a mathematical model development for the quasi...

A MATHEMATICAL MODEL DEVELOPMENT FOR THE

QUASI-STATIC LATERAL COLLAPSE OF THE GENERALISED

GEOMETRIC HOLLOW SHAPES

MUHAMAD GHAZALI BIN KAMARDAN

Thesis Submitted to the Centre for Graduate Studies, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional

Malaysia, in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

September 2014

ii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research is to develop a general predictive mathematical model

of the deformation behaviours for various symmetric geometrical tubes under lateral

compression between two flat rigid plates. The mathematical model has been

proposed based on rigid, perfectly plastic model and the energy balance method. The

mathematical models are divided into two cases i.e. 'Case 1' and 'Case 2' based on the

geometrical shapes of the tubes. ‘Case 1’ is for shapes with number of sides 6, 10, 14

and so on such as hexagonal, decagonal and tetra-decagonal tubes. Whereas, ‘Case 2’

is for shapes with number of sides 4, 8, 12 and so on such as square, octagonal and

dodecagonal tubes. The prediction or assumption used in this mathematical model

was that the tubes would deform in phase by phase during plastic deformation. In

order to achieve this purpose, the deformation behaviour and the energy-absorption

performance of various geometrical tube shapes need to be determined. The

geometrical tubes shapes which were studied include square, hexagonal, octagonal,

decagonal, dodecagonal and tetra-decagonal tubes. For that, experimental tests and

finite element analysis (FEA) simulation were conducted to determine the collapse

behaviour of these various symmetrical geometric tubes. First, the quasi-static lateral

compression test was conducted on square and cylindrical tubes experimentally and

by FEA simulation method by using INSTRON Universal Testing Machine and

ABAQUS software respectively. Both results were compared to validate the FEA

simulation results. Then, the validated FEA simulation method was performed for

these various symmetrical geometric tubes to determine their deformation behaviour

iii

and energy-absorption performance and then to validate the newly mathematical

model. The comparison between the experiment and FEA simulation had shown

good agreement. The simulation study showed that square and symmetric hexagonal

tubes deformed with 1 phase of plastic deformation, symmetric octagonal and

decagonal tubes deformed with 2 phases of plastic deformation, symmetric

dodecagonal and tetra-decagonal tubes deformed with 3 phases of plastic

deformation. It was determined that, the general mathematical model had succeeded

to predict the deformation behaviour of various symmetric geometrical shapes for

both cases but discrepancy occurred for certain specimens due to sudden high peak at

the last phase and small angle difference for neighbouring sides. The energy –

absorption performance analyses for different types of symmetric geometrical tubes

had shown that symmetric hexagonal tube produced the best energy-absorption with

high total energy absorption, low yield stress and long stroke without any sudden

jump force.

iv

ABSTRAK

Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk membangunkan model matematik ramalan umum

bagi tingkah laku ubahan-bentuk untuk berbagai tiub bergeometrik simetri di bawah

mampatan sisian antara dua plat tegar rata. Model matematik dicadangkan

berdasarkan model tegar, plastik sempurna dan kaedah tenaga saksama. Model

matematik ini terbahagi kepada dua kes iaitu 'Kes 1' dan 'Kes 2' berdasarkan kepada

bentuk geometrik tiub. Kes ' 1' adalah untuk bentuk tiub dengan bilangan sisi 6, 10,

14 dan seterusnya seperti tiub heksagon, dekagon dan tetra-dekagon. Manakala, 'Kes

2' bagi bentuk tiub dengan bilangan sisi 4, 8, 12 dan seterusnya seperti tiub segi

empat sama, oktagon dan dodekagon. Ramalan atau andaian yang digunakan dalam

model matematik ini adalah bahawa tiub akan mengalami ubah-bentuk fasa demi

fasa semasa ubahan-bentuk plastik. Untuk mencapai tujuan ini, tingkah-laku ubah-

bentuk dan prestasi serapan-tenaga tiub-tiub berbagai bentuk geometrik perlu

ditentukan. Bentuk-bentuk geometrik tiub yang dikaji termasuk tiub segi empat

sama, heksagon, oktagon, dekagon, dodekagon dan tetra-dekagon. Untuk itu,

simulasi analisis unsur terhingga (FEA) dan ujian eksperimen telah dijalankan untuk

menentukan tingkah-laku keruntuhan tiub-tiub bergeometrik simetri tersebut.

Pertama, ujian mampatan sisian separa statik dijalankan ke atas tiub segi empat sama

dan tiub silinder secara eksperimen menggunakan mesin ujikaji universal INSTRON

dan secara simulasi FEA menggunakan perisian ABAQUS. Kedua-dua keputusan

dibandingkan untuk mengesahkan keputusan simulasi FEA. Kemudian, kaedah

simulasi FEA yang telah disahkan dilakukan ke atas kesemua tiub-tiub bergeometrik

v

simetri tersebut untuk menentukan tingkah laku ubahan-bentuk dan prestasi serapan-

tenaga bentuk-bentuk tersebut dan kemudian untuk mengesahkan model baru

matematik. Perbanding antara eksperimen dan simulasi FEA telah menunjukkan

perjanjian yang baik. Kajian simulasi menunjukkan bahawa tiub segiempat sama dan

tiub heksagon simetri mengalami ubah-bentuk dengan 1 fasa pada ubahan-bentuk

plastik, tiub oktagon simetri dan tiub dekagon simetri mengalami ubah-bentuk

dengan 2 fasa pada ubahan-bentuk plastik, tiub dodekagon simetri dan tiub tetra-

dekagon simetri mengalami ubah-bentuk dengan 3 fasa pada ubahan-bentuk plastik.

Telah dipastikan bahawa model matematik umum telah berjaya untuk meramalkan

tingkah-laku ubahan-bentuk pelbagai bentuk tiub bergeometrik simetri bagi kedua-

dua kes. Walau bagaimanapun, berlaku percanggahan pada spesimen tertentu

disebabkan kemunculan puncak tinggi secara mendadak di fasa terakhir dan

perbezaan sudut yang kecil pada sisi-sisi yang berjiran. Analisis prestasi serapan-

tenaga pada tiub-tiub bergeometrik simetri yang berbeza telah menunjukkan bahawa

tiub heksagon simetri menghasilkan serapan-tenaga terbaik dengan jumlah serapan-

tenaga yang tinggi, kadar hasil yang rendah dan strok yang panjang tanpa mana-

mana peningkatan mendadak pada kuasa.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All the praises belong to Allah, The Lord of the universe who has given the

author the strength and ability to pursue and complete his PhD. The author would

like to acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia and Universiti

Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia for sponsoring his PhD endeavour.

The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to all his supervisors Prof.

Dr. Ahmad Mujahid bin Ahmad Zaidi, Prof. Dato' Dr. Mohd. Noh bin Dalimin and

Dr. Mohd Zaid bin Othman for their enthusiastic guidance, time, support,

encouragement and comments in developing and completing this thesis. The author

also would like to express his gratitude to SIRIM berhad, Malaysia which provided

the facilities for the FEA simulation analysis via ABAQUS software.

