a methodological guide for writing and formatting student papers 2012
TRANSCRIPT
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TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
School of Economics and Business Administration
A Methodological Guide
FOR WRITING AND FORMATTING STUDENT PAPERS
Tallinn 2012
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Authors:
Virve Siirde, Monika Nikitina-Kalamäe, Kaja Lutsoja, Tarvo Niine, Liis Saks.
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 6
1. THE NATURE OF STUDENT PAPERS .............................................................................. 7
1.1. Papers to be written during the studies ............................................................................ 7
1.1.1. Essay.......................................................................................................................... 7
1.1.2. Refereative paper....................................................................................................... 8
1.1.3. Internship report ........................................................................................................ 9
1.1.4. Research paper .......................................................................................................... 9
1.1.5. Other papers ............................................................................................................ 11
1.2. Graduation theses ........................................................................................................... 11
1.2.1. Bachelor’s thesis ..................................................................................................... 11
1.2.2. Master’s thesis ......................................................................................................... 13
2. THE ESSENCE OF ACADEMIC RESEARCH ................................................................. 15
2.1. Academic research logic ................................................................................................ 15
2.2. Statement of research problem....................................................................................... 16
2.3. Theory and methods ....................................................................................................... 17
2.4. Solving of a research problem ....................................................................................... 18
3. PLANNING AND CONDUCTING AN ACADEMIC RESEARCH .................................. 20
3.1. The choice of research area and supervisor ................................................................... 20
3.2. Research concept ........................................................................................................... 21
3.3. Structure of research paper ............................................................................................ 22
3.4. Selection of special literature ......................................................................................... 23
3.5. Structuring of a research paper ...................................................................................... 24
3.5.1. Abstract ................................................................................................................... 24
3.5.2. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 25
3.5.3. Chapters ................................................................................................................... 27
3.5.4. Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 29
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3.5.5. Résumé (summary in foreign language) ................................................................. 29
3.6. Language of the paper .................................................................................................... 31
3.7. Cooperation between student and supervisor ................................................................ 32
4. FORMATTING OF THE PAPER ........................................................................................ 34
4.1. General requirements ..................................................................................................... 34
4.2. Title page ....................................................................................................................... 36
4.3. Table of contents ............................................................................................................ 37
4.4. Body of the paper ........................................................................................................... 38
4.4.1. Numbers .................................................................................................................. 38
4.4.2. Tables ...................................................................................................................... 40
4.4.3. Figures ..................................................................................................................... 42
4.4.4. Equations ................................................................................................................. 43
4.4.5. Lists ......................................................................................................................... 44
4.4.6. Referencing the sources .......................................................................................... 46
4.4.7. Citing laws and regulations ..................................................................................... 49
4.4.8. Appendices .............................................................................................................. 50
4.5. References ...................................................................................................................... 51
4.5.1. Books ....................................................................................................................... 52
4.5.2. Articles .................................................................................................................... 53
4.5.3. Legislation ............................................................................................................... 54
4.5.4 Sources access to which is restricted........................................................................ 55
4.5.5 Other sources ............................................................................................................ 56
5. REQUIREMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR WRITING AND DEFENDINF
GRADUATION PAPERS ........................................................................................................ 58
5.1. Research paper ............................................................................................................... 58
5.2. Bachelor’s and master’s theses ...................................................................................... 59
5.3. Permission to defence, defence and assessment ............................................................ 60
5.3.1. Permission to defence.............................................................................................. 60
5.3.2. Defence.................................................................................................................... 61
5.3.3. Assessment .............................................................................................................. 62
5.4. Reviewing ...................................................................................................................... 63
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APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................... 64
Appendix 1. An Example of Text Structuring ...................................................................... 64
Appendix 2. An Example of the Title Page of a Graduation Thesis..................................... 65
Appendix 3. An Example of a Title Page Reverse ............................................................... 66
Appendix 4. An Example of the Title Page of a Research Paper ......................................... 67
Appendix 5. An Example of the Title Page Reverse of a Research Paper ........................... 68
Appendix 6. An Example of a Table of Contents ................................................................. 69
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INTRODUCTION
During the studies students write various types of papers, which show their knowledge
and skills in solving theoretical as well as practical problems. An explicit problem statement,
development, conclusions and author’s contribution, as well as references to other authors’
works are the most common requirements for academic research papers. Therefore it is
necessary to explain to students the principles of and requirements for writing and formattingacademic research papers. This methodical guide seeks to provide the student studying at
TSEBA, TUT, with knowledge about the requirements and principles of writing and
formatting papers. Compliance with these would ensure formal conformity of the papers to
academic practices and is compulsory at TSEBA.
This methodical guide explicates the requirements for writing and formatting various
papers, for example, essay, refereative paper, research paper, bachelor ’s thesis and master’s
thesis. Requirements pertaining to the content and format of the doctoral thesis are provided
in a separate document – A Guide to Doctoral Studies at TSEBA, TUT.
The students of TSEBA write papers in the language of instruction, i.e. either in Estonian or
English, in the International Relations curriculum exceptionally also in Russian. The Guide is
based on the principle that papers written in a different language shall respect the traditions of
the respective language, whereas the formatting style must be uniform. The formatting
requirements are based on the word processing programme MS Word . When some other word
processing programme is used, the formatting style must be rendered as precisely
corresponding to the requirements of this Guide as possible. This Guide has been written in
conformity to all formatting requirements of TUT. The Guide won’t answer all the questions
that may arise when writing and formatting papers; therefore the supervisor or head of the
chair will help find solutions to unanswered questions/problems.
The Guide is based on the Regulations of Completion of Studies at Tallinn University
of Technology, Academic Policies at TUT, previous guides of TSEBA, guides to writing
papers of other universities, observations of supervising students, and good advice and
recommendations given by colleagues.
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1. THE NATURE OF STUDENT PAPERS
Papers to be written by a student are all those tasks and assignments that are to be
drawn up and submitted on paper or electronically, which reveal the student’s skills of
analysis, generalising skills, her/his orientation in the respective area of speciality. These
papers show how the student is able to independently formulate research problems, analyse
with the help of appropriate methods, research and solve them.This Guide will provide requirements for the following papers:
essay;
refereative paper;
internship report;
research paper (basic study research, core study research and research paper);
other papers;
bachelor ’s thesis; master’s thesis.
