss• Evaluate• Critically examine
You will need to include:• Role of plate margins• Causes, maps and case studies• Impacts on landscape• Impacts on people• Responses and issues
Get to know key words: • Factors• Impacts• Challenges
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Sources• Who is the author? How does the author’s role or job
such as academic, lobbyist, businessman, politician relate to the topic? Consider North Korea and Amnesty International presenting on the same issue, for example.
• Is it a primary or secondary source? How reliable is it?
• Does the website verify what it publishes or is it an open forum where anything can be posted? Who owns and contributes to it?
• Is the information up to date?Contents
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Question statistics
• Who collected the numbers? Using what method and for what reason?
• Simply because they are published doesn’t make them facts. Many are actually estimates.
• Location matters. Collecting statistics in remote rural areas of developing countries or densely populated urban settlements, for example, can be difficult if they have been collected at all. A hazard or disaster event adds complexity.
• Numbers can be political. There may advantages to overstating or understating numbers.
• Statistics need to be collected in the same way to be compared.
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Schemata for report writing
Your report Defining Introducing, defining topicResearch Research and methodologyAnalysis Analysis, application, understandingConclusion
Conclusion and evaluation
Quality Quality of written expression and sourcing
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Humanitarian information
Médecins Sans Frontières works in and Relief Web and Alert.net report on many emergencies, including ignored or forgotten ones.
Médecins Sans Frontières / Doctors Without Borders: http://www.msf.org.ukMSF is an independent international medical humanitarian organisation that provides emergency aid in more than 60 countries to people affected by armed conflict, epidemics, natural or man-made disasters or exclusion from healthcare.
Reliefweb: http://www.reliefweb.int“ReliefWeb is…source for timely, reliable and relevant humanitarian information and analysis…to help you make sense of humanitarian crises worldwide.”(reliefweb.int)
Alert.net: http://www.trust.org/alertnet/Humanitarian news website covering crises worldwide, including “hidden crises”
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PART IExemplar slides for your research
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Exemplar Slide on seismicity past to present:
Historical seismicity in Japan
The earthquake on March 11, 2011, marked with a gold star, took place around the same location as the the magnitude 7.2 earthquake on March
9, 2011, thus the earlier one was redefined as a foreshock. In the cluster, there were 3 earthquakes greater than magnitude 6 before the main shock and another 14 in the first 6 hours after. The aftershocks intensity decreased with time since the main shock and followed a predictable pattern.
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Since 1900March 2011
Further info on a detailed USGS poster on “Seismicity of the Earth 1900—2007, Japan and Vicinity” click on: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1083/d/
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: USGS
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Earthquake Location:Coordinates for Tohoku, Japan (2011)
Location: 130 km (80 miles) east of Sendai, Honshu, Japan and 373 km (231 miles) northeast of Tokyo, Japan.
Source: USGS
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Exemplar Country Profile:Japan (2011)
Country profile:• Island nation in East Asia in the Pacific
Ocean• Third largest economy in the world• Politically stable with world-class critical infrastructure: physical
assets that serve as foundation for effective governance*, economy and civil society.
• Capital: Tokyo• Population: 126.5 million (UN, 2011)• Very high life expectancy at birth, one of the oldest populations in
the world (CIA World Factbook)• Most structures built to resist earthquake shaking
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* Governance: security, civil service, public management, core infrastructure, corruption and legal and regulatory reforms.
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Exemplar Template:Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)
Date and time: Friday, 11 March 2011 at 5:46 UTC*Location: Japan, near northeast coast of HonshuEpicentre: 130km east of SendaiMagnitude: 9.0 on Richter scaleSpeed of Onset: Foreshocks and rapid main shock, aftershocksDuration: ShortAreal extent: Extremely large areaMap: USGS summary map on following slide Plates: Pacific plate subducting under Eurasian plate. Subduction zone very seismically active. Convergent margin, fairly high convergence rate. Earthquake shallow at the Japan trench.Earthquake: 4th largest in the world since 1900 and largest in Japan since recording began 130 years ago (USGS)History of Earthquakes: Japan trench subduction zone has had 9 events 7+ on the scale since 1973. 20% of world’s earthquakes take place in Japan.
Risk profile: Country ranked 1st worldwide for human and economic exposure to cyclones and earthquakes, 1st (economic) and 2nd (human) for tsunamis and very high for drought, flood and landslides (Prevention web)Key points: Tsunami, Fujinuma dam ruptured, Fukushima Daichii nuclear accident.
References: IRIS:http
://www.iris.edu/news/events/japan2011/BBC: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific14918801http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific12711226Prevention web:http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/sttistics/risk.php?iso=jpn Contents
*Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) – primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time, closely related successors to Greenwich (GMT) mean time and for most purposes synonymous with GMT. Unlike GMT, UTC is precisely scientifically defined.
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Annotated images:Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)
Some of the burning houses swallowed by tsunami in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture in eastern Japan.
Burning oil refinery in Ichihara, Chiba Prefecture.
New York Times
Los Angeles Times
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Offset ocean floor causes tsunami waves
Water and debris washed away houses in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture.
Waves crashes over Natori, Miyagi
Prefecture.
ContentsNew York Times
AP
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PART IStarting your case studies
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Starting your Haiti case study
Action for students:Using the websites on the following slides:
1. Develop a template similar to the Japanese exemplar slides for your section on Haiti.
2. Haiti is situated near to two tectonic plates: record for your research the names of the plates and explain how these plates caused the earthquake.
3. Draw a sketch of Haiti’s location and the two plates.
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Haiti’s country profileand tectonics
COUNTRY PROFILE:• CIA World Factbook
http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Fpublications%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fgeos%2Fha.html&ei=UTF-8&fr=moz35
(https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html)
• UNICEF Statisticshttp://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/haiti_statistics.html
• BBC Country Profile http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1202772.stm
HAITI TECTONICS:• “The Haiti Earthquake in Depth” http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100113/full/news.2010.10.html
• “Anatomy of a Caribbean Earthquake” http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122531261
• “Tectonics of the Haitian Earthquake” http://all-geo.org/highlyallochthonous/2010/01/tectonics-of-the-haitian-earthquake/
• BBC map: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8466385.stm
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USGS summary posters
Action for students: Print out the USGS summaryposters for Japan and Haiti for your folder.http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthqakes/eqarchives/poster/2010/2010112.PhpUSGS Earthquake map of Haiti:http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2010/eq_100112_rja6/neic_rja6_l.html
You will find multiple panels:• epicentral area• plate tectonic
environment, earthquake history
• generalized seismic hazard
USGS Summary Poster
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Japan and Haiti:Key data activity (1)
Action for students: 1. Based on the Japan exemplar slides
and your research, draw a table comparing Japan and Haiti with key information including:• GDP per capita• Population• Median population age• Population under the age of 15• High or low-income population• Population density• Urban population %• Maternal mortality rate
(deaths / 100,000 live births) World ranking
• Birth rate / 1,000 population• Death rate / 1,000 population• Availability of health care• Literacy, total population, %
2. Population pyramid: which age groups contain the largest number of people in Japan and Haiti? Does the population age structure diagram resemble a pyramid (A or B) or an inverted pyramid?
Source: http://geographyfieldwork.com/PopulationStructure.htm
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Japan and Haiti:Key data activity(2)
2. In what stage do Japan and Haiti’s birth rate, death rate and availability of health care place them on the demographic transition model?
Source: GCSE Bitesize population change and structure:http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/population/population_change_structure_rev4.shtml
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PART II: FOUR SECTIONS
Contents
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PART II - SECTION ONETECTONIC HAZARDS AND CAUSES
Tectonic activity, seismicity and tectonics
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Section OneTectonic hazards and causes
This section focuses briefly on the patterns
and processes of earthquakes and volcanic hazards* and how they are managed.
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Section OneTectonic hazards and causes
What are tectonic hazards and their causes?
Learning outcomeThis section will guide you in identifying, examining and understanding the:• Range of tectonic hazards and their causes;• Different profiles of tectonic hazards;• Link between tectonic hazards and plate tectonics;• Variation of tectonic hazards with the type of plate
margin.
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Event, hazard or disaster?
Action for students: Discuss what makes an event a hazard or disaster based on information in the images only.
Sources: 1 Water http://img.ehowcdn.com/article-new/ehow/images/a06/f9/r2/natural-hazards-disaster-management-800x800.jpg2 Internal displacement: http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004BE3B1/(httpGraphics)/B303AB7D46DFD5ECC12578D2005B9C8E/$file/nd-01-big.jpg3 Haiti earthquake: http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=haiti+earthquake&view=detail&id=CE5C433C1836E995E6DF12FF00689F877DA2DF3F&FORM=IDFRIR4 Guatemala’s Volcano of Fire:http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=volcanic+eruption+diasaster&view=detail&id=D62AC286BAA6030CE1A08A8E7D78AFC1DB0139E2&FORM=IDFRIR5 Fault Rupture source: http://www.teara.govt.nz/files/p4411gns.jpg
1 2
4
3
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Event, hazard or disaster definitions
• What is a natural event in an uninhabited place becomes a hazard in a populated one.
• A hazard is natural or human-made event that adversely affects human life, property or activity. A hazard involves people.
• “A disaster is an occurrence disrupting the normal conditions of existence and causing a level of suffering that exceeds the capacity of adjustment of the affected community.”(WHO/EHA 2002). There is no universally agreed numerical threshold for designating a hazard as a disaster. A matter of scale, a disaster is a lot bigger than a natural hazard.
• Capacity: A combination of all the strengths and resources available within a community, society or organization that can reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster.
Source: UN/ISDR, Words Into Action: A Guide for Implementing the Hyogo Framework, Switzerland, 2007Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions; http://www.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdf
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Perspectives on the Haiti earthquake experience
Action for students: 1. View and interact with the video on the experience of the Haiti earthquake from
the perspective of a survivor, an aid worker and a journalist: http://www.insidedisaster.com/experience/Main.html
2. Based on the video make a mind map about why the Haiti earthquake lead to disaster. See sample mind map for guidance.
Source: http://www.mind-mapping.co.uk/make-mind-map.htm
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What is a tectonic event?
• A tectonic event is a physical occurrence resulting from the movement or deformation of the Earth’s crust.