The author is indebted to these individuals who have directly or indirectly

assisted him throughout his studies:

Late Mr. Ezkandar Sanny bin Jailani who had given him courage and support;

Dr. Waluyo and Mr. Ahmad bin Abbas for helping the author with the

'ABAQUS'FEA simulation; Mr. Yaakob, Mr. Faizal, Mr. Adam and Mr. Shafik for

their help in the experimental work; Mr. Mahmud, Mr. Zulhafni, and Mr. Kana for

their helpful discussion and suggestion in impact related areas; Assoc. Prof. Rozaini,

Mr. Nazib, Mr. Daniel, Mr. Joseph, Mr. Zulkarnain and Mr. Kamarul Affendi for

their support in general areas of the studies, and Mr. Zainal for proofreading the

completed thesis. Last but not least, the author would also like to express his

appreciation to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Azmi bin Khamis and Prof. Dr. Hashim bin Saim

whom made this post graduate study possible.

vii

APPROVAL

This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia

and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Ahmad Mujahid Bin Ahmad Zaidi, PhD

Professor

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia

(Chairman)

Mohd Noh Bin Dalimin, PhD

Professor/ Dato'

Office of the Vice-Chancellor / Chancellery Office

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (Member)

Mohd Zaid Bin Othman, PhD

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (Member)

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ii

ABSTRAK iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi

APPROVAL vii

DECLARATION viii

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxi

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background of the Research 1

1.2 The Crashworthiness Properties and the Energy-absorption

System 3

1.3 Problem Statements 4

1.4 Research Objectives 5

1.5 Scope of Research 5

1.6 Layout of the Thesis 6

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 Axial Compression 14

2.2.1 Circular Tube 17

2.2.2 Square Tube 19

2.2.3 Hexagonal Tube 23

2.2.4 Frusta Tubes 24

2.2.5 Other Shape Tubes 25

2.2.6 Multi-cell Tubes 25

2.2.7 Inversion of Tubes 26

2.2.8 Splitting Tubes 28

2.3 Lateral Compression 30

2.3.1 Cylindrical Tube 33

2.3.2 Square Tube 34

2.3.3 Hexagonal Tube 35

2.3.4 Oblong Tube 36

2.3.5 Ring System Tubes 38

2.3.6 Nested Cylindrical System 40

2.3.7 Constrained Cylindrical Tubes 43

2.3.8 Other Cylindrical Systems 46

2.4 Fundamentals of the Mathematical Model 48

2.4.1 The Bending Moment and the Curvature of Central Axis 53

x

2.4.2 Statically Admissible Stress Field and Lower Bound

Theorem 55

2.4.3 Kinematically Admissible Velocity/Displacement Field and

Upper Bound Theorem 56

2.4.4 Lateral Collapse of Symmetric Geometrical Tubes 57

3 METHODOLOGY 60

3.1 Introduction 60

3.2 The Experimental Procedures 65

3.2.1 Specimen Specifications 65

3.2.2 Material Properties 66

3.2.3 The Experimental Test Samples 68

3.2.4 The Tensile Test Results 74

3.2.5 Quasi-Static Compressive Test 74

4 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 77 4.1 Introduction 77

4.2 The Geometrical Shapes 78

4.2.1 Square and Symmetric Hexagonal Tubes 79

4.2.2 Symmetric Octagonal Tube 81

4.2.3 Symmetric Decagonal (Polygon with Ten Sides) Tubes 83

4.2.4 Symmetric Dodecagonal and Tetra-decagonal Tubes 84

4.3 The Development of the Finite Element Analysis Model 87

4.3.1 The Parts Module 88

4.3.2 The Material Property Module 89

4.3.3 The Assemble Module 90

4.3.4 The Step Module 91

4.3.5 The interaction Module 92

4.3.6 The Load Module (Load and Boundary Condition) 93

4.3.7 The Mesh Module 94

5 MATHEMATICAL MODEL 95 5.1 Introduction 95

5.2 'Case 1' 96

5.2.1 Hexagon 97

5.2.2 Decagon (Polygon with Ten Sides) 102

5.2.3 Tetra-decagon (Polygon with Fourteen Sides) 110

5.2.4 The Generalized Mathematical Model for ‘Case 1' 115

5.3 'Case 2' 121

5.3.1 Square 121

5.3.2 Octagon 123

5.3.3 Dodecagon (Polygon with Twelve Sides) 126

5.3.4 The Generalized Mathematical Model for ‘Case 2' 128

5.4 The Load-Deformation Behaviour 132

xi

6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 134 6.1 Introduction 134

6.2 Validation of Simulation Results with Experimental Data 137

6.3 Symmetric Hexagonal and Square Tubes 140

6.3.1 Load- Deformation Behaviour of Square and Various

Symmetric Hexagonal Tubes Compared with Cylindrical

Tube 141

6.3.2 Energy-Absoprtion Performance 143

6.3.3 Validationof Mathematical Model Results with Simulation

Results 145

6.4 Symmetric Octagonal Tubes 148

6.4.1 Load-Deformation Behaviour 148


6.4.3 Deformation Mode 152

6.4.4 Validation of Mathematical Model Results with Simulation

Results 153

6.5 Symmetric Decagonal (Polygon with Ten Sides) Tubes 156

6.5.1 Load- Deformation Behaviour 156




Results 162

6.6 Symmetric Dodecagonal (Polygon with Twelve Sides) Tubes 166





Results 171

6.7 Symmetric Tetra-decagonal (Polygon with Fourteen Sides)

Tubes 174





Results 181

7 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK 183

7.1 Conclusions 183

7.2 Suggestions for Future Work 186

REFERENCES 190

BIODATA OF THE STUDENT 196

CURRICULUM VITAE 197

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 201

xii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

Table 3.1 The dimensions of the rectangular tension test specimens

(ASTM,2004). 70

Table 3.2 The Dimensions of the Large-Diameter Tubular Tension Test

Specimens (ASTM, 2004). 73

Table 3.3 The mechanical properties of the aluminium and mild steel

tubes obtained from tensile test. 74

Table 4.1 The material mechanical properties of stainless steel. 90

Table 5.1 The polygon used in the mathematical study. 96

Table 5.2 Load-deformation behaviour prediction for various

symmetric geometrical tube shapes. 132

Table 6.1 Energy absorption produced by cylindrical, square and

various symmetric hexagonal tubes. 143

Table 6.2 Energy absorption produced by various symmetric octagonal

tubes. 151

Table 6.3 Energy absorption produced by various symmetric decagonal

tubes. 159

Table 6.4 Energy absorption produced by various symmetric

dodecagonal tubes. 169

Table 6.5 Energy absorption produced by various symmetric tetra-

decagonal tubes. 177

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

Figure 2.1 Two type of structure before (dotted line) and during

compressive loading (a) Type I structure and (b) Type II

structure (Calladine and English, 1984). 12

Figure 2.2 Graph of Load-Displacement of Type I and Type II

(Calladine and English, 1984). 12

Figure 2.3 Collapse behaviour of tube under lateral compression

(a) Strain-hardening behaviour, (b) Strain-softening

behaviour and (c) Perfectly-plastic behaviour

(Li et al., 2006). 13

Figure 2.4 The assumption of axi-symmetric deformation mechanism

(Alexander, 1960). 15

Figure 2.5 An improved axi-symmetric deformation model

(Abramowicz and Jones, 1984a, 1986). 16

Figure 2.6 Deformation mechanism for axi-symmetric model with

improved arc profile (Grzebieta, 1990). 16

Figure 2.7 Axi-symmetric deformation model of a cylindrical tube

(Wierzbicki et al., 1992). 16

Figure 2.8 Various collapse modes for thin-walled circular aluminium

tubes under axial loading (a) axisymmetric mode

(concertina); (b) non-symmetric mode (diamond) and

(c) mixed mode (Guillow et al., 2001) 17

Figure 2.9 The kagome sandwich column's geometrical construction

(Zhang et al., 2010). 18

Figure 2.10 Deformation modes of square tube from left to right : One

extensional lobe; Two extensional lobes and One

extensional lobe and one asymmetric lobe where

S = symmetric, E = extensional, A = asymmetric,

T = transition (Fyllingen et al., 2012). 20

xiv

Figure 2.11 Finite element models of three types of tube:

(a) conventional tube without groove; (b) tube with four

grooves i.e. one grove on every sidewall; and (c) tube with

grooves i.e. one grove on two opposite sidewalls

(Zhang and Huh, 2009). 21

Figure 2.12 Origami pattern introduced on square tube (a) side view

and (b) top view (Song et al., 2012). 22

Figure 2.13 Final post-buckling deformation state of a hexagonal

sectioned model using LS-DYNA (Rossi et al., 2005). 23

Figure 2.14 The diagram of the geometrical structure for the straight

and tapered rectangular tubes

(Nagel and Thambiratnam, 2005). 24

Figure 2.15 The specimens geometrical cross-sections left to right:

hexagon, octagon, 12-sided star and 16-sided star

(Fan et al., 2013). 25

Figure 2.16 Section geometry and dimensions of various multi-cell

(Nia and Parsapour, 2014). 26

Figure 2.17 Deformed shape diagram of a cylindrical tube under

internal inversion loading under experimental test and

ABAQUS simulation (Reid and Harrigan, 1998). 27

Figure 2.18 The sketch of the experimental set-up by Huang et al.