In order to help students better comprehend the nature of difference papers and based
on different requirements pertaining to the content of the papers, detailed explanations will be
provided for each type of paper.
1.1. Papers to be written during the studies
1.1.1. Essay
Essay is a free form development of thought in an independently selected or given
topic. Important components are creative thinking and author’s personal reflections; it is not
compulsory to prove statements. Use of source materials is not required in essays; but where
these are used they must be referenced according to the requirements provided in this Guide.
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In general, an essay is written without supervision. The required length of an essay is decided
by the instructor, the most common length being 5−7 pages.
The essay format depends first of all on the problem task and requirements made by
the instructor. If instructor has provided no specific requirements pertaining to the format, the
requirements of TSEBA, TUT for writing and formatting papers must be adhered to. Abstract
and foreign language summary are omitted from the essay.
1.1.2. Refereative paper
Refereative paper (referat ) is a brief summary of a problem or topic, which is based
primarily on written sources, i.e. the author summarises the main points from the sources and
reformulates them with her/his own words. Refereative papers are written on the basis of one
or several sources.
A refereative paper written on the basis of one source only provides an overview of
the main ideas, conclusions or/and the author’s own opinion. The first chapter of this kind of
refereative paper describes briefly the author of the source work.
When several sour ces are used a comparison of attitudes of different authors about
the topic are provided in the refereative paper. The author of the refereative paper provides
conclusions and his/her opinion.
A refereative paper is usually written on one topic in one subject. By writing a
refereative paper the student improves his/her skills of finding and using the topic related
literature and develop his/her skills of analysis and expression. The length of the refereative
paper and number of literature sources shall be decided by the instructor. Most commonly a
refereative paper is 12-15 pages long (from title page to appendices). Refereative papers are to
be written by students independently, without supervision. The role of a refereative paper in
the subject is decided by the instructor: it may be a form of preparing for seminars/exercise
classes, a prerequisite for sitting an examination; scores for refereative papers may be part of
an examination grade. The requirements of TSEBA, TUT for writing and formatting papers
must be adhered to when writing a refereative paper. Abstract and résumé are omitted from
the refereative paper.
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problem, setting objectives, discriminating tasks (1-2), choosing appropriate methods,
gathering and processing information, drawing conclusions, and presenting the results.
A research paper is approximately 20-25 pages long (from title page to appendices),
plus appendices, where necessary.
Research Paper II (Core Study Research) consists in solving of a specific problem
given or approved by supervisor by applying particular methods of research. Research Paper
is based on a subject studied within the core study curriculum; the topic may be selected from
the list of sample topics of the respective chair; the topic may be related to the main
specialisation.
Special literature (reference sources) in the subject must contain a minimum of 10
sources.
As a result of writing the research paper II the student must have acquired skills of
formulating a research problem, objective setting, discriminating tasks, choosing appropriate
methods, collecting and processing information, and drawing conclusions, making
suggestions, and of presenting the results.
The research paper has to be approximately 20-25 pages long (from the title page to
appendices), plus appendices, where necessary.
Research Paper represents solving of a specific problem given or approved by
supervisor by applying particular methods of research. Writing of a research paper helps to
acquire skills of formulating and defining a research problem, objective and task setting,
choosing appropriate methods and finding empirical materials for achieving the objectives,
skills of working with special literature, and of analysing and generalising research results.
Special literature sources (references) in the subject must contain a minimum of 10
sources.
The research paper has to be approximately 20-25 pages long (from the title page toappendicess), plus appendices, where necessary. Table 1 presents types of different research
papers.
All research papers are written individually (by one student). By way of exception
(participation in a research team) and with the supervisor’s agreement two students are
allowed to write a paper together, which shall be bigger than normally (by 20%) and the
contribution of each author must be clearly distinguishable (by mentioning the authorship of
introduction, each chapter, subchapter, section).
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Table 1. Types of Research Papers
Types Objective Volume
(EAP)
Volume (pages)
(from title pageto appendices)
Reference
sources
Research Paper I(Basic Study Research)
Acquire basic academicresearch methodology
3 20-25 Min10
Research Paper II(Core Study Research)
Acquire and usingacademic researchmethodology
3 20-25 Min10
Research Paper Acquire academicresearch methodologyand apply methods
3 20-25 Min10
The research papers shall be drawn up in accordance with the requirements of TSEBA,
TUT for writing and formatting papers. Abstract and résumé may be omitted from research
papers.
The form of defence shall be decided in the respective chair.
Writing of a research paper helps to prepare for writing a bachelor ’s or master’s thesis.
1.1.5. Other papers
In addition to the above described student papers students have to write during the
studies various other papers assigned by instructor, for example, problem solving, reports,
projects, business plans etc. The requirements pertaining to the content and volume of these
papers shall be prescribed by the instructor who teaches the subject or who supervises the
work.
The format of other papers depends on the problem task and the requirements set by
the instructor. In case instructor has presented no specific formatting requirements, the student
shall use the requirements of TSEBA, TUT for writing and formatting papers.
1.2. Graduation theses
1.2.1. Bachelor’s thesis
Bachelor’s thesis is an academic research paper written independently and personally
under the guidance of a supervisor, in which the author in a comprehensive manner discusses
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and works out topical theoretical and practical economic problems, or problems in the sphere
of international relations according to the main specialisation on a level worthy of the
bachelor’s degree.
The topic of the bachelor’s thesis has to be related to the main specialisation (see
Table 2)
Table 2. Bachelor’s curricula and main specialisations
Curriculum Main specialisation
TAAB02 Public sector economy(previously TAAB02 Economics)
1. Public sector finance2. Urban and environmental economics
TABB02 Business 1. Business finance2.