• Tectonic events are predominantly earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
• Tectonic events become tectonic hazards when they have the potential to cause loss of life and damage to property.
• Not all tectonic events are hazardous. Contents
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Tectonic hazardsTectonic activity cause a very large range of hazard events. These are associated with the processes of earth movement and volcanism, and they are classified into primary and secondary
hazards.
Primary tectonic hazards include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
pyroclastic flow, ash fall and volcanic gases.
Secondary tectonic hazards include tsunamis, landslides and lahars. A tsunami is a secondary hazard, because the flooding is caused by the earthquake at sea. Tsunamis like the Asian Tsunami (2004) are rare.
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What is an earthquake and tsunami?
Action for students: 1. Watch BBC News, “Animated Guide –
Earthquakes” and print out the PDF non-animated version. Retain in your research folder, as you will use it later: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7533950.stm
2. Watch National Geographic, “Earthquake 101”: http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/media/earthquakes-101/?ar_a=1&ar_r=999
Source:http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural_hazards/earthquakes_rev1.shtml
3. Review BBC GCSE Bitesize, “What causes a Tsunami?”: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural_hazards/tsunamis_rev1.shtml
And Japan Tsunami footage with explanations
http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/news/environment-news/japan-tsunami-2011-vin/
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Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1, Tectonic activity and hazards
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Defining earthquakesEarthquakes occur along fault lines and major plates lines.
The main shock in a cluster is the one with the largest magnitude. Foreshocks occur before the main shock. Not all main shocks have foreshocks. The main shock is always followed by aftershocks, which are smaller
than the main shock and can continue for weeks, months or years.
Each earthquake can provide new information: • If a subsequent event is larger than the one deemed a main shock, it
can be redefined as a foreshock, for example, Tohoku, Japan (2011). • Similarly, an aftershock may sometimes be reclassified as a foreshock.
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Foreshocks, Main shocks and aftershocks
sequence• .
Source: USGS
Tohoku, Japan (2011) Map:11 March - magnitude 9.0 main shock off Tohoku followed by 166 aftershocks of magnitude 5.5 and greater until May 20.
Aftershocks follow a statistically predictable manner. In common with almost all of the largest earthquakes, this one is on a subduction zone.
Warmer colour for more recent events Larger symbol for greater quake magnitude.
Action for students: Record in your glossary what is meant by a subduction zone . Explain why it causes 5000 earthquakes a year in Japan (one or more a day).
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Seismic waves Action for students: 1. Correctly label the image:• Surface waves • Rayleigh wave • Love wave • Body waves • P waves • S waves• Elliptical motion
2. Answer the questions about Love, P, S and Surface waves:• Which type of seismic wave travels fastest? • Which type causes rock particles to move together and apart in the same direction?
3. In order to determine how far from a seismograph station an earthquake occurred, one needs to look at the difference between:
• Seismic waves and elliptical motion• P & S waves• S & Love waves• P & love waves
4. Which one does not control the level of shaking:• Distance• Weather• Local Soils• Magnitude Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=S wave Contents
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Measuring shakingSeismologists use a seismograph: an instrument that registers the movement of the Earth's tectonic plates caused by seismic waves and produces seismograms such as this USGS one:
A short wiggly line that doesn’t wiggle very much means a small earthquake, and a long wiggly line
A long wiggly line (seismic wave) that wiggles a lot denotes a large earthquake; a short one that doesn’t wiggle a lot a small one. The length of the wiggle depends on the size of the fault and the size of the wiggle by the amount of slip.
At least three seismographs are needed to triangulate the location of an earthquake. Measurements are on thelogarithmic Richter scale from 1 – 10 with decimals.Source: http://www.online-education.net/articles/science/earthquake-studies.htmlUSGS http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/eqscience.php
Further info
On seismic monitors - Incorporated Research Institution for Seismology (IRIS): http://www.iris.edu/dms/seismon.htm On seismicity maps - USGS:http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/seismicity_maps/world.pdfOn seismograms – USGS:http://earthquake.usgs.gov/monitoring/helicorders/about.phpon seismographs and Richter scales:http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geophysics/question142.htm
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Contents
125 Global Seismographic stations, multi-use facilities, spaced worldwide, collectdata for scientific research, earthquake hazard mitigation, tsunami warning, education and the international monitoring system for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty. Source: IRIS
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World map of the threat of earthquake shaking
Global Seismic Hazard Program http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/static/gshap/
Dark red = large earthquakes most likelyWhite = least likely
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USGS Shake maps
Haiti Japan• .
KMercalli scale measures how much damage is caused by earthquakes based on observations.
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Map of case study countries and plate margins
Action for students: Draw an arrow to Japan, China, Haiti, Turkey and Italy on the map below and
add in the plate margins.
Source: Worldatlas Contents
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Primary and secondary effects of earthquakes
Earthquakes effects: primary and secondary
Primary effects happen immediately and occur as a direct result of the ground shaking like buildings collapsing.
Ground shaking Ground shaking is most direct effect with cracks in land and structures, falling masonry and / or collapse.animation: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/simulations/
Secondary effects occur as a result of the primary effects, for example, fires due to ruptured gas mains.
Ground displacement may not be life threatening; however, it impacts on buildings, bridges and roads.
Landslides are movements of masses of rock or debris down a slope. Slope failure can be triggered by, for example, earth tremors. Photo: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=landslide
Liquefaction occurs when the shaking of silts, sands and gravels causes them to lose their load bearing capacity. Buildings and other structures, may thus sink into the ground.Liquefaction Hazard Map: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/qmap/Liquefaction photo:http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/49488655AFEE6C258525773000766AF5-Full_Report.pdf
Tsunamis are ocean waves with extremely long wavelengths, generated by earthquake tremors. Graph: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=tsunami
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Plate tectonics How do earthquakes occur?
Action for students: 1. Use the pdf hard copy of the earthquake animation and
add in additional information from the following sources: • Animated version of the “Earth’s Tectonic Plates”,
http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/media/earths-tectonic-plates/?ar_a=1• Dr Iain Stewart explains how plate tectonics cause earthquakes:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/earth/natural_disasters/earthquake#p00gtskq • British Geological Survey: http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk and
US Geological Survey (USGS): http://www.earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/neic/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/plate_tectonics/rift_man.php
2. Discuss these additions with a partner and compare. Critique your partner’s additions and ask them to critique yours.
3. In light of this critique amend your explanation and retain the document for revision and exam preparation.
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Tectonic platesAction for students:
1. Find a map of the global distribution of tectonic plates identify the convergent (destructive or collision), divergent and transform (conservative or transcurrent) plate margins.
2. Write a description of each type of margin. Include an example of each type of margin and also explain a collision plate margin with an example.
3. Compare and contrast the typical tectonic hazards experienced at one convergent and one divergent plate margin.
4. Research the two types of crust which make up the plates.Contents
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GPS: measuring plate motion
Global Positioning system (GPS) is one of various technologies used for studying earthquakes. Receivers placed along fault lines measures movements of the Earth's crust with a precision of one millimetre per year.
The length of the arrow indicates the extent of the movement.
Source: UNAVCO 2000 Further info on GPS and plate motion calculators for your records:http://www.unavco.org/community_science/science-support/crustal_motion/dxdt/model.html
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This GPS Slip model of Tohoku, Japan (2011) was produced with vertical GPS data.Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/japan/031111_M9.0prelim_geodetic_slip.php
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PART II – SECTION TWOTECTONIC HAZARDS: PHYSICAL IMPACTS
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Section TwoTectonic hazards: physical impacts
This section introduces impacts and then focuses on the physical impacts, such asdamage and destruction to homes and infrastructure and changeto the landscape.
Port au Prince after the earthquake
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Photo by Julie Remy/MSF
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Section Two Tectonic hazards: physical impacts
What impact does tectonic activity have on landscapes and why does this impact vary?
Learning outcomeBy the end of this section, you should beaware of the effects of earthquakes on the landscape.*
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Haiti before and after the earthquake
Juvenat: August 3, 2009
Further info on Haiti before 2010 in Appendix
Juvenat: February 13, 2010
Source:http://gfdrr.org/docs/
Haiti_MultiHazard_RiskAssessment_Report_EN.pdf
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Geological records• Historic records of earthquakes can be
incomplete and some countries have longer records than others.
• Where there are no written records of earthquakes geological and soil maps can be used to identify past earthquake activity.
• The geological record when understood can enable areas of high risk to be mapped.
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Event ProfilesEvent profiles can be drawn for any event and help illustrate the great variation in the nature of tectonic hazards. They are a common way to compare and contrast different hazards. The typical earthquake and volcanic profiles tend to differ most in terms of spatial predictability and frequency.
This profile compares factors of the Asian Tsunami (2004) with the continuous eruption ofKilauea on Hawaii since 1983.
Source: Edexcel Unit 4 Option 1 Tectonic Activity and Hazards
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Event profilesAction for students:1. Refer to the Exemplar slide for
Japan, Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)and construct one for Haiti Earthquake (2010). Keep in mind factors of an event profile: magnitude, speed of onset, duration, areal extent, spatial predictability and frequency.
2. Research and construct event profiles as presented on the previous slide for the Haiti (2010) and Tohoku, Japan (2011).
Further info: For a comprehensive presentation by a geophysicist on Haiti and Japan earthquakes click:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_WGi4mjVqbY
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Tectonic impactsTectonic hazards can be complex with multiple effects and impacts. Impacts can be physical, social or economic.
Impacts can be:• Direct or indirect, • Short or long-term,• Tangible or intangible,• Negative or positive.
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Factors affecting an earthquake: Mind map exercise
Action for students:1. Draw a mind map of physical factors affecting an
earthquake.