(2002). 28

Figure 2.19 Typical square metal tube specimen after the performed

experimental tests (Huang et al., 2002). 29

Figure 2.20 Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up of blast

loading (Kim et al., 2013). 30

Figure 2.21 Theoretical and experimental diagrams of lateral

load/length-displacement of the empty steel specimen HSE-

05 (Niknejad and Rahmani, 2014). 36

Figure 2.22 Schematic of an oblong sample tube under quasi-static load

(Baroutaji et al., (2014). 37

Figure 2.23 Deformation behaviour pattern of brass rings fixed at one

end after the impact loading of 34 m/s

(Reid and Reddy, 1983). 38

xv

Figure 2.24 The deformation systems of hexagonal rings

(Mahdi and Hamouda, 2012). 40

Figure 2.25 The compression of three-tube system at the initial and

final stages (Morris et al., 2006). 41

Figure 2.26 A schematic design of both the standard and optimised

design of nested oblong tubes systems (Olabi et al., 2008) 42

Figure 2.27 Symmetric and asymmetric deformations of braced metal

tubes (Wu and Carney, 1997). 45

Figure 2.28 Two deformation stages for a 20o braced elliptical tube

(Wu and Carney, 1998) 46

Figure 2.29 Three types of stess-strain curves (a) the stress remains at

yield stress, Y as the deformation continuous, (b) the stress

increased linearly as the deformation continues, (c) stress

increased by a power law as the deformation continues

(Lu and Yu, 2003). 49

Figure 2.30 Three types of idealised stess-strain curves under tension:

(a) elastic, perfectly plastic; (b) elastic, linear hardening;

and (c) elastic, power hardening (Lu and Yu, 2003). 50

Figure 2.31 Three types of rigid, plastic model stess-strain curves (a)

rigid, perfectly plastic, (b) rigid, linear hardening; and (c)

rigid, power hardening (Lu and Yu, 2003). 52

Figure 2.32 Bending profile of an elastic, perfectly plastic beam: (a)

stress across the thickness; (b) the diagram of non-

dimensional moment vs. curvature (Yu and Zhang, 1996). 54

Figure 2.33 Bending profile of a rigid, perfectly plastic beam: (a) stress

across the thickness; (b) the diagram of moment vs.

curvature (Yu and Zhang, 1996). 55

Figure 3.1 Various tube's geometrical shapes used in this study

(a) hexagon, (b) decagon (10 sides), (c) tetra-decagon (14

sides), (d) square, (e) octagon and (f) dodecagon (12 sides) 61

Figure 3.2 Flow-chart of the research methodology 64

Figure 3.3 Samples of the metallic symmetric tube specimens:

(a) Aluminium square tube, (b) Mild steel cylindrical tube 66

xvi

Figure 3.4 Tensile test using servo hydraulic dynamic testing machine 67

Figure 3.5 Tensile test using servo hydraulic dynamic testing machine 68

Figure 3.6 CNC vertical milling machine 69

Figure 3.7 The drawing of the rectangular tension test specimens

(ASTM, 2004). 70

Figure 3.8 The uniaxial tensile test samples of the square cross section

aluminium tube (a) before the tensile test; (b) during the

tensile test. 71

Figure 3.9 Cutting off location of a longitudinal tensile test specimens

from large-diameter tube (ASTM, 2004). 72

Figure 3.10 The sketch of the large-diameter tubular tensile test

specimens (ASTM, 2004). 72

Figure 3.11 The uniaxial tensile test samples of the circular cross

section mild steel tube (a) before tensile test;

(b) the sample break during tensile test. 73

Figure 3.12 Compression test using the Universal Test Machine 75

Figure 3.13 The shape of the circular tube with 4 stationary hinges. 76

Figure 3.14 The shape of the square tube 6 stationary hinges. 76

Figure 4.1 A square tube: (a) The drawing of hollow square shape;

(b) The 3D dimensional diagram of square tube in

ABAQUS software. 79

Figure 4.2 Symmetric hexagonal shape 80

Figure 4.3 Hexagonal shapes at various angles, (a) ,15 (b) ,30

(c) 45 and (d) .60

81

Figure 4.4 Symmetric octagonal shape 81

Figure 4.5 Symmetric octagonal shapes at various angles, 1

(a) ,30 (b)

45 and (c) .60 82

Figure 4.6 Symmetric decagonal shape 83

xvii

Figure 4.7 Symmetric decagonal shapes of 451 and various

angles, 2 (a) 15 and (b) .30 84

Figure 4.8 Symmetric decagonal shapes of 601 and various

angles, 2 (a) ,15 (b)

30 and (c) .45 84

Figure 4.9 Symmetric dodecagonal shape 85

Figure 4.10 Symmetric tetra-decagonal shape 85

Figure 4.11 Symmetric dodecagonal shapes of 601 and various

angles, 2 (a) ,15 (b)

30 and (c) .45 86

Figure 4.12 Hollow symmetric tetra-decagon shapes of ,601

452 and Various Angles, 3 (a)

15 and (b) .30 87

Figure 4.13 The diagram of symmetric hexagonal tube placed in

between two rigid plates. 90

Figure 5.1 Symmetric hexagonal shape 97

Figure 5.2 Symmetric hollow hexagon shape compressed between two

rigid plates 98

Figure 5.3 The collapse of first quadrant of a symmetric hollow

hexagon shape during compression 99

Figure 5.4 The final collapse of first quadrant of a symmetric hollow

hexagon shape under lateral compression 101

Figure 5.5 Symmetric decagon shape 103

Figure 5.6 Symmetric hollow decagon shapes compressed between the

two rigid plates 104

Figure 5.7 The collapse of first quadrant of a symmetric hollow

decagonal shape during 'Phase 1' deformation under lateral

compression 105

Figure 5.8 Complete deformation of 'Phase 1' of decagonal tube under

lateral compression 106

Figure 5.9 'Phase 2' collapse of symmetric hollow decagon shapes 108

xviii

Figure 5.10 Symmetric tetra-decagonal shape 111

Figure 5.11 Shape transformations of symmetric tetra-decagonal tubes 112

Figure 5.12 Generalised symmetric polygonal shape of 'Case 1' 116

Figure 5.13 Square shape 122


Figure 5.15 Shape transformation of symmetric octagonal tubes 124

Figure 5.16 Symmetric dodecagon shapes 126

Figure 5.17 Shape transformations of symmetric dodecagonal tubes 127

Figure 5.18 Generalised symmetric polygonal shape of 'Case 2' 129

Figure 6.1 The shape's dimension of various symmetric geometrical

tubes 137

Figure 6.2 Force vs deflection diagrams - simulation results compared

against the experimental data obtained from the lateral

loading of tubes (a) Aluminium square tube (b) Mild steel

cylindrical tube. 139

Figure 6.3 Square and various hexagon shapes. 140

Figure 6.4 Force vs deformation/ total height relationship for

cylindrical, square and various symmetric hexagonal tubes. 141

Figure 6.5 Comparing mathematical against simulation results of force

vs deformation/total height relationship of square and

symmetrical hexagonal of various angles, tubes:

(a) square ),0( (b) ,15 (c) ,30

(d) 45 and (e) .60

146


Figure 6.7 Force vs deformation/ total height relationship of

cylindrical and symmetric octagonal of various angles, 1

and 02 tubes. 149

Figure 6.8 Comparing deformation mode results of mathematical

against simulation results at 'Phase 1' and 'Phase 2' of

symmetric octagonal tubes. 152

xix


vs deformation/total height relationship of symmetric

octagonal tubes of various angle 1 and 02

(a) ,30 (b)

45 and (c) .60 154

Figure 6.10 Symmetric decagonal shapes 156


cylindrical and symmetric decagonal of various angles 1

and 2 tubes. 157

Figure 6.12 Comparing deformation mode results of mathematical

against simulation result at 'Phase 1' and 'Phase 2' of

symmetric decagonal tubes 162



decagonal tubes of Various 1 and .2

(a) ,451

,152

(b) ,451

,302

(c) ,601

,152

(d) ,601

302 and

(e) ,601

.452

164

Figure 6.14 Symmetric dodecagon shapes 166


cylindrical and symmetric dodecagonal tubes of ,601

various angles 2 and03 tubes. 167

Figure 6.16 Comparing deformation mode result of mathematical

against simulation result at 'Phase 1', 'Phase 2' and 'Phase 3'

of symmetric dodecagonal tubes. 170



dodecagonal tubes of ,601

various angles 2 and

:03

(a) ,15 (b)

30 and (c) .45 172

Figure 6.18 Symmetric tetra-decagonal shapes 174


cylindrical, Dodecagonal- 60-45, Tetra-decagonal-60-45-15

and Tetra-decagonal-60-45-30 tubes. 175

xx

Figure 6.20 Comparing deformation mode result of mathematical

against simulation result at 'Phase 1', 'Phase 2' and 'Phase 3'

of symmetric tetra-decagonal tubes 179


vs deformation/total height relationship of symmetric tetra-

decagonal tubes of ,601

452 and Various 3 (a)

15 and (b) .30 182

xxi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

- The angle between the oblique side and the vertical axis at phase-i

- The displacement.

- The bending curvature

- The maximum elastic curvature

- Poisson’s Ratio

- Stress (N/m2)

- Yield stress (N/m2)

- Ultimate stress (N/m2)

- No. of element

- Integers

ε - Normal strain (mm)

ε - Yield strain (mm)

ε - Fracture strain (mm)

E - Young's modulus (N/m2)

- Hardening modulus (N/m2)

- Input energy / external energy (kJ)

- Elastic strain energy (kJ)

D - Plastic strain energy (kJ)

F - Force (N)

- Lower bound of the actual limit loads (N)

- Upper bound of the actual limit loads (N)

- Actual limit loads (N)

- Vertical height of the oblique side at phase-i, (mm)

K - Material constants

L - Length (m)

M - Bending moment (N)

- Maximum elastic bending moment (N)

- The fully plastic bending moment (N)

xxii

N - Normal forces (N)

- The yield stress of the material (N/m2)

U1 - Displacement component in the 1-direction (mm)



UR1 - Rotational displacement component about the 1-direction



b - The width of the tube (mm)

h - The thickness of the tube (mm)

- Number of phases

- Number of sides

- Hardening exponent

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Research

In the modern era of lives, transportation is one of the main needs to travel

from one location to another location and to deliver goods. Due to the advanced

technology of the modern world, the vehicles could be produced in a massive

volume. In Malaysia, the number of vehicles registered in the year of 2011 was

21,311,630 increased by more than 1 million from the year of 2010 (Royal Malaysia

Police, 2012). Moreover, vehicles can also have very high speeds. There are also a

lot of heavy vehicles like lorries and trucks on the road. The increasing number of

vehicles with high speeds and massive weight will lead to a more severe damage to

the people and environment if traffic accident occurs.

The number of people killed and injured due to the road accident is reported

to be increasing year by year. World Health Organization (WHO) reported around

1.3 million people are killed in road traffic collisions worldwide every year (WHO,

2009). Furthermore, the number of injuries or disabilities is estimated between 20

2

and 50 million people worldwide every year. The European Union (EU) with the

number of motor vehicles is nearly half of the about 500 million population reported

the numbers of injuries and deaths from road accidents are 1200, and 34,500

respectively each year (European Commission, 2011). The United States of America

(USA) with 309 million population and 256 million registered motorised vehicles in

2008, reported 33,808 deaths due to road accidents (National Highway Traffic Safety

Administration, 2010). In Malaysia, nearly 7000 deaths and over 25,000 injuries

have been reported in 2011due to road accidents (Royal Malaysia Police, 2012).

Hence, road traffic fatalities, disabilities, and injuries have become a major global

public health issue. Due to these associated increases, society has become more

aware and concerned for the safety aspects of transportation.

This has led researchers in the last few decades to study and develop impact

protection systems to prevent and reduce the effects of collisions. These safety

systems can be divided into two types i.e. active and passive safety systems (Johnson

and Mamalis, 1978). The function of active safety systems is to prevent collision to

happen. Some of the examples of active safety system are the application of

electronic control systems to improve drivers’ visibility, improved vehicle handling

devices and anti-lock-braking systems (ABS). On the other hand, the function of

passive safety systems is to reduce the collision effects to the vehicles and occupants

by limiting the level of deceleration and dissipating the kinetic energy during impact

in the controlled manner. Some of the examples of passive safety systems are the

3

build-in energy-absorbing devices/structures, seat belts, head restraints, shatterproof

windscreen glass and airbags.

1.2 The Crashworthiness Properties and the Energy-absorption System

The crashworthiness or the response quality of a vehicle during collision or

impact has become one of the important engineering studies in the designing process

of vehicles. This study is important in order to improve on the crashworthiness

properties of a vehicle so that crash fatalities can be reduced. Various aspects

regarding crashworthiness have been reviewed by Johnson (1990). He mentioned

that there are four major aspects that should be included in the crashworthiness

designs of vehicles; (i) the consequences of the crash especially the damage caused

towards the occupants, vehicles, cargoes and also to the environment, (ii) head

injuries since the majority of vehicle accidents involve injuries to the head, (iii) the

energy-absorption systems to absorb the kinetic energy during impact to reduce the

crashworthy, and (iv) the fire risks with regards to the fuel combustion. Thus, more

studies are needed to improve the crashworthiness properties of various types of

vehicles. One of them is located under the study of the energy-absorption systems.

The energy-absorption structure should have the quality of small elastic

dissipations to reduce the effect of repetitive decelerations to the occupant (Johnson

and Reid, 1978). The energy-absorption structure should also have high irreversible

or inelastic energy so that more kinetic energy can be dissipated. The various types

4

of irreversible energy include plastic deformation, viscous deformation energy, and

energy dissipated by friction or fracture (Lu and Yu, 2003). For these two purposes,

the peak of the reaction force of the energy-absorption structure should be as low as

possible to reduce the elastic deformations and the reaction force should remain

constant or almost constant to avoid extremely high rate of hindering. Since the

elastic deformation needs to be as low as possible and at the same time the plastic

deformation should be as high as possible in order to get high inelastic energy, the

plastic displacement or the stroke should be sufficiently long and steady state

manner. The other important factors in designing the energy-absorption system are

stable and repeatable deformation mode from any uncertainty, light-weight, high

specific energy-absorption capacity, low-cost and easy to install.

1.3 Problem Statements

Although there are an enormous number of researches on the various types of

loading on metallic tubes, all the previous studies focussed on the cylindrical and

square tubes. Hence, there is still a gap of knowledge regarding deformation

behaviour of various types of geometrical tubes. The purpose of this research is to

develop a general mathematical model of the deformation behaviours of various

symmetric geometrical tubes subjected to lateral loading. In order to achieve this

purpose, the deformation behaviour and the energy-absorbing performance of

various geometrical tube shapes need to be determined. This research study focuses

on the deformation behaviour of various symmetric geometrical tubes i.e. square,

5

hexagonal, octagonal, decagonal, dodecagonal and tetra-decagonal tubes under

lateral compression between two flat rigid plates.