Accounting3. Management and work organisation
4. Marketing
TASB08 International relations 1. International relations
TVTB03 International Business Administration 1. Marketing2. Finance and accounting
TACB08 Business administration 1. International business administration2. Finance3. Marketing
The bachelor’s thesis is to consolidate the skills like problem formulation, targetsetting, task discrimination, methods of searching, collecting and processing of information,
drawing of conclusions, making suggestions, as well as presenting of results. A bachelor’s
thesis is to reveal the student’s theoretical knowledge obtained during the studies, cognition of
economic practice, mastery of professional terminology and information, presentation and
argumentation of his/her viewpoints. Compared to the research paper, the bachelor’s thesis
has more weight on integrating theoretical and empirical analysis and on generalising and
integrating the results of analysis.
The general characteristics of the bachelor ’s thesis are provided in Table 3.
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Table 3. Characteristics of the bachelor ’s thesis
Type Purpose Volume
(EAP)
Volume
(pages)(from title page toannexes)
Quantity of
reference sources
3 year curriculum based bachelor ’s thesis
Learn the academicresearch methods andapply the methods in
depth
8 40 – 45 Min20 (10*)
*Note: By way of exception and with the consent of the supervisor, the number of foreign languagesources may be different in certain topics. The number of foreign language sources is obligatory forstudents in Estonian and Russian curricula who write their graduation thesis in Estonian or in Russian.
By way of exception (member of a research team; cooperation under the synergy
effect) and with the consent of the supervisor, two students may present a joint bachelor’s
thesis with a volume 20% bigger than normally and the contribution of each author clearly
distinguishable (the authorship is indicated for Introduction, each chapter, subchapter, section
etc).
Bachelor’s theses shall be defended publicly in front of the specially appointed
defence committee.
Bachelor’s theses and theses defence shall be assessed according to the grading scale
established in the Academic Policies at TUT and on the basis of the learning outcomes in the
curriculum graduation paper module. All positive grades imply a succesful defence.
1.2.2. Master’s thesis
Master’s thesis is an academic research paper (in 3+2 curriculum) written
independently and personally under the guidance of a supervisor. The purpose of a master’sthesis is to investigate and solve important economic problems or international relations and
European studies related problems in the selected area at a level worthy of the master’s
degree. Master’s thesis in MBA curriculum is an applied research where the author discusses
and solves in a comprehensive manner topical practical economic problems.
The master’s thesis topic in the 3+2 curriculum has to be related to the main
specialisation (see Table 4).
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Table 4. Master’s thesis curricula and main specialisations
Curriculum Main specialisation
TAAM02 Public Sector Economy(formerly TAAM02 Economics) 1.
Urban and Environmental Economics2. Public Sector Finance
TARM02 Business Finance and Accounting 1. Business Finance2. Accounting3. Auditing
TATM02 Management and Marketing 1. Management2. Marketing
3. Human Resource Management
TAKM02 Business Administration 1. Business Administration
TVTM03 International Business Administration 1. International Business Administration
TASM08 International Relations and European
Studies
1. International Relations and European
Studies
In comparison with the bachelor’s thesis, the contribution of the author of the master’s
thesis and the share of new information must be bigger. The types of master’s thesis are
provided in Table 5.
Table 5. Classification of master’s theses
Type Objective Volume(EAP)
Volume (pages)(from title page
to annexes)
Quantity of referencesources (in foreign
language)
3+2curriculumMaster’sthesis
Synthesising application ofscientific methods ofanalysis and presenting of practical solutions
30 60 – 70 Min35 (15)*
MBA Synthesising application ofscientific methods ofanalysis and providing new
practical solutions
30 60 – 70 Min35 (15)*
*Note. The number of foreign language sources is obligatory for students in Estonian and Russiancurricula who write their graduation paper in Estonian or in Russian.
Master’s theses shall be defended publicly in front of the specially appointed defence
committee. Master ’s theses and theses defence shall be assessed according to the grading
scale established in the Academic Policies at TUT and on the basis of the learning outcomes
in the curriculum graduation paper module. All positive grades imply a succesful defence.
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2. THE ESSENCE OF ACADEMIC RESEARCH
Academic research (research) in general is a qualitative and/or quantitative analytical
approach to a subject related problem; when writing the paper the student acquires scientific
research experiences and skills of analysing, interpreting and generalising results. The
generally accepted standards for research papers shall apply: originality, objectivity,
provability, verifiability of the results, accuracy, system, clarity. An essential part of aresearch paper is a practical research conducted by the author, which comprises using of
certain method(s) of research, interpretation of results and drawing conclusions and making
suggestions on the basis of empirical data gathered by the author.
2.1. Academic research logic
Every academic research paper must contain the following components:
Define the research problem to be solved or put up a research question;
Theories that would serve as the basis for solving the research problem/research
question and other authors’ research findings or/and given solutions;
Description of the methods to be used to solve the research problem/question;
Solving of the research problem/ answering the research question, based on the
above theory and methods, and, where possible, comparison to other authors’
results.
The above expresses the inner logic and principal components of any academic
research: research problem/question, theory, methods and solution to the research
problem/question.
The research, topic and problem of research are as a rule chosen by the student
independently and subject to approval of the supervisor. In case the student cannot find an
appropriate topic, the respective chair shall suggest one.
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A suggestion to the students: the research problem should be chosen based on personal
and professional interests and potential future career. The topic of the graduation thesis must
correspond to the main specialisation. Academic research papers are part of the study process,
i.e. their purpose is to teach conceptual thinking and diagnostics and solving of the problems.
Academic research on the whole must reveal that the author knows the reality in
theory and practice, is able to find and raise important problems and to investigate and solve
them methodically. Assessment of the work depends primarily on the level of research and
how well different parts of research have been laid down.
2.2. Statement of research problem
In most general terms, problem is a perceived difference between the actual and
desired situation (objectives). In academic research it means that the author has to define the
current situation (e.g. in economy, company, theory) and the objectives of the research, i.e.
what the research seeks to achieve.
In brief, an academic research problem is the difference between knowing and not
knowing, and solving of the problem is creating of a new knowledge, which would fill in that
gap.