2. Draw another for human factors.
3. Compare your mind map with that of a partner,do you need to make amendments, do they need to make amendments
4. Complete your map for your folder by referring to the following slides.
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Physical factors affecting the impact of a tectonic
event Physical Factors:• Distance from epicentre• Richter Scale / Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): the higher on the scale, the more potentially
devastating• Duration of the hazard• Scale of the hazard• Frequency of the hazard• Magnitude of the hazard• Time of day• Time of year and climate• Geography of the area, accessibility Contents
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Human factors affecting the impact of a tectonic event
Human factors:• Social, political and economic conditions / level of development.• Population density: rural or urban area• Frequency and severity of hazards affecting the area• Experience from previous hazards in the area• Methods of coping with hazards• Accuracy in predicting the hazards• Effectiveness and response of hazard warning and evacuation
procedures• Speed and efficiency of local, national and international
emergency response teams and long-term reconstruction and development services
• Coordination and perception of the services • Presence of other humanitarian crisis
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Severity of impactsThe hazard and the capacity of people affected to prepare for and resist it determine the extent of the damage. Damage to the environment such as deforestation can make their impact worse. So the severity of impacts depends on both:
• Physical factors (attributes of nature) such as the magnitude of the event.
• Human factors determining human vulnerability to natural hazards such as population density.
Action for students:Discuss whether the impacts on places, people and power of volcanic hazards can be positive and negative, but for earthquakes only negative.
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Are impacts always negative?
Some economists have argued that a natural disasters can be a
brutal, but good stimulus for an economy by:
• pushing short-term growth;• Helping conflict resolution and community development;• building up-to-date infrastructure and technology in place
of outdated ones (in with the new, out with the old); and • focusing international attention and resources on the
country.
Further info: article on “how disasters help”:http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2008/07/06/how_disasters_help/?page=full
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Fault activityAction for students: 1. Label the faults as Dip slip, Strike-slip and Thrust. Mark with arrows to
indicate vertical or horizontal movement.
Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/?topicID=53&topic=Prediction
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10
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5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5Magnitude
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2. Study the graph. Do bigger faults lead to smaller or bigger earthquakes?
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Effects of earthquakes on landscapes
Action for students:1. Research faults and draw diagrams of dip slip faults (normal, reverse
and thrust), strike slip faults (left or right-lateral) and oblique slip faults. You can refer to http://www.exploratorium.edu/faultline/basics/faults.html
Example diagram
3. Be clear about which faults are common at divergent plate margins and which occur at convergent plate margins.
4. Explain how rift valleys form and give an example.
Remember: a clear, simple diagram is worth a thousand words.Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1, Tectonic activity and hazards
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PART II – SECTION THREETECTONIC HAZARDS: HUMAN IMPACTS
Hazard TrendsWhy live in tectonically active areas?Prediction
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Section ThreeTectonic hazards: human impacts
This section is organised around risks, vulnerability and patterns of human impacts – social and economic.
• Social impacts refer to trauma and the disruption of everyday life and communities.
• Economic impacts can be damage to factories and commercial properties and disrupted transport networks.
Together with physical impacts, they determine how places, people and power are affected.
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Section ThreeTectonic hazard: human
impactsWhat impacts do tectonic hazards have on people and how do these impacts vary?
Learning outcomeBy the end of this section, you should:• Understand some of the reasons why people live in
tectonically active areas• Know the range of hazards associated with different types of
tectonic activity*• Be familiar with the specific impacts of a range of tectonic
hazards*• Be aware of trends in the frequency and impacts of tectonic
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PART II – SECTION THREETECTONIC HAZARDS: HUMAN IMPACTS
Hazard Trends
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Geophysical and hydro-meteorological graph activity
Action for students:
Look at the two graphs and mark them as appropriate to show:
• Rising trend of hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes and such•Fluctuating trend•Rapidly rising trend of flood
events• Increasingly widespread drought
affecting millions of people • Rare but devastating • Fluctuating trend usually linked to
other hazards
.
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Magnitude
Class Number
M ≥ 8 Great 1
M ≥ 7 Major 15
M ≥ 6 Large 134
M ≥ 5 Moderate 1,319
M ≥ 4 Small ~13,000
.Geophysical hazard is formed by tectonic/geological processes, for example, earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis. The number of geophysical hazards has stayed fairly constant.
Hydro-meteorological hazard is formed by hydrological (floods) and atmospheric (storms and droughts) processes. They make up most of the natural hazard events and have increased in number.
Geophysical versus meteorological hazards and trends
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Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions http://www.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdf; USGS Earthquake statistics and Earthquakes and seismicity
EARTHQUAKES
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Natural hazard trends• Whilst better awareness, preparedness and technology has reduced the number of
deaths due to natural hazards, the number and frequency of natural hazards and the number of affected people has gone up.
• Whilst our capacity to deal with natural hazards and disasters has increased, socio-demographic, economic and technological factors has increased vulnerability further.
• The destructiveness of earthquakes has increased, because populations keep rising and more and more people have moved into earthquake risk zones - especially where earthquakes have been infrequent but violent.
• Buildings and infrastructure are increasingly expensive and vulnerable, and many people live in housing not been built to withstand earthquakes.
• As opposed to other natural disasters, earthquakes occur without warning and even moderate ones tend to affect a widespread area.
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Disaster hotspotsThe impact of natural hazards differsbetween and within countries and regions and countries. Asia is the most affected by natural hazards the Philippines, Japan, India,Bangladesh, China, Indonesia most hazard-prone.
Identifying a hot spot can have major implications for development and investment planning, disaster preparedness and loss prevention. Yet, long lists of priorities can be more immediate than risk management. Source: White, Philip, et al, Disaster risk reduction: a development concern, (DFID, 2004) 3.
A hazard hotspot is an area of multiple hazard zones. In large, rapidly growing urban areas in hazard prone areas, the potential for hazards to turn into disasters is great.
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Are Haiti and Japan disaster hotspots?
Action for students:Using the disaster websites such as:
• Prevention web for risk profile and disaster statistics: http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/risk.php?iso=hti
• Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, CRED (http://www.cred.be), for frequency, economic and human impact by disaster type and region: http://cred.be/sites/default/files/PressConference2010.pdf
1. List recent natural disasters for Japan and Haiti and discuss each countries capacity to deal with them. Consider location, tectonics, hurricane tracks, typhoons, tsunamis, population, economic development and the natural and built environment.
2. Compare risk rankings for Japan and Haiti.
3. Compare economic and human losses by disaster for Japan and Haiti. Try to explain why 2011 was the costliest year ever for natural disasters with Tohoku, Japan (2011) accounting for 55% of the total US$380 billion economic losses.
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PART II – SECTION THREETECTONIC HAZARDS: HUMAN IMPACTS
Why live in tectonically active areas?
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Why do people live in tectonically active areas?
Action for students:
1. Reflect on your own the reasons why people live in tectonically active areas, jot down your ideas.
2. Give examples, why do people continue to live in California, Japan or Haiti?
3. Consider: level of economic development, awareness of risks, risks versus benefits, past history of tectonic activity (magnitude, frequency, impact and dates).
4. Discuss with a partner their reasons and yours.
5. Join with another pair, discuss and record all the ideas why people live in tectonically active areas.
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Why risk living in a hazardous area?
There are far more people living in potentially hazardous area than you might expect.
Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1 Tectonic Activity and Hazards
Living in areas of tectonic
risk?
Ignorance of the risks and / or
underestimation of risk
Inertia; always lived there, roots
Nowhere else to go / lack of alternatives
Choice e.g. Economic
opportunities like tourism, farming,
mining, geothermal power
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Many people may not have experienced earthquakes
Blue and mauve and yellow dotted lines show Haiti’s last earthquakes 57 and 64 years before the 2010 one. Risk is a probability: without living memory, people may underestimate the risk and consider preparing and planning less a priority.
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Dregg Disaster Model
Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1- tectonic activity and hazards. White, Philip, et al, Disaster risk reduction: a development concern, DFID, 2004, 3.Digby et al, Geography for Edexcel, Oxford University Press.
Risk = Vulnerability x Hazard
Dregg’s model (Earthquakes Venn Diagram) shows the overlap of natural hazard and human vulnerability.
The greater the scale of a earth process or event and the more vulnerable and exposed the people, the greater the scale of the natural hazards or disaster.
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“Disasters do not just happen – they result from failures of development which increase vulnerability to hazard events.” e.g., rapid urban growth leading to increased exposure to landslides, earthquakes or fire.” (White, Philip et al 2004, 3)
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World Risk IndexAction for students:Looking at the Dregg’s diagram and the world risk index, what places Haiti and Japan at risk?
The world risk index launched by the UN Institute in Bonn helps define the interaction between natural hazard and vulnerability.
Source: http://ihrrblog.org/2011/09/26/2011-un-world-risk-index/
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Disaster Risk Equation
People can be affected by natural disasters anywhere.However, the risk of disaster grows as global hazards and people’s vulnerability increases, while their capacity to cope decreases. The Disaster Risk Formula measures hazard vulnerability:
Factors that decrease risk include:• Effective warning and preparedness,• Better planning and building practices,• Development and insurance.Source: FAO, http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae080e/ae080e01.htm
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Vulnerability: class-quake
Vulnerability: • describes how susceptible a population or parts of a population are to the damage
of hazards, notably “the characteristics of a person or group and their situation that influence their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard.”(Wisner, Ben et al 2005, 11)
• is determined by processes in the natural environment and by places, people and power.
• tends to increase the lower the country’s economic development and socio-political stability because risks and vulnerability make the impact of natural hazards patterns worse.
Class-quake:The Guatemala earthquake 1976 made headlines as a ‘class-quake’, as it predominately affected the poor, excluded and vulnerable in slums while the urban middle and upper classes remained relatively unaffected.
Source: Wisner, Ben, et al, At Risk: Natural hazards, peoples vulnerability and disasters, 2nd ed, (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005) 11.
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Vulnerability and economic development
In less developed countries:
• A greater proportion of the population tends to be exposed to risk given population growth, land pressure and urbanisation. Moreover, the poorest tend to be disproportionately affected, often because they have migrated to hazard zones to search for work and may live in sub-standard and cramped conditions that collapse and crush them, the biggest cause of death.
• The financial resources, technical capacity, level of education and ability to cope with hazardous events also tend to be lower.
• The economies also tend to be driven by growth and tend to be less resilient in dealing with the disruption of the event.
• There are also more likely to be other humanitarian crises as well as other issues like weak governance and infrastructure.