1.4 Research Objectives

The objectives of this research are as follows:

(a) To develop and validate a general predictive mathematical model for the

deformation behaviour of lateral collapse of the generalized symmetric

geometrical tubes.

(b) To evaluate the load - deformation behaviour under lateral loading of various

symmetrical tubes i.e. square, symmetric hexagonal, octagonal, decagonal,

dodecagonal and tetra-decagonal tubes.

(c) To compare the energy-absorbing performance for different types of

geometrical tubes.

1.5 Scope of Research

This research focuses on the development of the mathematical modelling of

various symmetrical geometrical tube shapes which are compressed laterally in

between two rigid flat plates. The geometrical tube shapes under this study are

hexagonal, octagonal, decagonal, dodecagonal and tetra-decagonal. A generalized

mathematical model of the lateral deformation of these shapes is determined and

6

presented. The finite element analysis (FEA) simulation of these tube shapes of

various angles is performed to validate the mathematical model. The comparison is

made between mathematical model and FEA methods on these shapes for their load-

deformation behaviours and shape transformation at the phase transition. Then, the

energy absorption performance is studied for these various shapes in which the best

energy absorption structure can be determined. Before the FEA is employed to

validate the mathematical model, the FEA should be validated with experimental

results. For that purpose, the experiment on the square and cylindrical tubes

compressed laterally in between two rigid flat plates is conducted along with the

determination of their material properties. Then, the results between the experiment

and FEA are compared to validate the FEA.

1.6 Layout of the Thesis

A newly mathematical model development and an investigation into the

mechanical behaviour, performance and efficiency of various symmetric geometrical

tubes i.e. square, symmetric hexagonal, octagonal, decagonal, dodecagonal and tetra-

decagonal tubes as energy-absorbing systems loaded in the lateral direction and

compressed between two flat rigid plates is reported in this thesis. The symmetric

geometrical tubes are uniformly loaded in the axial direction by loading the top flat

rigid plate in the vertical downwards direction.

7

In Chapter 2, previous studies of energy-absorbing systems are reviewed. In

the published literature, an extensive amount of work has been reported on two major

types of energy-absorbing systems, i.e. axially and laterally compressed thin walled

structures. Both systems are discussed in terms of their modes of deformation,

energy-absorption and specific energy-absorption performance. Lastly, the focus is

given on the fundamental of the mathematical modelling used in this study.

In Chapter 3, the methodological frame work of this research is presented.

The research methodology consists of the experiment, the FEA simulation and the

mathematical modelling. Then the experiment procedures for the tensile and

compression test of square and cylindrical tubes are presented.

Chapter 4 covers the process of the FEA simulation method via ABAQUS

software. The development of the various shapes and angles is discussed and then

step by step input process of the module in the ABAQUS software in order to

replicate the experimental work is presented.

The mathematical model development which becomes the main part of this

research is discussed in Chapter 5. The development of the mathematical model

discussion covers the symmetric square, hexagonal, octagonal, decagonal,

dodecagonal and tetra-decagonal tube shapes which are compressed laterally in

between two rigid flat plates. The discussion also covers the development of

8

generalized model to represent any symmetrical geometrical tube shapes under this

lateral compression.

In Chapter 6, the results obtained from the experimental procedure,

simulation and analytical model are discussed. The first part of this chapter discusses

the validation of FEA simulation method based on the comparison between

experimental and simulation results. Then, the results of load-deformation behaviour,

shape transformation, the energy-absorption performance and the validation of the

mathematical model results are presented and discussed for square and symmetric

hexagonal tubes of various angles, symmetric octagonal tubes of various angles,

symmetric decagonal tubes of various angles, symmetric dodecagonal tubes of

various angles and symmetric tetra-decagonal tubes of various angles, respectively.

In Chapter 7, the conclusions are formulated based on the validation of the

newly proposed mathematical model, the deformation behaviour and energy-

absorption performance of the deformation behaviour of various symmetric

geometrical tubes' shape i.e. square, symmetric hexagonal, octagonal, decagonal,

dodecagonal and tetra-decagonal tubes. Then, a list of recommendations that could

be carried out by future investigators in developing, enhancing and optimising

symmetric geometrical tubes as energy-absorbing systems are presented.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, different methodologies to determine the energy-absorption

performance of different deformation mode are reviewed. A review of the previous

researches regarding the metallic materials as the effective energy absorption

structures has been done by Johnson and Reid (1978). The focus was given on the

structures that could experience large plastic deformations under the collision speeds

of around 50 m/s or 180 km/h so that it can absorb higher impact energy. In the

meantime, the structures should have small elastic deformations to reduce the effect

of repetitive decelerations to the occupant. However, due to several simplifications

and assumptions made in the previous analytical models, theoretical analyses for

large plastic deformations of structures have become less accurate. They suggested

that in order to improve the predictive model, the structural plasticity approach

should be applied. To make the analytical become more accurate, several factors

such as the geometry effects, strain-hardening, strain-rate and various interactions

10

between different deformation modes such as bending and stretching have to be

considered. Nevertheless, the improved analytical model integrating those effects

have been developed since then and was reviewed also by Johnson and Reid (1986).

Several achievements in the energy-absorbing systems such as uni-axial tension of

ductile materials such as wires, strips and tubes were also included in this review

paper.

The dynamic plastic deformation performance of structures was reviewed by

Jones(1989). The simplifications and assumptions included in the previous analytical

models on the load-deflection relation of the structural collapse mechanism had been

discussed. The ‘secondary effects’ such as material elasticity, finite displacements,

material strain-rate sensitivity, transverse shear, rotatory inertia and material strain-

hardening were included so as to improve the analytical model. For repeated

dynamic loads, it was observed that continuous strengths reduction at the initial and

subsequent collisions experienced by structures under experimental tests were well

predicted by the rigid-perfectly plastic theoretical analytical model. For tubular

structures, there were two well-known sorts of failure; (1) the 'dynamic plastic

buckling’ and (2) ‘dynamic progressive buckling’. Dynamic plastic buckling was

referred to as the global collapse since the buckle pattern was observed throughout

the length of the tube. It was called dynamic plastic buckling because it occurred

only during dynamic loading. This type of collapse happened due to two major

effects i.e. inertia forces and material rate sensitivity. It was found that more

wrinkles are produced by the inertia effect in the dynamic collapse compared to static

11

collapse. Several analytical models have been developed to envisage these

phenomena but all of them were complicated. The other methods were by using

finite element numerical methods but it was found that different softwares produced

different results. On the other hand, dynamic progressive buckling occurred at low

impact velocity where the effect of the inertial forces was small but still significant to

the material rate sensitivity. The deformation mode of dynamic progressive buckling

is like static collapse where it only occurred at one end of the tube as the

deformations progressed.

A broad overview on the performances of energy-absorbing devices and their

prospective utilisation in the aircraft industry had been published (Ezra and Fay,

1972). They have identified three categories of energy-absorbing devices; material

deformation, extrusion and friction devices. The first category, material deformation

was the main focus. The behaviour of the energy-absorbing device relied on their

specific application and suitability. The performances of these devices can be

measured by the specific energy, crush efficiency or energy efficiency.