From the strictly scientific point of view, it is the everyday task of every
scholar/researcher to diagnose, formulate and reformulate problems. And solving of a real
science problem is nothing else but diagnosing, formulating and reformulating, and solving of
new problems.
Academic research is characterised by theoretical and methodological justification. It
is important that the theory and methods, and all the process of solving the problem were
presented correctly in writing.
Any kind of academic research has to fix the problem to be solved; otherwise it would
not be possible to assess the content and level of the work, since it is not clear what about and
for what the paper has been written. Definition, justification and explanation of the problem
show the researcher’s skills, grasp and level. Problem conveys the idea and meaning of the
research.
Academic research problems should be simultaneously:
problems enabling academic research;
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Methodology is a complex of research and analysis methods used for
investigating/solving a problem.
Method/methodology has to answer the question „how", i.e. how to investigate and
solve a formulated problem on the basis of the particular theory.
Academic research shall apply various methods for the following purposes:
methods for collecting information, i.e. where and in which way empirical
information is gathered;
methods of analysis, i.e. how is information systematised and conclusions made;
solution and decision-making methods, i.e. in which way are possible alternative
solutions to the problem worked out and how to choose between them.
The choice of methods to be used, their justification and explanation is a natural part
of every research; without this it is not possible to methodically investigate, comprehend the
research or reach motivated final results.
Considering the multitude of theories and methods the author of a research has many
alternatives. Final outcome depends on the right choice. It must be taken into consideration
what is the academic level of the research, i.e. methods used in the bachelor level research are
definitely simpler and the approach more general than those used in the master’s theses.
2.4. Solving of a research problem
The main part of the research is solving of a research problem. The problem is solved
based on the theories and using methods described previously. Individual components here
are analysis of the problem, empirical research, analysis, interpretation of the research results
and conclusions, possible solutions and choosing the best from among them (decision-
making).
The keywords that should be focused on when solving practical problems,
investigating them separately, where necessary, are: to what extent the problem can be
influenced; resources (including budget); prerequisites and limitations to solving the problem;
risk management and diversification; motivation of the parties involved and avoiding of the
conflict of interests; approach to the implementation of the solution. These include also,
where necessary and possible, economic calculations of possible costs and benefits of solving
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the problem. A result would be new knowledge of the problem and its possible solution, and
recommendations to those who the solving depends on.
Theoretical papers have to present a systematised overview of previous research and
theories, suggest in an argumented way author’s own theory, which would enable to solve the
research problem and find answers to the research questions.
A sophisticated problem can be solved in academic research under certain conditions,
i.e. it is inevitable that the author has to define certain preconditions for solving the problem
and exclude certain factors or aspects. The fewer the prerequisites and exclusions, the easier it
is to define the problem. The paper needs to demonstrate that the research and solution are
correct under certain conditions and the author understands that some circumstances may
significantly influence the problem and its solution. It would be good when the author of
research can identify himself/herself with the owner of the problem, who is authorised to
identify and solve the problem. Owner of the problem is for whom the problem is formulated
as a problem, who is responsible or interested in investigating/solving it (e.g. employee of a
company, civil servant at a Ministry, member of NGO).
Based on the definition of the problem, the problem is solved by defining and
implementing activities in order to change the actual situation into a desirable situation, i.e.
achieve the objective.
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The student shall coordinate the research concept with the supervisor. In the
subsequent work process additional circumstances may appear, which cause changes to the
research concept.
3.3. Structure of research paper
According to the research concept (see section 3.2.), the headings of chapters, sub-
chapters and sections are formulated and sequenced logically. The structure of research shall
be decided.
An academic research paper usually comprises three chapters, as an exception there
may be more or less chapters. Division of the paper into more chapters in general is not
reasonable. Depending on the problem of research and title (whether a theoretical or
application oriented research), the body part of the paper is based on different principles.
Below two examples are provided.
Example 1:
Chapter 1 – present main theoretical perspectives, legislation. Define, explicate, justify and
formulate the problem to be solved.
Chapter 2 – overview of the research object (institution, company, sector etc), present key
information, describe the environment/background. Describe methods. Depending on the goal
orientation, methods may/must be described in a separate section.
Chapter 3 – empirical research and solving of the problem (results, discussion, conclusions,
proposals/recommendations).
Example 2:
Chapter 1 – overview of the research object (institution, company, sector, law theory etc),
present key information, describe the environment/background and define, explicate, justify
and formulate the problem to be solved.
Chapter 2 – theory and methods. Depending on the goal orientation, methods may/must be
described in a separate section. Present main theoretical perspectives.
Chapter 3 – empirical research and solving of the problem (results, discussion, conclusions,
suggestions/recommendations).
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The paper must be structured pursuing a logical balance. The volume of each chapter
depends on the problem and goal orientation. In general, the chapter for empirical studies and
problem solving should be the biggest (approximately 40% of the content).
The research structure conveys the logic of research, which renders the lack of logic
and disproportions easily identifiable.
3.4. Selection of special literature
It is the task of the student to find and go through sources of literature for the research.
The student may use professional literature and electronic databases at the library of TUT.
Electronic information search is enabled by: search engine Google Scholar, reference
databases (FSTA, SciFinderScholar etc), on-line databases of full texts (EBSCOhost,
ScienceDirect etc), e-journals A-to-Z in the TUT library portal, multimedia CD ROMs
(Microsoft Encarta InteractiveWorld Atlas etc), subject gateways (professional information
sources in the internet, TUT servers etc). Search engines (Google, NETI etc.) are suitable for
finding other internet materials. The catalogue ESTER covers the collections of major
Estonian libraries.
A primary orientation in sources of information helps to prepare a work plan. Relevant
information for the research is gone through, analysed and synthesised in greater detail in the
process of writing. The selection of sources for in-depth research must be diverse, including
many renowned authors and writings of various level (monographs, collections of articles,
journals etc.). The respective module of Word (References) or some special reference
management software (Zotero, EndNote Web, Jabref etc) may be used to record source
references and manage them.
Sources used for research must be reliable, in compliance with good academic
practices. Monographs, publications in professional journals and reliable databases are
preferred. The number of other internet sources must be as small as possible. One should
avoid sources with the author unknown (e.g. Wikipedia articles). It is not advisable to use
lecture materials either.