Source: http://www.chinapost.com.tw/business/asia/other/2012/08/16/351184/Asia-economies.htmhttp://www.preventionweb.net/files/1070_drrscopingstudy.pdf
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Impact and Economic Development
The graph illustrates how the Kobe Earthquake (1995) was a huge economic disaster, while the Boxing Day Tsunami (2004) lead to far more deaths (like the Haiti 2010 earthquake).
Natural Disaster Cost by Year
Sources:World Bank (2006). Hazards of Nature, Risks to Development. An IEG Evaluation of World, Bank Assistance for Natural Disasters. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.Humanitarian Response to Natural Disasters: A synthesis of – Norad www.norad.no/en/tools-and-publications/.../107610?_...true...Graph by Robert Simmon, based on data courtesy EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database (www.em-dat.net) Université Catholique de Louvain—Brussels, Belgium
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Specific hazard impacts: Human costs
The costs of tectonic hazards can be classified broadly as human or economic. Human costs include primary, secondary and tertiary casualties. Over half of disaster deaths occur in LEDCs even though only 11% of people exposed to hazards live there.
Primary casualties: People killed or injured by an earthquake or volcano. Casualties tend to be much higher in less developed countries because of:• Limited preparedness,• Less effective warning systems,• Less effective search and rescue services.
Secondary casualties: People who survive initially but are injured or die because of insufficient resources and lack of emergency medical care especially in less developed countries
Tertiary casualties: People with pre-existing medical conditions aggravated by the hazard event. This includes people who become ill, or die as a result of the post-disaster environment.
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Specific hazard impacts: Economic costs
There are two types of economic costs:
• Direct costs: the immediate costs of repairing damage caused by the event. In the case of earthquakes this will often include demolishing buildings fractured by the shock waves and rebuilding from scratch.
• Indirect costs: loss of earnings caused by disruption to working life. Increasingly, major natural hazards are causing secondary technological and industrial accidents and emergencies for example, the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant in Japan.
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Exemplar table for your research: hazard impacts over
timeAction for students: Draw a table to organise and capture your
research foreach case study using the prompts in the table.Impacts Physical Social EconomicShort term Notable examples of natural and
human-built landscape destroyed. Fires due to gas pipe explosions and electrical damage? Landslides and flooding?
Numbers of killed and injured, noting those in essential service professionals like doctors and policemen injured. Lack of food and health supplies? Damage or loss of homes, transport, communications, health care facilities, energy and water supply systems?
Note tangible losses due to the direct impact of property damage like destruction to shops and trade damaged or disrupted. Also, indirect losses resulting from social economic disruption, trade impacted by loss of communication, transport and water and energy supply infrastructure. Looting?
Long term Intangible losses like the destruction of important natural and human landmarks and fertile lands.
Put here public health problems like disease (e.g., cholera due to contaminated water and lack of hygiene). Numbers of homeless and displaced people needing shelter and rehousing. Information on indirect impacts like stress and psychological damage.
Are settlements and shops being rebuilt and, if so, to higher standards? Settlements moved? People rehoused? Is there any positive impact in the form of aid, reconstruction and grants?
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PART II – SECTION THREETECTONIC HAZARDS: HUMAN IMPACTS
Haiti research
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Immediately after the Haiti Earthquake (2010)
Action for students:Based on the videos and website below extract relevant earthquake facts and record your findings using your table of physical, economic and social impacts. Include a short description of the scene in Port au Prince immediately after the earthquake.
• MSF audio slideshow / eyewitness account: http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/photogallery/gallery.cfm?id=4256&cat=audio-slideshow&ref=tag-index
• Disasters Emergency Committee:http://www.dec.org.uk/haiti-earthquake-facts-and-figures
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Three days after in Haiti
Action for students:It has been three days since the earthquake. Place what needs to be done in order of urgency:
Organise emergency shelter Bring in supplies for survivors
Bury the dead
Stabilize damaged buildings
Set up emergency hospital Fix life lines like transport
Search for more survivors Found coordination committee
Adapted from: http://www.nunthorpe.co.uk/search?q=earthquakes&ie=UTF-8&cof=FORID%3A10&cx=015410234279401869432%3A7j6dhnj6yqs Contents
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The first seven days in Haiti
Action for students:Use the resources listed here to write a brief report on the impact on people and places in the first 7 days after the region’s worst earthquake in 200 years.
• CBS news: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c_dMzgy3Pp4&playnext=1&list=PLDBCAD099174FD776&feature=results_video
• Earthquake Timeline: http://www.msf.ie/news/haiti-earthquake-msf-activity-timeline
• Haiti soon after the quake: http://www.msf.org.uk/haiti_update_photo_20100119.news
• Surgeon report: http://youtu.be/9mlOL1srGIs Contents
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Why did so many people die in the Haiti earthquake?
Action for students:
1. Click on the link and read the news report of Lucy Rodgers of BBC News: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8510900.stm
2. Use the news report, maps and your own research to write a Report (no more than 1000 words) to account for why the Haiti earthquake had so much greater human cost than the earthquake in Sichuan, China (2008) and in L’Aquila, Italy (2009) which were similar in magnitude.
3. When planning your Report, make sure you review the Report writing schema .
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Haiti a ‘class quake’?Action for students:
1. Review your research on the Haiti Earthquake and also the Japan Earthquake and tsunami and extract information and data from your research to write an extended report with the following title:The Haiti Earthquake (2010) could be viewed as a ‘class quake’. Compare and contrast the Haiti earthquake with the Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011) and reach your own conclusions about whether you believe Haiti was a ‘class quake.’
2. The websites on the humanitarian response on the previous slides can help illustrate the human impact.
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PART II – SECTION THREETECTONIC EVENTS: HUMAN IMPACTS
Prediction
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Earthquake predictionAction for students:1. Research from the list below possible indicators of imminent earthquake activity and the
reliability of these indicators in predicting earthquakes. 2. Divide the research amongst fellow students and share your research with a written note
for each student on the reliability of these indicators in predicting earthquakes:
Indicators of imminent earthquakes
• P and S wave ratio• Foreshocks• Water levels in wells• Radon levels in well• Levels of manganese, zinc and copper in basaltic rocks• Changes in the electrical properties of rocks • Ground deformation• Unusual animal behaviour• Monitoring how fast strain accumulates• Monitoring with satellites electrical charges
3. Is it possible to predict the time, place and magnitude of future earthquakes in a precise, timely and reliable way? Is there a method that is successful beyond chance, statistically more than a lucky guess?
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Earthquake prediction
Action for students:1. Watch the BBC video on predicting
earthquakes on the North Anatolian Fault in Van, Turkey (2011). (04.49 mins). Watch it at least twice and make notes for your research guided by the prompts below
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/earth/natural_disasters/earthquake#p00gmsgt
Source: IRIS
2. Consider the prompts: •Why is it easier for scientists to calculate where the next earthquake could have happened on this fault?•What factors did the scientists use for their prediction model? •What was the response of the people to the scientists prediction? •When did the earthquake happen? •What was the magnitude and how long did it
last ? •What was the impact of the earthquake-how many people were killed and how destructive
was the earthquake on the city.
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L’Aquila, Italy (2009)http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/04/the_laquila_earthquake.html
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Jail for members of the Great Risks Commission
Case Study: L'Aquila, Italy (2009) Earthquake of magnitude 6.3 hit the Abruzzi town of L'Aquila on 6 April
2009 following a series of swarms (small, but numerous tremors on a daily basis) during the preceding 2 months.
In a public meeting 6 days prior to the main shock, members of Italy's Great Risks Commission downplayed the likelihood of a major quake and did not reiterate what risks people faced if one did occur.
This was in response to an amateur seismologist, Giampaolo Giuliani, who was predicting a major quake based on radon readings on his home made radon monitoring devices.
On 22 October 2012, 6 scientists and one ex-government official (all members of the great risks commission who attended the meeting) were found guilty of manslaughter by an Italian judge, as they played down the risks of a major shock. They were sentenced to 6 years in prison.
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Pitfalls to Prediction and Communication of Risks
Reasons for authorities and people not to act on disaster warnings:
• Uncertainty in scientific information / difficulty in predicting earthquakes
• Unease with scientific jargon (communicate in less academic fashion)
• Lacking emergency response infrastructure ,for example, national and international channels between scientists, authorities, agencies and communities and linked policies.
• Competing risks/priorities (need to assess likely post-earthquake behaviour to target warnings)
• Too many false alarms (need to use local hazard indicators, such as, animal behaviour and work with media).
Sources:http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110914/pdf/477264a.pdf, http://www.nature.com/news/l-aquila-verdict-row-grows-1.11683,http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2012/11/01/laquila-earthquake-conviction/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/early-warning-of-disasters-facts-and-figures/
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Why were the experts jailed?
Action for students:1. Using research from previous slides
and taking into account the difficulty of predicting earthquakes, why have these experts been jailed? The media suggests it is because they did not accurately predict the 6 April major shock. Evidence suggests, however, that they misled the public as to the risks of such a quake occurring and that the public then acted as though the risk was small.
2. What are the implications for predicting major natural disasters in the future, not just earthquakes?
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PART II – SECTION FOURRESPONSES TO TECTONIC HAZARDS
Strategies for copingInsight into humanitarian workCholera and GIS in HaitiSocial MediaDisaster Risk Reduction
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Section FourResponses to tectonic hazards
This section focuses on coping with tectonic hazards. Different community capacity can define the approach - the extent to which a country can implement:
• Relief• Rehabilitation• Reconstruction, mitigation and
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Section FourResponses to tectonic hazards
How do people cope with tectonic hazards and what are the issues for the future?
Learning outcomes:• Understand how people and governments
cope with tectonic hazards.*• Be familiar with specific ways of adjusting to
tectonic hazards.*• Be aware of the different approaches to the
challenges of tectonic hazards.*Contents
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PART II – SECTION FOURRESPONSES TO TECTONIC HAZARDS
Strategies for coping
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Coping with tectonic hazards
Essentially there are three options:
• Do nothing• Adjust• Leave
The choice of option depends on a number of factors including the nature of the hazard, its frequency, its magnitude, population pressure in the location and the level of economic development.