Basically, there are two generic types of plastically deforming structures in

energy-absorbing under quasi-static situations as shown by Calladine and English

(1984). Under the compressive loading, the cellular material deformation can be

categorized into two types of load-deflection namely Type I and Type II. Type I

executes monotonically increasing, relatively ‘flat plateau’ static load-deflection

curve whereas Type II produces high peak at the initial stage followed by an

12

immediate reduced curve. Basically, a Type I structure can be referred to as the

lateral or axial compression of rings/tubes while a Type II structure can be referred to

axial loading of two steel plates clamped at both ends or known as crooked plates

and also to other thin-walled structures under axial loading such as struts, circular

tubes and square tubes. The Type II is more sensitive to both strain rate and inertial

effects and thus is more sensitive to changes in the impact velocity. This is due to the

initial ‘straightness’ of the geometry structure of type II. The diagram of both types is

illustrated in Figure 2.1 (a) and (b) and the load-displacement graph is shown in

Figure 2.2.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.1: Two type of structure before (dotted line) and during compressive

loading (a) Type I structure and (b) Type II structure

(Calladine and English, 1984).

Figure 2.2: Graph of Load-Displacement of Type I and Type II

(Calladine and English, 1984).

13

During the compression process, the cylindrical tube is deformed by

undergoing three major phases which resulted in three stages in the force-

deformation curve. The first stage is the linear increasing force, followed by a flat

force and lastly an unbounded increasing force. The first stage is the elastic collapse,

the second stage is the plastic collapse and the last stage is the densification of the

cylindrical tube (Gibson and Ashby, 1997). During the plastic collapse, three types of

behaviour can take place which are the strain hardening, strain softening and

perfectly-plastic (Li et al., 2006), Figure 2.3 illustrates these behaviours.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2.3: Collapse behaviour of tube under lateral compression (a) Strain-

hardening behaviour, (b) Strain-softening behaviour and (c) Perfectly-plastic

behaviour (Li et al., 2006).

Cellular structures comprising assemblies of simple engineering components

such as tubes or rings, and bars have been used in absorbing static and dynamic

forces. These components are effective impact energy absorbers because they have

large plastic deformation with longer strokes which reduces decelerating forces as

compared to single components (Zou et al., 2007). Furthermore, their reaction force

is consistent, produces great energy-absorbing performance with recurring

14

deformation modes and is easy to manufacture (Lu and Yu, 2003). Basically, the

study of tubular structures undergoes two key categories of loading which are along

axial direction or along lateral directions. There are several methods of deformation

such lateral compression, lateral indentation, axial crushing, tube splitting and tube

inversion which produce different energy absorption responses. This is due to

different elastic and inelastic energy dissipated by different mode during the

deformation (Olabi et al., 2007). The research methodology was based mainly on

experimental procedure, analytical method and simulation method that have been

done by many researchers to determine the energy-absorbing capabilities of such

systems.

2.2 Axial Compression

The study on the load-deflection relation of axially compressed thin cylinder

was pioneered by Alexander (1960). The model was derived by equating the external

work done to deform the cylinder throughout one complete collapse to the internal

energy absorbed by bending and stretching at and between the joints of the complete

fold. Two assumptions were made in this analytical model. The first assumption was

that the cylindrical shell deformed completely outward with three hinges and

circumferential stretching in of the materials in between and the second assumption

was that the material had rigid-perfectly plastic behaviour. Although this model was

a bit simple, it managed to show a good agreement with the experiment result. Figure

2.4 shows the deformation system produced by Alexander (1960).

15

Figure 2.4: The assumption of axi-symmetric deformation mechanism

(Alexander, 1960).

The improvement of model by Alexander was then presented by Johnson et

al. (1977) which included a modification on the stretching energy expression.

Furthermore, the improvements focused on the predictions of the deforming tube

wall bends by replacing the straight line with two adhere arcs (Abramowicz and

Jones, 1984a, 1986) (see Figure 2.5). The arc profile was then improved by Grzebieta

(1990) (see Figure 2.6). He also adopted equilibrium approach so that the load-

deflection curve can be related. Then, the eccentricity factor was introduced by

Wierzbicki et al. (1992), taking account that the tube wall deforms both inward and

outward (see Figure 2.7). Then, an effort was made to improve this factor by

considering a global energy balance (Singace et al., 1995; Singace and Elsobky,

1996).

16

Figure 2.5: An improved axi-symmetric deformation model

(Abramowicz and Jones, 1984a, 1986).

Figure 2.6: Deformation mechanism for axi-symmetric model with improved

arc profile (Grzebieta, 1990).

Figure 2.7: Axi-symmetric deformation model of a cylindrical tube

(Wierzbicki et al., 1992).

17

2.2.1 Circular Tube

A detailed analysis on thin-walled circular aluminium tubes (Grade 6060)

under the quasi-static axial compression had been performed by Guillow et al.

(2001). The aluminium tubes were heat treated in its as-received condition with

ratios between and . A chart was made to categorize the

deformation behaviour of various tube sizes. Next, the relationship between the

average force and ratios was empirically determined where it was found that the

average force divided by the plastic bending moment, A P was equivalent to the

power 0.32 of and this relationship was appropriate for axisymmetric, non-

symmetric and mixed modes of deformation type (refer to Figure 2.8). The

axisymmetrical mode is also known as the ring mode or concertina mode and

meanwhile the non-symmetrical mode is also known as diamond mode.

(a)

(b) (c)

Figure 2.8: Various collapse modes for thin-walled circular aluminium tubes

under axial loading (a) axisymmetric mode (concertina); (b) non-symmetric

mode (diamond) and (c) mixed mode (Guillow et al., 2001)

18

A new type of kagome honeycomb sandwich bitubal circular column was

introduced to increase the plastic deformation zones and improve the energy

absorption efficiency (Zhang et al., 2010). The tube’s newly designed structure

consisted of two circular aluminium tubes which was filled with kagome lattice

shaped cells (see Figure 2.9). A numerical method was utilised to study several

properties of the composite structure such as the interaction effect, deformation mode

and energy absorption capacity. It was observed that during the collapse mode, the

kagome lattices buckled first causing the outer and inner skin tubes to fold locally

and enhanced the plastic deformation region. The application of double layer tubes

had reinforced the buckling capacity of kagome cell. In addition, the collapse of the

honeycomb cell was being delayed by the wrinkled mechanism of the tube walls

which intruded into the gap of the honeycomb cell. Hence, the contact effects

between the honeycomb and column walls had significantly enhanced the energy

absorption efficiency.

Figure 2.9: The kagome sandwich column's geometrical construction

(Zhang et al., 2010).

19

Eyvazian et al. (2014) analyzed experimentally on the deformation behaviour,

energy-absorption performance, and failure mode of corrugated cylindrical

aluminium tubes under axial compressive loading. There were five corrugated

geometrical shapes with different sizes and directions. They found out that,

corrugated tubes produced a uniform load–displacement curve without any initial

peak load. Furthermore, by using the corrugated tubes, the failure mode was found to

be more predictable and controllable. Thus, it could improve the crashworthiness

characteristics, controllability and collapse modes of circular tubes under axial

loading.

2.2.2 Square Tube

Fyllingen et al. (2012) made an experimental study on the transition from

progressive buckling to global bending during axial crushing of long square tubes.

The study was performed on aluminium alloy 6060 T6 tubes with the thickness and

outer width of 2.5 mm and 80 mm respectively. The impact tests were carried out in

a pendulum accelerator on square tubes with lengths of 1300, 1600 and 1900 mm.

The bottom ends of the tubes were fixed at the distal end to a rigid wall and the top

ends of the tubes were set free. The force with the mass of 1400 kg at an initial

velocity of 13 m/s was applied on the top ends of the tubes. They observed that for

all the tubes, progressive buckling was initiated from the bottom towards the top of

the tubes. There were two deformation modes i.e. progressive buckling and transition

20

from progressive buckling to global bending. They found that the longer tubes would

be deformed by the latter mode. The odd behaviour development which was

associated to the deformation behaviour at the fixed end had effected the transition

progressive buckling to global bending. It was also found that the deformation

behaviour was slowly transformed from the progressive mode to the mixed mode for

the large range of tube lengths. Figure 2.10 shows the different deformation modes of

long square tubes.