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3.5. Structuring of a research paper
A paper traditionally contains three parts: front matter, main body and end or back
matter.
Front matter, as a rule, comprises of the following components:
Title page – the title page components are provided in section 4.2. The reverse side
of the title page contains the author’s declaration, and in bachelor’s and master’s
theses, the supervisor’s and the chairman of defence committee’s resolutions.
Table of Contents – Table of Contents lists the headings of divisions with their
corresponding page numbers. It is advisable to use an up to three level hierarchy
(chapter 1, subchapter 1.1, section 1.1.1); Table of Contents contains sectionheadings with respective page numbers (see section 4).
List of abbreviations (where necessary) – when many special terminology
abbreviations are used in the paper, the respective list shall be made.
The main body seeks to provide an in-depth description of the problem statement
through solutions to conclusions and proposals. Discussion of problems in the main body
must be complete and systematic. The main body is divided into the following parts:
abstract, introduction,
chapters,
conclusions,
résumé (summary in foreign language)*.
Back matter contains:
references,
appendices.*Note: Papers in Estonian and Russian language curricula require a résumé in English.Résumé is not required in papers in curricula with English as the language of instruction.
Below will be explicated the content of the main body.
3.5.1. Abstract
Abstract is a brief summary of a research paper, which gives an overview of the
paper, focusing on its main points and defining for the reader the outlines of the subject under
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study. Abstract of a finished research is „retrospective“. Abstract must be an independent
meaningful text, be easy to read (explicit, unambiguous formulation, short sentences) and
understandable to the wide audience. Abstract communicates the objective of research, the
research problem, methods of research, results and their originality, and areas of application.
Important facts, relationships and numerical data are also provided. Abstract ends, on a
separate row, with keywords (5-10 words, depending on the research specificity) which
identify the subject areas discussed in the research.
Example:
The title is: Use of Virtual Teams in the Learning Process
Keywords: virtual team, e-learning, spatial distance, combined study, electronic teaching aids
Abstract contains no charts, tables or graphs. It is not advisable to use texts that
require referencing in an abstract. An abstract covers approximately ½-¾ of a page.
3.5.2. Introduction
Introduction of a research paper is based on certain components: justification of the
choice of topic (topicality and novelty), objective of research, research problem, (where
necessary) hypothesis(es), research question(s), research tasks, method(s) of research, object
of research, short description of sections.
Introduction does not solve any problems; it does not contain any tables, figures or
abundant numerical data. The author may direct attention to the facts that help understand the
work (problems related to search for empirical information and representativeness, assistance
of persons and organisations to writing etc). Introduction is approximately 2-3 pages long. Next the components of Introduction will be explicated.
Justification of the choice of topic (topicality and novelty of the problem)
The choice of topic must be justified by opening the background and indicating the
current importance/topicality of the problem. The choice of topic is justified by
providing a brief overview of the area and explaining the need to study the area
further. The justification of the choice of topic must be academic.
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Research problem
Research problem is the perceived difference between the actual and desirable
situation (objectives).
Research questions
Research questions are open ended questions (not whether-questions) and have to
be asked specifically about the research problem.
Objective of research
Objective of the research shows one or several alternative solutions to the research
problem. The objective must provide a clear understanding of what is to be
achieved as a result of the research. The objective may not be expressed simply in
activity (provide an overview, describe, characterise, analyse etc) but in the
expected outcomes of this activity, e.g.: work out strategies for enterprise N and
evaluate their efficiency.
Research tasks
Research tasks show the stages to be gone through for the achievement of the
objective, or what needs to be done to achieve the objectives.
Hypothesis(es)
Hypothesis is a theory or experience based verifiable scientific assumption.
Verifiable means that the hypothesis may not contain any vague expressions or
specific criteria that would show that the hypothesis has been proved.
Research object
Methods of research
Method of research is an approach used for investigating/solving the problem, a set
of techniques that enables to get new information about the problem and its
solution (e.g. quantitative/qualitative methods)
Short description of chapters
So as to make it easier for the reader to have an idea of the research it is necessary
in Introduction to describe briefly the gist of every chapter, for example, three to
five sentences about each chapter.
If the author of the paper wants to acknowledge or say thanks to those who assisted
him/her in the work, the most suitable place for that is the last paragraph of Introduction.
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3.5.3. Chapters
The chapetrs of an academic research paper are traditionally divided into three:
1)
theoretical chapters,2)
methodological chapters,
3) Results, discussion, conclusions and proposals/recommendations.
Depending on the research subject and research strategy, the paper may be structured
differently from the traditional one. A chapter or subchapter describing alternative solutions
(proposals, suggestions, measures, projects, programmes, etc) is usually added to the
development projects. In papers containing a complex analysis, a description of research
methods, results obtained with these methods and their discussion are often concentrated into
one subchapter (less often into a chapter).
The chapters discuss the process of solving the problem. The process in empirical
research is from general to specific: theoretical benchmarks, methods, analysis and results. A
theoretical research necessitates, in addition to a systematised overview of previous
understandings, presentation of a new concept. In the main the student’s personal contribution
to the development of the subject should be revealed. The structure depends on the subject
and nature of research. Chapters and subchapters need to be logically connected to each other
and form a whole. Structuring of the paper depends on the subject, organisation and volume
of the paper. The structure should be neither over- or under-structured. The lowest level
section should not be shorter than one page. The chapters are numbered according to the
internationally used method (Arabic numbers).
The proportion of the theoretical part and empirical analysis depends on the subject
and objective setting. When the focus is on empirical analysis, a theoretical approach to the
problem is due to be presented.
1) Theoretical part
Theoretical part shall point out which theories the research problem development will
be based on and what is the main special literature the research will be based on. This chapter
is structured based on various principles. For example, the author may first present the subject
related terminology; then present some main concepts, viewpoints and facts about the
problem, indicate which issues have been solved, which haven’t.