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Strategies for copingStrategies used to adjust to hazard threat focus on:• Modifying the loss• Modifying the event• Modifying human vulnerability
Capacity for coping derives from being able to access information, authority, institutions, partnerships and plans, resources and procedures to deal with the hazard. Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions www.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdf
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The Park ModelThe model sketches the phases following the tectonic hazard event:
The relief phaseThe immediate response, focus is on saving lives and property. Teams, such as MSF, from outside the immediate area help with search, rescue and care operations. Urgent medical supplies, rescue equipment, clothing and food may be brought in.
Rehabilitation phase More complex than relief, this may last for several months, efforts are made to restore physical and community structures, at least temporarily.
Reconstruction, mitigation and preparednessPermanent changes are introduced to restore the quality of life and economic stability to the pre-disaster level or better. This can also include mitigation and preparedness – reducing vulnerability.
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Park hazard response model
• PRO: Useful to compare different events, curves of which can be drawn and compared on the same graph.
Source: Bob Digby, “A2 examinations: Developing your skills in extended writing”, http://www.rgs.org/nr/rdonlyres/...1bb7.../bobdigbyextendedwriting.ppt
• CON: Model is general, does not account for different levels of development and other issues affecting disruption and recovery.
.
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Relief phaseRelief defines “the set of activities implemented after the impact
of a disaster in order to assess the needs reduce the suffering limit the spread and the consequences of the disaster open the way to rehabilitation”
Resilience how able a community is to adapt and to recover.
Emergency defines a state in which normal procedures are suspended and extra-ordinary measures are taken in order to avert or deal with a disaster
Further info on immediate relief activities:http://training.fema.gov/emiweb/downloads/EarthquakeEM/Session%2011/Session%2011%20Response%20and%20Recovery_01.pdf
Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions; http://www.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdf
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Rehabilitation and reconstruction
Rehabilitation and reconstruction actions include:• repair and reconstruction of lifelines and building;• measures to turn around post-earthquake economic
downturns; • and financial assistance after losses.
The recovery period is also a good time to adopt new mitigation measures such as a more earthquake-resistant built environment (Mileti, 1999).
Sources:http://training.fema.gov/emiweb/downloads/EarthquakeEM/Session%2011/Session%2011%20Response%20and%20Recovery_01.pdfMeliti, D. 1999. Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States. Joseph Henry Press.
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Important lifelines.
Visual 11.2 – Graph illustrating time required for repair of lifelines following the 1995Kobe, Japan Earthquake. Visual from Chang (2000).
Earthquakes affect above- and below- ground lifelines. Buried utilities and communication systems are more likely to be damaged as a result of earthquakes than natural hazards
Transportation facilities have an especially large impact on theresponse and recovery efforts, because it usually takes much longer to repair them than other lifelines Chang, 2000). Source: http://training.fema.gov/emiweb/downloads/EarthquakeEM/Session%2011/Session%2011%20Response%20and%20Recovery_01.pdfChang, S. 2000. “Transportation Performance, Disaster Vulnerability, and Long-Term Effects of Earthquakes.” Second Euro Conference on Global Change and Catastrophe Risk Management. Luxemburg, Austria, July 6-9, 2000. Available from: http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/RMS/july2000/Papers/chang3006.pdf.
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Haiti: ongoing crisis
Four times; 12; 26; 1,500; 10,000; 358,000, 1 million, 1.5 million, 10 million
• Interim Haitian Reconstruction Commission with _____members, ____ of which were Haitian, was set up to endow government with direct decision-making power and to improve coordination, but was marginalised early on by partisan politics.
• About ______ NGOs (A) were active in Haiti after the 2010 earthquake for a population of _______.
• Three years on over ______Haitians still need assistance. (UN)
• The amount of aid was about ______the country’s internal revenue as of October 2012.
Source: Brookings, Data as of October 2012http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2012/10/11-haiti-bradley, http://www.oxfam.org/en/emergencies/haiti-earthquake/three-years-on-
photos
Further info
Click on the relief web bulletin on resettlement of IDPs and the guardian video:
http://reliefweb.int/report/haiti/haiti-humanitarian-bulletin-issue-22-september-2012http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty-matters/2013/jan/10/hope-for-haiti-despite-critics?intcmp=122
15,000; 200,000; 369,000; 1 million;
Over ______were re-housed. ______ of the _______ homes destroyed or damaged were rebuilt.
Another ______ remain displaced in tent cities and in sidewalk shanties made with tarpaulins. Those most affected by the earthquake tended to be the most destitute.
Data as of October 2012Source: Brookings http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2012/10/11-haiti-bradley
Action for students: Place the appropriate number in the blank spaces
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PART II – SECTION FOURRESPONSES TO TECTONIC HAZARDS
Insight into humanitarian work
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Reliefin Japan
A consultation at an evacuation centre for earthquake survivors in Minami Sanriku. MSF gave treatment of chronic diseases for people who had their treatment interrupted by the devastating quake and tsunami. Source:MSF_Activity_Report_2011_lowres_201208200807.pdf
MSF staff treat a patient in an evacuation centre in Minami Sanriku, Japan. March 2011
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© Giulio Di Sturco/ VII mentor
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Psychosocial support in Japan
Psychological assistance was an area in which MSF could offer increased support.
“People can have intrusive memories of the event, flashbacks, nightmares. People can withdraw and not want to communicate. Some people will not be able to sleep, to eat, and all of these things can make them very different than they used to be and can cause significant suffering,” Ha Young, MSF Korea
MSF psychologists in a MSF cafe space near Bayside Arena, Minami Sanriku, Miyagi prefecture. Photo by Eddy McCall/MSF
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Haiti 2010: MSF’s response
MSF emergency response in Haiti was its largest in its 40-year history. Thousands of Haitians, most of whom were directly affected by the disaster, mobilised along with 3,400 staff to help MSF provide assistance in hospitals and four mobile clinics.
MSF’s humanitarian action is based purely on need, independent of any religious or political agenda. Predominately MSF is focused on medical assistance, a subset of humanitarian assistance, but it also performsnon-medical activities like providing tents, safe water or latrines.
Further info:• September 2012 Humanitarian Snapshot
http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/map_3010.pdf
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Emergency medical care in Haiti
Wounded people congregate in MSF compound
MSF tents provide shelter
Photos by July Remy / MSF
By the end of June 2010, MSF had distributed more than 28,640 tents, approximately 2,800 rolls of plastic sheeting, and close to 85,000 relief supply kits (made up of items such as cooking utensils, hygiene products and blankets) to people living near the epicentre of the earthquake. Contents
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From 12th January to 31st October, medical teams treated more than 358,000 people and performed more than 16,500 surgeries.
Photos by Julie Remy
MSF surgeons performed more than 5,700 major surgical procedures during the first three months, 150 of which involved amputations.
MSF staff operate on a patient with broken legs at a makeshift surgery outside Carrefour hospital, Port-au-Prince.
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An operating theatre in a container at Trinite Hospital, Haiti.
An operating theatre in a container at Trinite Hospital, Haiti. An inflatable tent hospital also replaced the destroyed La Trinité hospital and provided emergency medical care and more specialised trauma and orthopaedic surgical care.
Photo by Benoit Finck/MSF
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The work of a MSF logistician in Haiti
Action for students:
1. Visit the MSF UK website: Click on Working with us/working overseas/ who do we need?/ logistician to learn about the work of a MSF logistician and to view the video about the work of a logistician. (6.50 mins)
2. In pairs, read the logistician’s blog (in Appendix) about his work in Haiti prior to the earthquake, when the earthquake occurred and afterwards.
3. Read and critique the reports each of you wrote previously on the first seven days and discuss if you need to amend your reports in light of the blog of the logistician.
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Outbreaks of cholera in Haiti: Long-term social problems
ContentsSource: Dupuis, Ludovic, “Field-friendly spatial analysis tool to aid MSF cholera response in Haiti”
Cholera and GIS in Haiti
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Cholera, water and sanitation
A patient rests in the tent for the most severe cholera cases.
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• Cholera is a bacterial infection caused by drinking water or eating food contaminated with vibrio cholerae bacteria.
•Some of the symptoms, diarrhoea and Vomiting, can lead to dehydration or worse.
•Affects between 3 to 5 million people and causes between 100,000 and 130,000
deaths a year.
•Cholera is treatable in many situations. Photo by Scott Eisen
• Clean water and sanitation facilities are vital in any emergency situation, as without them diseases spread quickly.
Further info: On cholera http://www.msf.org.uk/cholera.focushttp://www.msf.org.uk/cholera_treatment.aspxhttp://reliefweb.int/report/haiti/epidemiological-update-cholera-7-january-2013
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Cholera outbreaks and riots
• October 2012: the first documented cholera case since 1960.• From October 2010 to 31 December 2012, the total number of cholera cases reached
635,980, of which 350,679 (55%) were hospitalized and 7,912 died. • Since November 2011, the global case-fatality rate was 1.2% with significant
variations across regions.• UN blamed for outbreak, riots erupt and Haiti demand for compensation rejected.
BBC on UN peacekeepers, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15648110; Guardian on UN rejecting compensation: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-21542842http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/nov/29/haiti-appeal-cholera-nepal-peacekeepersOn 10-year plan http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2013/feb/28/haiti-plan-cholera-un-fundsPhoto: http://www.haitian-truth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Picture-13.png
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MSF’s cholera response
MSF response• In 2010 alone, MSF treated more than 91,000 of the 171,300 people (25% of total) reported as
having cholera in Haiti nationwide in 73 CTCs. • Among those coming for treatment are some of the most vulnerable populations, including
pregnant women.• MSF uses preventative anti-cholera kits to prevent further spread with items such as rubber
gloves, buckets, disinfectants, plastic cups, spoons, soap and water purification tablets. • MSF cholera treatment kits include oral rehydration.
The staff at these clinics include epidemiologists and water and sanitation experts, who make sure there is safe, clean drinking water and build latrines
Cholera Kit
CTC
Photo MSF / Lachant
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Inside a cholera treatment centre (CTC)
Action for students: What’s inside a CTC? Interact with this resource.http://ctc.msf.org/home/en
?
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Geographic Information Systems and cholera response
Geographical information systems (GIS) are “organized collections of hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel data designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of geographically referenced information.”(Fema)
GIS support:• timely and better decision-making and communication.• Cost saving and higher efficiency.• Better record-keeping.• With seismic models they can forecast and graphically display (e.g., digitized
colour maps) damages for earthquake scenarios. • With early-warning systems they can provide an almost real-time graphical
display of a region’s shaking effects.