Figure 2.10: Deformation modes of square tube from left to right : One

extensional lobe; Two extensional lobes and One extensional lobe and one

asymmetric lobe where S = symmetric, E = extensional, A = asymmetric,

T =transition (Fyllingen et al., 2012).

The energy absorption performance of longitudinally grooved square tubes

subjected to axial compression has been investigated by Zhang and Huh (2009) by

using the finite element analysis simulation software i.e. LS-DYNA. The walls of the

square tubes were stamped to form the grooves (see Figure 2.11). The authors

studied the distributions of the effective plastic strain and the thickness variations

21

from the stamping process. They also studied the influence of several parameters

such as the width of the tube, the length of the groove and the number of the grooves,

and the features of the deformation modes of grooved tubes. Based on the simulation

analyses, the authors discovered that the longitudinally grooved square tubes

increased 82.7% of the specific energy absorption of conventional square tubes and

reduced 22.3% of the peak force of the conventional tubes. This study had also

discovered that the crashworthiness of thin-walled structures could be improved by

the introduction of grooves to the wall of the square tubes.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2.11: Finite element models of three types of tube: (a) conventional tube

without groove; (b) tube with four grooves i.e. one grove on every sidewall; and

(c) tube with grooves i.e. one grove on two opposite sidewalls (Zhang and Huh,

2009).

In order to reduce the initial peak and the subsequent fluctuations in the load-

deflection curve, Song et al. (2012) introduced the origami patterns to thin-walled

tubes of various cross-sectional shapes such as square, hexagon and octagon. Figure

2.12 shows the example of the origami pattern on a square cross-sections thin-walled

22

tube. Tubes with origami patterns were analysed through finite element analysis

method. From these analyses, it was found out that the origami patterned tubes

exhibited a lower initial peak force and more uniform crushing load than the existing

conventional tube. Parametric studies were performed and they demonstrated the

relationship between the pre-folding angles and the initial peak force with the mean

crushing force for the tubes with different cross-sections. Lastly, they fabricated the

origami patterned tube prototype to carry out the experimental tests. The

experimental test results showed good agreement with the numerical results which

included the much lower initial peak force and a smooth crushing process.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.12: Origami pattern introduced on square tube a) side view and b) top

view (Song et al., 2012).

23

2.2.3 Hexagonal Tube

Post-buckling behaviour of aluminium alloy extruded polygon section tubes

under dynamic axial crushing has been investigated by Rossi et al. (2005). The

analysis was performed explicitly by using the LS-DYNA finite element software.

The analysis was divided into two stages. In the first stage, the numerical parameters

and all the numerical results associated with thin-walled aluminium extruded square

tubes were validated with existing published experimental data. In the second stage,

the post-buckling behaviour such as extensional, symmetric and asymmetric

deformation modes were examined. The numerical simulations revealed that the

polygon with more number of walls or flanges had higher axial deformation load and

reduced the permanent displacement parameters. For an example, hexagonal tube

section increased the deformation load by 11% and reduced the permanent

displacement by 10% compared to square tubes. Furthermore, the specimens with the

thinnest nominal wall thickness also increased the deformation load and reduced the

permanent displacement parameters by 27% and 20% respectively. Figure 2.13

illustrates the final post-buckling deformation state of a hexagonal sectioned model.

Figure 2.13: Final post-buckling deformation state of a hexagonal sectioned

model using LS-DYNA (Rossi et al., 2005).

24

2.2.4 Frusta Tubes

The deformation mechanism and energy absorption efficiency subjected to

axial quasi-static loading among a straight rectangular tubes and three tapered

rectangular shapes i.e. double-tapered, triple-tapered and four or frusta tapered sides

had been simulated and compared by Nagel and Thambiratnam (2005) (see Figure

2.14). This study had shown that the arrangement of the energy absorption efficiency

structures from top to bottom were the triple - tapered tubes, straight tubes, frusta-

tapered tubes and double-tapered tubes. Nevertheless, when the number of tapered

was increased, the specific energy absorption per unit mass

reduced. Hence, it

was concluded that the most efficient energy absorption shape was the straight tubes

if mass was considered.

Figure 2.14: The diagram of the geometrical structure for the straight and

tapered rectangular tubes (Nagel and Thambiratnam, 2005).

190

REFERENCES

Abramowicz, W., & Jones, N. (1984). Dynamic axial crushing of circular tubes.

International Journal of Impact Engineering, 2, 263–281.

Abramowicz, W., & Jones, N. (1986). Dynamic progressive buckling of circular

andsquare tubes. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 4, 243–269.

Alexander, J. M. (1960). An approximate analysis of the collapse of thin cylindrical

shells under axial loading. Quarterly Journal Mechanics and Applied

Mathematics, 13, 10–15.

ASTM. (2004). Designation: E 8-04. Standard test methods for tension testing of

metallic materials. In Annual Book of ASTM Standards 2004, Section 3, Metals

Test Methods and Analytical Procedures, vol. 03.01, metals—mechanical

testing; elevated and low-temperature tests; metallography. ASTM, United

States.

Baroutaji, A., Morris, E., & Olabi, A. G. (2014). Thin-Walled Structures Quasi-static

response and multi-objective crashworthiness optimization of oblong tube under

lateral loading. Thin Walled Structures, 82, 262–277.

Burton, R. H., & Craig, J. M. (1963). An investigation into the energy absorbing

properties of metal tubes loaded in the transverse direction.

Calladine, C. R., & English, R. W. (1984). Strain-rate and inertia effects in the

collapse of two types of energy-absorbing structure. International Journal of

Mechanical Sciences, 26(11-12), 689–701.

De Runtz, J. A., & Hodge, P. G. (1963). Crushing of a tube between rigids plates.

Journal of Applied Mechanics, 30, 391 – 395.

European Commission. (2011). CARE European Road Accident Database. 19.07.11.

Retrieved from http:/transport/road_safety/specialist/statistics/care_reports_

graphics/ care_what_is_it/index_en.htm

Eyvazian, A., Habibi, M. K., Magid, A., & Hedayati, R. (2014). Axial crushing

behavior and energy absorption efficiency of corrugated tubes. Materials and

Design, 54, 1028–1038.

Ezra, A. E., & Fay, R. J. (1972). An assessment of energy absorbing devices for

prospective use in aircraft impact situation. In G. Herman & N. Perrone (Eds.),

Dynamic response of structures (pp. 225–246). New York: Pergamon Press.

191

Fan, Z., Shen, J., & Lu, G. (2011). Investigation of Lateral Crushing of Sandwich

Tubes. Procedia Engineering, 14, 442–449.

Fyllingen, Ø., Langmoen, E. C., Langseth, M., & Hopperstad, O. S. (2012).

Transition from progressive buckling to global bending of square aluminium

tubes. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 48, 24–32.

Gibson, L. J., & Ashby, M. F. (1997). Cellular solids: structure and properties (pp.

175 –183). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Grzebieta, R. H. (1990). An alternative methodfor determining the behaviour of

roundstocky tubes subjectedto axial crush loads. Thin-Walled Structures, 9, 66–

89.

Guillow, S. R., Lu, G., & Grzebieta, R. H. (2001). Quasi-static axial compression of

thin-walled circular aluminium tubes. International Journal of Mechanical

Sciences, 43, 2103–2123.

Gupta, N., & Ray, P. (1998). Collapse of thin-walled empty and filled square tubes

under lateral loading between rigid plates. International Journal of

Crashworthiness, 3(3), 265–85.

Hibbitt, Karlsson, & Sorensen. (2006). ABAQ S Analysis ser’s Manual,. In

ABAQUS Version 6.6. USA.