Every paper must clearly identify the student’s personal contribution to the problem,
which may reveal, for example, in confronting and comparing different authors’ opinions
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(theories) together with presenting his/her own viewpoints and assessments, making
generalisations, conclusions or applied proposals based on source materials, etc. It is very
important that the student wouldn’t be limited to citing one author’s viewpoints only but finds
other authors’ counter -arguments to the argument and analyses different viewpoints.
All the material shall be joined into a whole with author’s own comments and
opinions.
2) Methodical part
Methodical part gives a detailed description of the research: description of the research
object (e.g. enterprise) and its environment, research materials, methods of data collection and
processing (quantitative/qualitative research etc) and justification of their choice (e.g.: in
questionnaire survey the principles of sampling, sample size and representativeness, the
questionnaire shall be appended). When statistical data are used the sources are indicated.
When data had to be modified, smoothed, adjusted, these modifications are to be described.
Also problems encountered when gathering data and how these were solved should be
described. When deductive statistics is used for data analyses (statistical hypotheses testing,
econometric modelling, etc), quantitative descriptions of data (descriptive statistics) are
presented.
The description of methods should be so precise that a specialist could repeat the
research, where necessary. This chapter shall also describe statistical methods or programmes
used in data processing.
This chapter does not write about research results.
3) Results and discussion, and conclusions and proposals/recommendations
The part of results and discussion shall describe the results (data) obtained during the
research, which are presented using charts, tables and author’s text, where he/she analyses,
synthesises and generalises the data obtained. The connecting text must avoid repeating andretelling of the information provided in tables and figure.
The results provide statistical processing of data results and assessments of their
reliability. Detailed tables, observation reports, questionnaire information, interview
transcriptions and other materials enabling checking of the results are provided in appendixes.
Results sub-chapter has to be written without scientific discussion elements and without
references to literature sources.
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In the section of discussion of results, the results are interpreted; connections,
regularities, possible generalisations, as well as exceptions, doubtful points, miscorrelations
etc are pointed out. The results obtained are compared to other authors’ analogous research
results, attempts shall be made to theoretically justify the results. The author shall discuss
what kind of attitudes can be developed on the basis of results.
Findings include the most important results (what is good and need to be
preserved/reinforced, what and for what reason is bad and needs to be improved).
Proposals/recommendations provide author’s opinions and possible solutions to
amend the situation in the respective area. It is advisable to present conclusions and proposals
in a systematised way, in a separate section at the end of the last chapter.
3.5.4. Conclusions
In Conclusions the author presents with his/her own words a generalisation of the
research, mentioning the objective and how the objective was achieved, pointing out the main
results and findings, suggestions, problems that need to be solved still, and development
trends. Conclusions and suggestions/proposals are presented by special items or theses.
Conclusions also identify the hypotheses, either proved or/and disproved with the
reasoning of approval or/and disproval.
Conclusions shall not raise any new problems, present no viewpoints or draw
conclusions in issues not discussed in previous parts.
Conclusions may not contain viewpoints or solutions not discussed in the main part of
the paper. Conclusions do not refer to literature sources or present opinions or conclusions
made by other authors. Conclusions assess whether the objectives of research were achieved
or not.
Introduction and Conclusions should be presented in such a way that a bystander could
have an idea of the problems, the way these were solved and main results.
Conclusions should be 2-3 pages long, depending on the nature of research.
3.5.5. R ésumé (summary in foreign language)
Résumé or summary in a foreign language is a brief presentation of major aspects and
statements in other than the main text language. The objective is to communicate as precisely
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and briefly as possible the text or the main ideas. Important is the factual correctness (nothing
the text does not support is added), presentation of the most meaningful details and no
unconnected conclusions to the text are made. Foreign language summary must provide a
generalised but exhaustive idea of the paper to those who do not understand the language of
the paper. R ésumé is not a direct translation but a symbiosis of the Introduction and
AbstractR ésumé is titled in the respective language, e.g. in English SUMMARY, in German
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG, etc. Underneath the foreign language résumé (e.g. SUMMARY)
write the title of the paper in the respective foreign language (all caps) and beneath that the
author’s first and family name. The summary in foreign language, title in foreign language as
well as author’s name are aligned left. Next comes the foreign language text with the first line
indented. The foreign language summary is approximately two pages long.
Note: Papers in Estonian and Russian language curricula require a r ésumé in English.
Résumé is not required in papers in curricula with English as the language of instruction.
Example:
SUMMARY
THE ROLE OF PRICE IN CONSUMER PURCHASING BEHAVIOR ON
THE TALLINN FOOD MARKET
Tiina Kask
The effectiveness of marketing and as a result the success of the whole company
depends on how well known the consumers, their needs and purchasing behaviour are.
Consumer behaviour is influenced by many factors, but marketing can affect it only via the
elements of the marketing mix, which are product, price, promotion and place.
The aim of this work is ...
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3.6. Language of the paper
The papers in curricula with Estonian as the language of instruction shall be written in
Estonian. By way of exception (foreign students, co-supervisor is from a foreign university,
studying and paper writing abroad, etc), with the supervisor’s approval and when there is a
defence committee speaking the respective language, the paper may be written in some other
language (e.g. English, German, Russia or Finnish). The papers in curricula with English as
the language of instruction shall be written in English. The papers in curricula with Russian as
the language of instruction shall be written in Russian.
It is important that the language and style used in the papers are correct, that the
author’s approach to the problems, justifications and conclusions are logical and observable.Language use must be strictly academic. One should avoid wordiness, reiterations.
Formal style, contractions, slang words, idiomatic, journalistic, populist expressions,
colloquialisms, poetic phrases etc are inappropriate in a research paper (e.g. the expressions
like “... there’s no smoke without fire” are not appropriate). One should also avoid
(over)emotional adjectives when describing phenomena or processes (for example “...
miserable economic situation”, “... profit kept growing nicely”, “… real estate market has a
big stopper on”).
One should avoid excessive influence of foreign language and mistranslations. The
meaning of the sentence must be translated, not individual words. In case one cannot find an
adequate equivalent to a foreign language term or doubts the choice, he/she may enclose in
parentheses the respective foreign language term in italic, for example (in English marketing ).