Source:http://training.fema.gov/emiweb/downloads/EarthquakeEM/Session%2011/Session%2011%20Response%20and%20Recovery_01.pdfhttp://www.esri.com/what-is-gis/overview#top_five_panel
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Source: Dupuis, Ludovic et al, ibid 137
CASE-FATALITY RATE. The proportion of persons with a particular condition (cases) who die from that condition. The denominator is the number of incident cases; the numerator is the number of cause-specific deaths among those cases.
CASE. In epidemiology, a countable instance in the population or study group of a particular disease, health disorder, or condition under investigation. Sometimes, as here, an individual with the particular disease.
Source: Dupuis, Ludovic et al, ibid; http://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/epiglossary/glos
sary.htmmiller
EPIDEMIC CURVE. A histogram that shows the course of a disease outbreak or epidemic by plotting the number of cases by time of onset
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL WEEK (epi week or a CDC week) is a standardized method of counting weeks to allow for the comparison of data year after year and across countries. The first epi week ends on the first Saturday in January provided it falls at least 4 days into the month.
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Need for GIS Mapping in Haiti
Geographic Information Systems• Outbreak investigation describing cases:
• What? Case definition• Who? Person• When? Time• Where? Place• How many? Measures of occurrence
• Cholera data tool produced epidemic curves and basic epidemiological analysis (person and time).
• However, geographical analysis (place) was lacking.• Field staff needed to map the cholera outbreak to
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Development of GIS mapping in Haiti by MSF
• Variable functionalities, skill set and costs• Google Earth is easy to use and free
• Collaboration with Google.org• Designed ‘Jiffymap’ to convert linelist into map
• Quartier boundaries• Local staff, GPS on motorbike and crowd-sourcing
• Field teams / national staff carried out all mapping
Source: Dupuis, Ludovic et al, “Field-friendly spatial analysis tool to aid MSF cholera response in Haiti”
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Source: Dupuis, Ludovic et al, ibid
Satellite image and number of cholera cases
K Size of red crossed square is proportional to the number of cases
Source: Dupuis, Ludovic, ibid
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GIS systemsGIS could support field operations through improved:• Medical response• Targeting of interventions• Epidemiological analysis• Activity planning • AdvocacySource: Dupuis, Ludovic et al, “Field-friendly spatial analysis tool to aid MSF cholera response in Haiti”
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GIS and cholera response
GIS systems could support MSF field operations through improved:
• Medical responses• Targeting of interventions• Epidemiological analysis *• Activity planning• Advocacy
Source: Dupuis, Ludovic et al, ibid
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* Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations and this studies’ application to the control of health problems.
Photo by Ron Haviv/VII
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PART II – SECTION FOURRESPONSES TO TECTONIC HAZARDS
Social media
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Information and communication technologies (ICTs): social media
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Relief organisations have traditionally used centralised control centres to gather and share information.
Developments in ICT have enabled a more rapid dissemination of information and have led to the availability of real time situation updates.
• ICT can support risk communication to the public that
clearly and quickly identifies risks to mitigate disasters and promote certain behaviors and
measures. The earthquakes in both Japan and Haiti have seen
interesting developments which have saved lives and alleviated suffering.Source: “Great Eastern Japan Earthquake”,
http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2011/05/the-great-eastern-japan-earthquake-assessing-disaster-response-and-lessons-for-the-us
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Mobile phone technology: Haiti and Japan
HAITI - “Mission 4636”A group of companies, including Ushahidi, FrontlineSMS, CrowdFlower and Samasource, set up a text message hotline that was supported by the U.S. Department of State and advertised by radio stations. Anyone in Port-au-Prince could send an SMS to a toll-free number, 4636, to request help. The messages were routed to relief crews at the U.S. Coast Guard and the International Red Cross on the ground.
JAPAN - SMS alertsJapanese agencies disseminate SMS alerts to every registered mobile phone user in the country as soon as p-waves are detected.
Source: http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/early-warning-of-disasters-facts-and-figures/Source: http://techcrunch.com/2010/08/21/crowdsourcing-disaster-relief/
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With telecommunications infrastructure now ubiquitous, there are 4 billion mobile phones worldwide, the majority in developing countries. Mobile phones are increasingly used as part of preparation activities and warning communication. Their use in emergency communications, especially through SMS is revolutionising the flow of information. Texts take up less bandwidth than calls and are much less affected by network delays
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Crowdsourcing and crisis mapping
"Often, it's not the experts who know something, it's someone in the crowd“*
• Crowdsourcing capitalises on the increasing reach of internet connectivity and ICTs. A community of connected volunteers ‘crowdsource’, that is, provide information and/or expertise to enhance relief operations.
• Crisis mapping draws on crowdsourcing initiatives like Ushahidi and satellite imagery, participatory maps and statistical modelling for early warning and at times of impending crisis. They are not maps by traditional mapmakers that would appear in a standard Atlas!
• After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, for example, crowdsourcing allowed people on the scene, mapping experts and other stakeholders to communicate what they saw in nearly real time supporting the humanitarian response.
• There is a lot of potential for relief organisations.
Further info: National Geographic Haiti crisis mapping:http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2012/07/02/crisis-mapping-haiti/
Source: * Sree Sreenivasan, a social media specialist at the Columbia Graduate School of Journalism. (USAToday, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/2011-04-11-japan-social-media_N.htm)
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Voluntweeters in Haiti
Non TtT Tweet(2010-01-18 10:30:09) orphanage in urgentneed of supplies in Laboule: Clairnise or Alberte509-3400-9797
Reformatted Tweet(2010-01-18 11:11:11) #haiti #need supplies #name orphanage #loc Laboule #contact clairnise or alberte509.3400.9797 #rescuemehaitiSource on crowdsourcing and Tweak the Tweet: http://crowdresearch.org/chi2011-workshop/papers/starbird.pdf
Tweak the Tweet is a system of codifying tweets to be picked up automatically by relief agencies without using human sorting (secondary level crowdsourcing was seen when tweets were retweeted by volunteers who codified them to fit the system). In Haiti there were over 3000 unique TtT tweets sent and 7 million tweets.
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Crisis mapping using crowdsourcing- Japan
“Within an hour of the Japanese earthquake, Google's crisis response team — launched after the disaster in Haiti — had posted a "Person Finder" website that quickly grew to include 450,000 records. If you're looking for someone, you can post, 'Hey, my cousin is a teacher in Sendai, we're looking for him. Someone else will post, "I've seen him in a shelter; he's fine." Jamie Yood of Google
Source:http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/2011-04-11-japan-social-media_N.htmhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/2011-04-11-japan-social-media_N.htm
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PART II – SECTION FOURRESPONSES TO TECTONIC HAZARDS
Disaster Risk Reduction
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Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
While the Park Hazard Model charts the response to one or more hazard events, Disaster Risk Reduction is a preventative disaster management approach.
• In the relief phase reactive measures deal with acute immediate needs, emergency response to life and death.
• Rehabilitation, reconstruction, prevention and preparedness
deal with longer-term causes of disaster and chronic needs. Vulnerability and loss and disruption are minimised through technical, social and economic measures such as pre-positioned plans and community capacity building for improving development.
Action for students: Play a disaster simulation game from the UN/ISDR, click: http://www.stopdisastersgame.org/en/home.html
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Disaster risk management cycleA hazard or disaster can be an opportunity to reduce vulnerability and minimize disruption of future hazards.
Source: FLOODsitehttp://www.floodsite.net/html/cd_task17-19/images/graphs/task_17/flood_management_practice_UE.jpg
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Hyogo Framework for Action
In 2005 the World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan agreed on a Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) to prioritize DRR on a global scale.
I. Make DRR a priority at the national and local level with strong institutional basis for implementation.
II. Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning, take action.
III. Use knowledge, innovation and education to build awareness and a culture of safety and resilience at all levels.
IV. Reduce the underlying risk factors.V. Strengthen disaster preparedness for
effective response at all levels, be ready to act.Source: UNISDR, www.unisdr.org/hfa
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Millennium Development Goals
The Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015) observes that disaster risk reduction (DRR) is essential to achieve internationally agreed development goals, including those contained in the Millennium Declaration.
DRR matters because poor countries and communities have much lower capacity to reduce risk and are disproportionately affected.
Source: http://beijingcircles.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/mdgs-large.jpgContents
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Objectives of mitigationAction for students: Use the words increase and decrease in the spaces where
appropriate.
• Save lives• ________ economic disruption• ________ vulnerability• _______ capacity• _______ risk
Risk Reduction Source: http://www.who.int/disasters/repo/5514.pdf
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MitigationPrimary mitigation
Mitigation is about preventing hazards from becoming disasters or lessening their effects primarily through reducing vulnerability, as the hazards themselves largely cannot prevented or predicted. This can be done by minimizing the effects of disaster through building codes and zoning, public education and vulnerability analyses.• In primary mitigation the presence of the hazard, where
possible, and of the vulnerability is reduced.• Secondary mitigation is intended to decrease the
impact of the hazard through preparedness and planning.Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions http://www.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdfThe Disaster Management Cycle, http://www.gdrc.org/uem/disasters/1-dm_cycle.html
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Primary mitigation: Vulnerability analyses
Vulnerability analysis has to take account of the nature of the settlement and its infrastructure, for example:
• Medium height buildings are more vulnerable than tall or single storey buildings.
• Masonry buildings are more vulnerable than wooden or steel framed buildings (albeit the fire risk is greater).
• The location of services (electricity, gas, water)may have an impact on potential damage.
• The design and size of roads and bridges etc will have an impact on evacuation, emergency access and potential loss of life.
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PreparednessSecondary mitigation
Secondary mitigation seeks to reduce the effects of the hazard through preparing and planning how to respond. Measures “ensure the organized mobilization of personnel, funds, equipment and supplies within a safe environment for effective relief.”(WHO/EHA 2002)
• For preparedness, these efforts include preparedness plans, emergency exercises and training; warning systems.
• In terms of response, measures such as search and rescue and emergency relief intend to minimize the hazards created by a disaster through search and rescue, emergency relief.
Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions; http://www.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdf
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Planning for earthquakes
• Planning for an earthquake is usually based on the assumption everything will be destroyed, for example, an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 or above in San Francisco would destroy everything.
• Earthquakes happen without warning and it is impossible to plan response activity in advance.
• Earthquakes are more likely (by a ratio of 3:1) during non working hours)
• Communication systems may well be damaged which will hamper response management.
• Aftershocks will cause additional damage, interfere with response efforts and cause anxiety in the population.
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Government strategies
Key strategies used by governments:• Land use zoning• Building regulations• Evacuation drills• Emergency service provision
Further info: •Federal Emergency Management Agency Fema (www.fema.gov) gives advice on how to cope and prepare for events such as earthquakes.•Los Angeles Fire department LAFD (www.lafd.org) gives advice on how to prepare for earthquakes.
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Individual preparation:Grab bag in Japan.
.
ContentsSource: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-12759840
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Hamlet of Aneyoshi Photo by Jay Alabaster AP
Ancient warning systemIn Japan, hundreds of centuries-old tablets – some over 600 years old - dot the coastline and form a crude warning system. The stone slab reads: “High dwellings are the peace and harmony of our descendants. Remember the calamity of the great tsunamis. Do not build any homes below this point.“ Source: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/06/japan-tsunami-warnings-fr_n_845818.html# Contents
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Modern early warning system
Japan: satellite communication technology
Japan is the World leader in Earthquake preparedness, the earthquake set off the Pacific Ocean Tsunami Warning System DART II and warned about a tsunami across the Pacific. The warnings were more coordinated than after the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004, so more people could evacuate to higher ground.
Satellite communication has improved which has reduced the lag between data collection and warning. A recorder on the seabed that transmits data about anomalies to a buoy on the surface. Then the data is transmitted every 15 seconds via satellite to ground stations.
But Japan had only planned and prepared for a 200 to 300-year tsunami, not a 1000 year one (1 in 1000
years).Source: USGS and NOAA; http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/early-warning-of-disasters-facts-and-figures/
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Early Warning Systems and Damage Assessment
Without prediction, there cannot be early warning. Early warning needs to be followed by action to make any difference. Even a lead time of a few seconds can allow some mitigating measures like shutting down gas supply lines.
Government agencies must have emergency infrastructure, for example, working channels of communication in place in order to communicate warnings to local communities. (see Japan and Preparedness)
Early warning systems such as TriNet and ShakeMaps and damage assessment / prediction tools such as GPS, GIS mapping systems predict and illustrate probable damages from a number of disaster scenarios.
Sources:http://training.fema.gov/emiweb/downloads/EarthquakeEM/Session%2011/Session%2011%20Response%20and%20Recovery_01.pdfhttp://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/early-warning-of-disasters-facts-and-figures/http://www.iris.edu/hq/programs/education_and_outreach/distinguished_lectureship/past_speakers/wald
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Early warning responsein Japan
Source: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/Activities/image/eew2.png Contents
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Mitigation and preparedness in LEDCs
Mitigation measures especially long-term management of economic and
urban development in seismic areas are less likely to be efficient or in place in less developed countries.• People are more likely to settle in seismic areas and these tend to
be densely populated with high occupancy buildings. • Earthquake-proof building codes and by-laws are more likely to be
inadequate, unenforced or non-existent, so the damage to property and human life is greater.
• Warning systems are absent or lacking. There tend to be lower awareness of risks, less public education and fewer drills, but even where people are aware, economic survival takes precedence over safety concerns.
• Public capacity to deal with search and rescue and mass casualties can be lower.
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The Park ModelAction for students:
1. Research Japan’s response after the Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)using the graph you made for the short- and long-term impacts in Japan and Haiti as a starting point. How successfully does Japan cope with its susceptibility to tectonic hazards and reduce its risk?
2. Sketch a Park Model diagram for Haiti and Japan showing the speed of the drop in quality of life, duration of the decline, and speed and nature of recovery.
3. Compare and contrast Haiti and Japan’s response referring back to the Disaster Risk Reduction Model.
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What for Japan and Haiti’s future?
Action for students:• How can Japan and Haiti cope with
their vulnerability and exposure to natural hazards?
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APPENDIX
Logistician’s blog from HaitiInternational humanitarian system and assistance
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Haiti Blog: Before the earthquake (1)
Logistician, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
• Life progresses as usual here, but this is not a usual situation compared with my experiences back home. A pregnant woman arrived in the hospital yesterday and it was all hands on deck. We already had a full maternity ward, with patients on makeshift beds in the corridors. But what do you do when yet another one arrives who needs emergency care? I arrange for another bed packed beside the others and let the medics get on with their work. One emergency Caesarean Section later and mother and child are well.
• It's not just the emergencies that are exciting. All aspects of my work here are interesting. MSF is running a
maternity hospital in the capital. There are no other facilities like it in Haiti at all and the statistics on mother and child health are still terrible. Maternal and infant mortality are especially high which is why MSF's emergency care for complicated deliveries is so important.
• My job is so varied. The infrastructure in Haiti is very poor, with basic services such as electricity, clean, running
water and transport very unreliable. I make sure that the hospital has all of these, backing up electricity with our generators, servicing the water systems and running the fleet of cars MSF uses for transporting staff and patients alike. I also run the medical supply system which is a huge challenge, trying to get safe, certified medicines to the patients through our supply hub in Amsterdam. The cold chain is a particular challenge in this heat – many medicines must be kept between 2 and 8 C at all times and with unreliable electricity we use a system of fridges and cold boxes.
• The country is so poor which means MSF has to bring in virtually all its supplies. You cannot rely on anything being available which means planning months ahead. I have found this to be pretty tricky when you can't really predict how many patients you will have from one week to another!
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Before theearthquake (2)
• And now a little about the country itself from what I have seen. Port-Au-Prince is a thriving, but very busy city with everything you might expect of a capital city in the developing world. There are markets everywhere and a huge contrast between rich and poor. The slums are very basic and house an amazing number of people, but this is also where the gangs are based. They control so much of the city and we struggle to get anything done when they are involved. People seem to get by though, working, trading and buying in the markets, fishing etc., although most live without basic services in the shanties and neighbourhoods.
• In the countryside it is a little different – Haiti is very densely populated and most of the forest has been cut down to provide building materials and wood for making charcoal to cook with. One of the most amazing sights is the border with Dominican Republic where you can physically see the line of trees that signifies the Dominican side. The country is hilly and exposed to all manner of natural disaster – in the last 10 years they have seen hurricanes, deforestation, flooding and earthquakes, all of which make it a very precarious place to live.
• All in all, we manage to make things work OK here. MSF manages to provide emergency care to mothers and children in a place where it would otherwise not exist. It is hard work, but we still manage to have some fun and just sharing all of this with our national staff and being part of our patients' lives is very rewarding. I saw the mother and baby who I made the makeshift bed for this morning and they are both well. It makes all the hard work worthwhile.
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Immediately after the earthquake (1)
• I simply don't have time to write, and I don't know where to start, but I must update you briefly about what has happened. Also to say that I am OK, but so many are not. Two days ago the earth shook and changed the face of this already struggling country. It is not an overestimation to say that virtually everything has been destroyed.
• We do not have much information about what has really happened because all the communication except satellite phones are down. I can send this email via the sat link, but we only download once a day. The reports we have had are only from our staff, many of whom are still missing. Some of my international colleagues were missing for a time, but are now all accounted for. We know that most homes have collapsed, the hospital is almost totally destroyed and many of our patients and staff are under the rubble. We hear that rescue operations will begin tomorrow, but little is known. There is total chaos here.
• We have been without water and electricity since the earthquake, but I have managed to get some basics sorted out. We are still using our emergency water supplies and I simply don't know when they will be replenished. I have rigged up some basic electricity using our small back up generators, but we only have a limited amount of fuel for them. Contents
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Immediately after the earthquake (2)
• Everyone is in shock: roads are blocked, essential services are destroyed and we now have to make sense of the situation and work out how we can help in the best way possible. There are so many things to do. We must work out how to treat the wounded, how to get clean water (not just for ourselves, but also the entire population in the city), how to get supplies in as the port and airport are both closed. And what about our existing patients in the maternity hospital? Babies will no doubt still be born and who will look after the complicated deliveries? To be honest, we are completely overwhelmed here, but we must work out at least where to start.
• I have just heard a report that there maybe thousands of people buried under the rubble. That means that sadly many will be dead and many more injured. Right now we are not set up to provide medical or humanitarian care to these people so I must focus on rebuilding our facilities and getting more emergency supplies into the country.
• I have very little idea how the Haitian people are coping with the tragedy and the mess. Some of our staff have
made it in today and have told us about how their shanties have been flattened, but people are busy rebuilding them already. The trouble is that with rubble everywhere and no supplies coming into the country, nothing can get to the neighbourhoods. Food is already short and water can only be obtained from old wrecked piping. People are still pulling friends and neighbours out of the rubble. No news has come in yet about the situation in the countryside, but we do know that the epicentre of the quake was right in Port-au-Prince. We have to hope that some of the outlying areas were spared, but I just don't know.
• There is so much to be done and I have to work with colleagues to prioritise the most essential things first. Which
means I have to go....!
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Six months after (1)• Haiti is still such a mess. The immediate emergency of the earthquake has passed, but there is
still so much to do. Essential services remain in very poor repair and the challenges I faced pre-earthquake are still there. They just feel multiplied a hundred times because now we have a whole catalogue of new problems.
• As you all know, the death toll was horrific, but the mess that remains challenges us to the
limit. The emergency wounded have been tended to, but we still have awful orthopaedic cases that we see and there will continue to be lots of rehabilitation necessary. Basic services have broken down and supplies have been so limited we have also become aware of a problem with people living with HIV/AIDS as their essential medication is very short supply.
• The maternity hospital is, mercifully, up and running to the best of our abilities. I have worked
round the clock to help a huge team construct a new hospital out of container like units and we have managed to get the essential medical equipment and supplies from Amsterdam. In some ways things have stabilised and I now feel that we have a bit of time to reflect on the last few months. It has been very traumatic, not least of which has been coming to terms with the death of some of our staff and their families.