Horath, L. (2001). Fundamentals of materials science for technologists: properties,

testing and laboratory exercises (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Huang, X., Lu, G., & Yu, T. X. (2002). Energy absorption in splitting square metal

tubes, 40, 153–165.

Johnson, W. (1990). The elements of crashworthiness : scope and actuality.

Proceeding Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 204, 255–273.

Johnson, W., & Mamalis, A. (1978). Crashworthiness of vehicles : an introduction to

aspects of collision of motor cars, ships, aircraft and railway coaches. London:

Mechanical Engineering Publications Limited.

Johnson, W., & Reid, S. R. (1978). Metallic Energy Dissipating Systems. Applied

Mechanics Reviews, 31, 277–288.

Johnson, W., & Reid, S. R. (1986). pdate to ‘Metallic Energy Dissipating Systems

[AMR 31(1978) :277-288]. Applied Mechanics Update, 315–319.

Johnson, W., Reid, S. R., & Reddy, T. Y. (1977). The compression of crossed layers

of thin tubes. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 19(7), 423–428.

192

Johnson, W., Soden, P. D., & Al-Hassani, S. T. S. (1977). Inextensional collapse of

thin-walled tubes under axial compression. Journal of Strain Analysis, 12, 317–

330.

Jones, N. (1989). Recent studies on the dynamic plastic behaviour of structures.

Applied Mechanics Reviews, 42(4), 95–115.

Kim, S. C., Altenhof, W., Opperman, C. J., & Nurick, G. N. (2013). International

Journal of Impact Engineering Axial splitting of circular tubes by means of blast

load. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 53, 17–28.

Li, Q. M., Magkiriadis, I., & Harrigan, J. J. (2006). Compressive Strain at the Onset

of Densification of Cellular Solids. Journal of Cellular Plastics, 42, 371–392.

Lu, G., & Yu, T. (2003). Energy absorption of structures and materials. Cambridge,

England: Woodhead Publishing Limited.

Mahdi, E., & Hamouda, A. M. S. (2012). Energy absorption capability of composite

hexagonal ring systems. Materials and Design, 34, 201–210.

Martin, J. B. (1975). Plasticity: Fundamentals and General Problems. Cambridge,

MA: M.I.T. Press.

Morris, E., Olabi, A. G., & Hashmi, M. S. J. (2006). Analysis of nested tube type

energy absorbers with different indenters and exterior constraints. Thin-Walled

Structures, 44(8), 872–885.

Mutchler, L. D. (1960). Energy absorption in aluminium tubing. Journal of Applied

Mechanics, 27, 740–743.

Nagel, G. M., & Thambiratnam, D. P. (2005). Computer simulation and energy

absorption of tapered thin-walled rectangular tubes. Thin Walled Structures, 43,

1225–1242.

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (2010). Traffic Safety Facts 2008:

A Compilation of Motor Vehicle Crash Data from the Fatality Analysis

Reporting System and the General Estimates System. (Report No.: DOT HS-

811–170). US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.

Nia, A. A., & Parsapour, M. (2014). Comparative analysis of energy absorption

capacity of simple and multi-cell thin-walled tubes with triangular, square,

hexagonal and octagonal sections. Thin Walled Structures, 74, 155–165.

Niknejad, A., & Rahmani, D. M. (2014). Experimental and theoretical study of the

lateral compression process on the empty and foam-filled hexagonal columns.

Materials and Design, 53, 250–261.

193

Olabi, A .G., Morris, E., & Hashmi, M. S. J. (2007). Metallic tube type energy

absorbers : A synopsis. Thin Walled Structures, 45, 706–726.

Olabi, A G, Morris, E., Hashmi, M. S. J., & Gilchrist, M. D. (2008). Optimised

design of nested oblong tube energy absorbers under lateral impact loading.

Thin Walled Structures, 35, 10–26.

Prager, W., & Hodge, P. G. J. (1951). Theory of Perfectly Plastics Solids. New York:

John Wiley.

Rabinowicz, E. (1995). Friction and wear of materials. New York: John Wiley and

Sons.

Reddy, T. Y., & Reid, S. R. (1979). Lateral compression of tubes and tube-systems

with side constraints. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 21(3), 187–

199.

Reddy, T. Y., & Reid, S. R. (1980). Phenomena associated with the crushing of

metal tubes between rigid plates. International Journal of Solids and Structures,

16(6), 545–562.

Reddy, T. Y., Reid, S. R., & Barr, R. (1991). Experimental investigation of inertia

effects in one-dimensional metal ring systems subjected to end impact--Il. Free-

ended systems. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 11(4), 463–480.

Redwood, R. G. (1964). Discussion on the paper by De Runtz, J. A. and Hodge Jr. P.

G. (1963). Journal of Applied Mechanics, 31, 357–358.

Reid, S. R., Belt, W. W., & Barr, R. A. (1983). Structural plastic shock model for

one-dimensional ring systems. International Journal of Impact Engineering,

1(2), 175–191.

Reid, S. R., Drew, S. L. K., & Carney, I. J. F. (1983). Energy absorbing capacities of

braced metal tubes. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 25(9-10),

649–667.

Reid, S. R., & Harrigan, J. J. (1998). Transient effects in the quasi-static and

dynamic internal inversion and nosing of metal tubes, 40(2-3), 263–280.

Reid, S. R., & Reddy, T. Y. (1978). Effect of strain hardening on the lateral

compression of tubes between rigid plates. International Journal of Solids and

Structures, 14, 213–225.

Reid, S. R., & Reddy, T. Y. (1983). Experimental investigation of inertia effects in

one-dimensional metal ring systems subjected to end impact -- I. Fixed ended

systems. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 1(1), 85–106.

194

Rossi, A., Fawaz, Z., & Behdinan, K. (2005). Numerical simulation of the axial

collapse of thin-walled polygonal section tubes. J Thin-Walled Struct, 43(10),

1646–1661.

Royal Malaysia Police. (2012). Laporan perangkaan kemalangan jalan raya

Malaysia 2011. Ed. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Shim, V. P. W., & Stronge, W. J. (1986). Lateral crushing in tightly packed arrays of

thin-walled metal tubes. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 28(10),

709–728.

Singace, A. A., & Elsobky, H. (1996). Further experimental investigation on the

eccentricity factor in the progressive crushing of tubes. International Journal of

Solids and Structures, 33, 3517–3538.

Singace, A. A., Elsobky, H., & Reddy, T. Y. (1995). On the eccentricity factor in the

progressive crushing of tubes. International Journal of Solids and Structures,

32, 3589–3602.

Song, J., Chen, Y., & Lu, G. (2012). Axial crushing of thin-walled structures with

origami patterns. Thin Walled Structures, 54, 65–71.

WHO. (2009). Global Status Report on Road Safety: Time for Action. Geneva:

World Health Organization.

Wierzbicki, T., Bhat, S. U., Abramowicz, W., & Brodkin, D. (1992). Alexander

revisited - A two folding element model of progressive crushing of tubes.

International Journal of Solids and Structures, 29, 3269–3288.

Wu, L., & Carney, J. F. (1997). Initial collapse of braced elliptical tubes under lateral

compression. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 39(9), 1023–1036.

Wu, L., & Carney, J. F. (1998). Experimental analyses of collapse behaviours of

braced elliptical tubes under lateral compression. International Journal of

Mechanical Sciences, 40(8), 761–777.

Yu, T. X., & Zhang, L. C. (1996). Plastic Bending: Theory and Applications.

Singapore: World Scientific.

Zhang, X., & Huh, H. (2009). Energy absorption of longitudinally grooved square

tubes under axial compression. Thin Walled Structures, 47(12), 1469–1477.

Zhang, Z., Liu, S., & Tang, Z. (2010). Crashworthiness investigation of kagome

honeycomb sandwich cylindrical column under axial crushing loads. Thin

Walled Structures, 48(1), 9–18.

a mathematical model development for the quasi...

Documents