However, the terms may not be used only in foreign language.
When the paper contains more than twenty unfamiliar terms, abbreviations or symbols
and every one of them occurs more than once, it is advisable to make a list of abbreviations
and symbols, which together with the respective explanations shall be presented after
Introduction. Ensure consistency in using terms and symbols throughout the paper. The
papers should avoid using synonyms for the same scientific term. It is advisable to prefer
commonly used terminology. When traditional term is regarded as inappropriate and a new
one is suggested, reasonable arguments should be given. Foreign language terms introduced
into the language of the paper but written and pronounced as foreign terms, must be printed in
italic.
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Use of abbreviations and acronyms. Before using an abbreviation or acronym it
must be defined first by spelling it out fully. For example: Gross Domestic product (GDP);
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). Another possibility is to
present a list of abbreviations and acronyms with definitions in Appendix, which will be
referred to after every abbreviation or acronym. Eceptions are most widely known
abbreviations and acronyms, which are traditionally not spelled out in full (e.g.: USA, UN,
WTO etc). No abbreviations or acronyms are used in headings. The authors must use one and
the same abbreviation or acronym for the word throughout the paper.
British usage favours omitting the full stop in abbreviations which include the first and
last letters of a single word (e.g. Mr, Mrs, Dr), most other abbreviations, however, require a
full stop. Acronyms generally are in full caps omitting the full stop. Do not use an
abbreviation that can easily be avoided. Anyway, be consistent throughout the paper.
Mode of speech and voice of writing must be consistent throughout the paper. The
author may not take sides. Instead of using “I” or “we” (for example, we investigated, I
analysed), use impersonal and passive voice (e.g. “…is discussed, analysed, investigated in
the paper ” or “the paper discusses, analyses etc”).
It is preferable to use the indicative mode, because the predominant use of subjunctive
mode might leave an impression that the author is not quite sure of the correctness of his/her
statements.
Orthography. All kind of spelling mistakes and misprints are unacceptable. The
author must carefully double-check his/her paper, tables, formulas, figures etc. The meaning
and orthography of foreign words and infrequent terms need to be checked with the help of a
lexicon or dictionary. It is also advisable to use a special spelling and grammar software.
3.7. Cooperation between student and supervisor
Academic research paper is a student’s independent work, i.e. supervisor is neither a
co-author nor editor of the paper, not to speak of corrector. The student alone is responsible
for the correctness and content of the paper. Supervisor is for the student an instructor whom
to address to get a preliminary assessment, as well as advice and assistance. Confidential
relationship between student and supervisor is important primarily for the student.
http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node04.htmlhttp://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node04.htmlhttp://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node04.htmlhttp://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node04.html
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Commencement stage. The role of supervisor is especially important in the early
stage of research, i.e. when the concept of research is devised and structure designed.
Supervisor shall be responsible for justfied recommendations and drawing attention to major
mistakes and shortcomings.
Writing stage. Supervisor shall monitor the development of the student and the whole
process of writing from start to end. It is recommended to make a work plan for that. The
student is required to submit the paper to supervisor at least twice. The first version is
individual chapters (sections), and finally the complete paper. The timetable should be made
so that the final version is submitted to the supervisor at least three weeks prior to the official
deadline; then the student has time to make amendments, where necessary. The student is
bound to regularly contact supervisor, inform him/her about the work, problems that arise,
possible changes etc.
Supervisor neither approves nor assesses the final version of the paper that is
submitted to him/her for reading for the first time, where the main aspects have not been
discussed with the supervisor. Supervisor need not correct formatting mistakes but points
them out. The same applies to mistakes in style, formulation and spelling. The terms and
terminology shall be discussed with the supervisor.
Concluding stage. The reverse side of the title page contains the author’s signeddeclaration (subchapter 4.2) that the paper has been written independently and in compliance
with the rights of other authors. If the supervisor approves of the paper, i.e. the paper satisfies
at least the minimum requirements, he/she signs the reverse side of the title page, which
means he/she recommends it for defence.
Research paper shall be duly submitted to supervisor, bachelor ’s thesis and master’s
thesis to the respective department. Supervisor shall submit to the defence committee a
written opinion on the bachelor ’s or master’s thesis within one week of the submissiondeadline. Defence committee shall take account of the supervisor’s opinion in assessment.
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4. FORMATTING OF THE PAPER
4.1. General requirements
The papers written at the School of Economics and Business Administration shall be
in the format complying with good international practices of academic research. Papers are
printed as MS Word documents on A4 format white paper, on one side only. An exception is
the title page where on the reverse side the declaration of authorship is printed. The reverse of
the title page also contains a supervisor’s notice on permission to defence and chairman of the
defence committee’s on defence.
The requirements provided in this Guide can be achieved in several ways in MS Word .
The Guide indicates one of these possibilities. The Guide uses English terms and is based on
the English version of MS Office 2010, because the computers in the TSEBA computer class
have an English version of Word.
For creating a Word document, first set the page layout (paper size, margins,
orientation, font size and line spacing):
Set the margins (Page Layout → Margins → Customs Margins) – Top and Bottom
margins must be 3 cm, Right margin 2 cm and Left 3 cm.
The font to be used throughout the paper is Times New Roman (including
Headings) and font size 12 pt (from format toolbar Font and Font Size); exceptions
are appendixes, tables and figures.
Line spacing throughout the paper is 1.5 ( Paragraph → Indents and Spacing →
Line spacing ), exceptions are the list of references, appendixes, tables and figures.
Text alignment is justified (on the format toolbar Justify). Where large spaces
appear between words, use hyphenation. For manual hyphenation choose an
appropriate place on the next line for hyphenation and click /.
All pages are numbered in one system (including appendixes), page numbers are
displayed starting from the first page of Introduction (title page is included in the
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numeration, but page number is not displayed), centred at the bottom of page.
Reverse side of the title page is not included in the numeration. Page numbers are
inserted by clicking Insert → Page Numbers → Bottom of Page →
Plain Number 2. To avoid displaying page number on the title page, choose Insert
→ Footer → Edit Footer and select Different First Page check box and click OK.