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Six months after (2)• If cholera comes to Haiti it could be horrific. The population is still in shock from the earthquake and the
destruction it caused, but this would be too much for them. MSF has lots of experience around the world at dealing with cholera, but in this place it would be so hard to deal with, given the lack of infrastructure.
• The other problem is security. The earthquake created a situation where people had to fend for themselves
and we have seen a return to the gang culture that plagued the country pre-earthquake. The gangs control everything and even we, as MSF, have to negotiate this situation. The gangs do not think twice about using violence if they do not get their own way and this has complicated our work immeasurably. There are times when it simply is not safe enough to go out and do your job. Just yesterday I had planned to go and check the water supply for one of our community clinics, but we received word from the local gang that they controlled the water supply and threatened me if I went to check it. How do we know they are doing it well? What are they charging people who have nothing for clean water? What are the health implications if people are forced to use water from the stream? I have no answers to these questions, but I still have the responsibility of ensuring that people have clean water.
• Now that things have settled down a bit life has slowly resumed in Port-au-Prince. The markets are running
again and I see people picking through the rubble to get about. Some of the roads have been cleared so people can move about more freely and the air and seaports are running as before the quake. Many of the shanty buildings have been put together again, but the bigger houses are still as they were, in ruins.
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Six months after (3)• Some construction has begun again, but not a lot. The good news is that produce can get into the city from
the countryside so food is a little more available, but as it is so expensive, many people cannot afford the basics. So many people are still living in tents, given by the aid agencies, and surviving on handout food, water and cooking facilities. There is not a patch of green in the city any more, as all the parks, even the golf course, have been used as camps for people who lost everything.
• Before I go, I just want to tell you about one amazing thing that has come out of the disaster, which we have used quite a lot to help us work. It seems that a bunch of computer users from around the world have been analysing satellite mapping data from various sources, and mapping the movements of people. For example, they can tell us where isolated groups of tents have been set up so that the aid community can reach them. They can also tell us when people are taking long diversions to reach certain destinations due to road blockages, which helps to clear the important routes. It's been amazing to know that people from their own homes, all over the world, have been helping with the mapping efforts that have been so useful to us on the ground.
• I have to say I am looking forward to the end of my assignment next month as I am now completely exhausted. It is just so hard to work so many hours for so long, but what alternative is there when the needs around you are so great. I have learned so much in my time here, but there is so much still to do. How will this place ever recover?
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International humanitarian system
• UN System• UNHCR, OCHA, WFP, Unicef, WHO and
others• ICRC / Red Cross Movement• Non-governmental organisations• Donor Community
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UN System• OCHA = Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Affairs• UNHCR = Organisations for refugees*, not IDPs**• WFP = World Food Programme• Unicef = Children, often health• WHO = primarily support Ministry of Health (MoH)
* Refugee: a person who has crossed a national border to another country to escape conflict or persecution. About 15.2 million worldwide according to UN Refugee Agency.
** IDP: an internally displaced person seeks refuge from violence or disaster within the borders of the own country. IDPs outnumber refugees by more than two to one, but no single UN or other international agency has responsibility for responding to internal displacement. About 26.4 million worldwide according to Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre.
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Red Cross Movement
• ICRC = International Committee of the Red Cross
• IFRC = International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
• National Red Crescent and Red Cross Societies
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NGOsNon-profit, voluntary citizens’ group performing a
variety of services and humanitarian functions
• International NGOs• Varying degrees of independence• Multi-mandate agencies• Church-related agencies• Specialised like medical niche players or organisations targeting vulnerable
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Humanitarian Principles: International humanitarian Law
There is a set of humanitarian principles.
International humanitarian Law designed to minimise the negative impact of war (while paradoxically accepting it)• Geneva Convention, other treaties, customary law that deals with
methods or means of warfare and the protection of civilian populations
• Speaking out (témoignage) against violations of humanitarian law forms part of MSF’s mission.
Not the same as ≠ Principles of humanitarian action≠ Human Rights Law, which is embodied in the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights applies to all people at all times, whether or not there is war, or whether or not they are civilians.
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Humanitarian Principles: Principles of humanitarian action
Humanitarian principles illustrated by Médecins Sans Frontières
• Humanity: MSF is “committed to bringing quality medical care to people in crisis regardless of their race, religion, or political affiliation.”
• Impartiality: its “work is based on the humanitarian principles of medical ethics and impartiality.”
• Independence: “MSF operates independently of any political, military, or religious agendas. Medical teams conduct evaluations on the ground to determine a population's medical needs before opening programs, aiming to fill gaps that exist (rather than replicating services that are already offered) or reach communities that are not being assisted. The key to MSF’s ability to act independently in response to a crisis is its independent funding. Ninety percent of MSF's overall funding (and 100 percent of MSF-USA's funding) comes from private, non-governmental sources. In 2009, MSF had 3.8 million individual donors and private funders worldwide.”
• Neutrality: “As an organization, MSF is neutral. It does not take sides in armed conflicts, provides care on the basis of need alone, and pushes for increased independent access to victims of conflict as required under international humanitarian law.”
Source: Doctors Without Borders, http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/aboutus/
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Humanitarian assistance
• Complex relationship between humanitarian assistance and political action
• Constantly need to define and question the purpose of humanitarian action, its operational principles and relationship with other actors like military, governments and aid agencies.
• Contextual differences, time pressure and fast-changing situations on the ground are challenging.
• The multiplicity of agencies and actors, often independent, can make coordinated and effective action harder.
• Emergencies can polarise objectives and it can be difficult to be objective.
• Further issues can arise because of refugees and internally displaced people and public health emergencies.
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Priorities of natural disaster response
Areas that are recognized as priorities in humanitarian interventions and that evaluations often flag as shortcomings in operations:• Linking relief, recovery and development;• Mapping and monitoring needs and target groups;• Synergy between local, national and international capacities;• Coordination of humanitarian actors and projects;• Disaster Preparedness and vulnerability reduction.
Evaluation is “systematic and impartial examination of humanitarian action intended to draw lessons to improve policy and practice and enhance accountability.”
Source: Assessing the Quality of Humanitarian Evaluations, The Alnap Quality Proforma,http://www.alnap.org/pool/files/QualityProforma05.pdfHumanitarian response To Natural Disasters: A Synthesis of Evaluation Findings, http://www.norad.no/en/tools-and-publications/.../107610?_...true...
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APPENDIXFurther info on Haiti
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Haiti before 2010Haiti pre-earthquake:• First independent republic in Caribbean, it rebels against slavery
and overthrows colonial rule in 1804, but remains affected by it. • After 1804, history of two-caste society continues with mixed-race
descendants taking place of French elites. Mulattos dominate the black population and Haiti’s politics and economy.
• Dictatorships and coup d’etats, violence and instability entrench a notoriously inefficient and corrupt government and economy as well as a culture of social unrest.
• Armed rebellion forces President Jean-Bertrand Aristide out of office in 2004. In 2006 democratically elected president and parliament finally elected.
• Add to this environmental degradation and the potential of the mountainous tropical island as a tourist destination is ruined.
Source: http://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/aid/countries/Haiti_paper_01102010.pdf
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Haiti: Republic of NGOs
Why has Haiti been called the Republic of NGOs?• In mid 2000s international community establishes its cooperation to help the fragile state.• The over 3,000 NGOs in a population of 10 million exploded to an estimated 10,000 after
the 2010 earthquake; it’s an estimate, as most are not registered. They provide most of the services like healthcare and education and development efforts, expertise and funding not provided by the government. They can be perceived as more stable and accountable than the Haitian government.
• Most like government are concentrated in Port-au-Prince and urban areas, meaning that there is little support from NGOs and government for sustainable livelihoods in rural communities.
• Most NGOs are in relief during acute emergencies (like MSF) or reconstruction and development (like Oxfam). To use a metaphor, the former tends to give out fish to keep people alive, while the latter later teaches to them fish.
• The scope of the problems is beyond the mandate and capacity international assistance. International assistance can include other nations, armies, international agencies, non-governmental organisations, foreign philanthropists and volunteers. Developed and wealthy nations are less likely to require or request foreign aid in the wake of a disaster than less developed ones.
Source: Great Eastern Japan Earthquake, “http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2011/05/the-great-eastern-japan-earthquake-assessing-disaster-response-and-lessons-for-the-us”
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Chronic housing issues in Haiti
• Suitability or availability of land; sprawling informal suburbs and slums; failing or non-existent infrastructure.
• Sites not cleared of rubble.• ‘Build Back Better Requirements’, which cost more, demand
technological know how and take time.• Land tenure issues mean that international and local non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) are struggling to identify and get permission to build homes in alternative residential areas. Government is stalling on land reform, tenure and ownership legislation; there is lack of clarity about ownership of land and Haitian elites are not cooperating as landowners.
• Translating an urban development strategy into practice. • People are unwilling to leave Port-au-Prince because of inability to make
a living outside of the capital in spite of incentivized government rural relocation programs.
Source: http://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/aid/countries/Haiti_paper_01102010.pdf
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Examples of Crowdsourcing - Haiti
Ushahidi (www.ushahidi.com) is an open source platform for mapping in emergencies that was set up during election violence in Kenya in 2007 and was used extensively in Haiti.
Through Open source mapping like www.openstreetmap.org, a Wikipedia-like site, amateur map makers could update maps faster following the earthquake than the US Department of Defense. Armchair disaster relief agents around the world edited maps and information about Haiti to assist aid workers.
Action for students:
1. Watch the “What is Ushahidi” video http://www.ushahidi.com/ . 2. Discuss: the future – an opensource system that does not rely on an existing
interface and can truly develop in an impromptu way when emergency needs occur?
Source: http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/2011-04-11-japan-social-media_N.htmhttp://techcrunch.com/2010/08/21/crowdsourcing-disaster-relief/
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MSF: Contact us or find out more
Visit our website: www.msf.org.ukAbout MSF: http://www.msf.org.uk/about.aspx Email us: [email protected] us on facebook: www.facebook.com/MSF.englishFollow us on Twitter: www.twitter.com/MSF_UKFollow us on You tube: www.youtube.com/user/MSFUK
The MSF movement was awarded the 1999 Nobel Peace Prize.
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