All chapters and sections have a heading that shows the content. All headings are
numbered with Arabic numbers (e.g., 1., 1.1., ...) and aligned left. Headings are
typed in Bold . For the first level headings use All caps, font size 16 pt. For the
second level headings use the first letter capitalised, font size 14 pt. For the third
level headings use the first letter capitalised, font size 12 pt.
Do not use abbreviations in headings and do not use full stop at the end of the
headings. When the heading consists of several sentences, every sentence ends
with a full stop, but not the last sentence. No hyphenation is used in headings. The
first paragraph after a heading shall have 18 pt spacing before it: Paragraph →
Indents and Spacing and Spacing, choose Spacing Before 18 pt (one blank line
with font size 12 pt). No blank lines are inserted before the next paragraphs.
The first level headings start from a new page, with 72 pt spacing before them
(four blank lines at the top of page with font size 12 pt). To make a new page
activate in the menu Paragraph → Line and Page Breaks click Page break before.
Lower level headings continue from the same page where the previous section
ended. Level two headings must have 36 pt spacing before them (two blank lines
with font size 12 pt). The third and next level headings shall have a 18 pt spacing
before (one blank line with font size 12 pt).
When less that two lines of text go on the same page with the heading, the heading
will be transferred to the next page. An example of text structuring is provided in
Appendix 1.
Text is organised into paragraphs, no blank line between paragraphs, the first line
of the paragraph indented. The indentation by 1.25 cm is chosen from Paragraph
→ Indents and Spacing in the Indentation check box clicking Special: First line
and typing By: 1,25 cm.
The general requirements for formatting papers are obligatory.
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4.2. Title page
All title page elements are written on a separate line, centred, with the exception of
information on supervisor; the place and date of defence are on the same line:
university name, all caps (TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY);
faculty name (School of Economics and Business Administration);
name of department in the subject or under supervision of which the paper is
written;
name of the chair in the subject or under supervision of which the paper is written;
author’s first name and family name;
title of the paper in capital letters;
type of paper (research paper, bachelor ’s thesis, master’s thesis); in a research
paper add also the subject in which the paper is written;
title or position (lector, assoc. professor, researcher, senior researcher) and full
name of supervisor(s) – aligned right;
place (or location of supervising institution, i.e. town) and year of defence.
No punctuation is used on the title page, with the exception of the title. Title page font
size is 12 pt (except for the title). Title of the paper is printed in Bold, all caps, font size 16 pt.
Author’s first and family name are placed before the title, 2/3 from the top of the page.
Hyphenation and abbreviations are not allowed on the title page.
The reverse side of the title page of research papers, bachelor ’s theses and master’s
theses contains the author’s signed and dated declaration that the paper has been written
independently and all sources of information have been referenced. It must also contain the
student’s code and e-mail address.
The reverse side of the title page of research papers, bachelor ’s and master’s thesesalso contains supervisor’s approval of the thesis, including the place for signature and date.
The reverse side of the title page of the bachelor’s and master’s theses also contains
the chairman of the defence committee’s notice on permission to defence, including the space
for signature and date. The chairman of the defence committee’s notice on permission to
defence is omitted from research papers.
An example of the title page of bachelor ’s and master’s theses is provided in Appendix
2 and an example of the reverse of the title page in Appendix 3. An example of the title page
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of a research paper is provided in Appendix 4 and an example of the reverse of the title page
in Appendix 5.
4.3. Table of contents
Table of Contents is placed after the title page and describes the structure of the paper.
Table of Contents includes all headings and their corresponding page numbers precisely as
they occur in the paper. Table of Contents contains all headings starting from Introduction.
Only body part chapters and their subdivisions are numbered (decimal Arabic numbers, e.g.
1.; 1.2.; 2.3.1. etc). Table of Contents, Abstract, Introduction, Conclusions, References,
foreign language summary are not numbered. Every next level subheading is indented from
the preceding level. Add leader dots between the heading and the corresponding page number
(only number without abbreviation p.). Page numbers are aligned right. All appendixes are
listed in the Table of Contents with their respective headings and page numbers.
Table of Contents can be made automatically – using built-in heading styles. All
headings (except for the heading TABLE OF CONTENTS) need to match to the respective
level heading style (on the Home tab, in the Styles group choose „Heading 1“ or „Heading 2“
etc). For creating a Table of Contents choose References → Table of Contents → Insert Table
of Contents, the number of levels for the paper has to be chosen in the box Show levels (3 as a
rule).
It is reasonable to make a Table of Contents already when writing the paper, because
the links of headings in Table of Contents will take you directly to the respective heading in
the text. Before printing the paper out, update the Table of Contents: when computer asks
Replace, click OK. An advantage of the automatically made Table of Contents is that the
headings included in the Table of Contents and their respective page numbers are exactly as
they are in the text. However, it should be checked that the automatic Table of Contents uses
font size 12 pt. Use line spacing 1.5 for Table of Contents.
An example of Table of Contents is provided in Appendix 6.
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4.4. Body of the paper
Every element in the paper is designed in the same style throughout the paper
(headings, division, non-text elements such as tables, figures, equations etc). Where many
abbreviations, tables or figures are used in the paper, their lists may be included after Table of
Contents, indicating the page numbers of figures and tables at which they start in the paper.
A section should not start or end with a table, figure, equation or list.
4.4.1. Numbers
Usually the numerals 1-10 are spelled out.
Examples:
Two points,
Ten enterprises,
170 students.
When paper contains many numbers or large and small numbers side by side, use
numerals for all of them.
Example:
Liina has been working at the dean’s office for 5 years and at the rector’s office for 12 years –
her employment history at Tallinn University of Technology is 17 years long.
Numbers followed by a unit of measure or its abbreviation are written as numerals,
and a space is left between numerals and the unit of measure. With abbreviated units of
measure or symbols use numerals to denote numbers. The percentage sign and section mark
are also used only with numerals.
Examples:
The room is 4 m long, 3 m wide and 2 m high.
One litre of petrol cost 1 euro.
8%.
§ 5
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Do not leave a space between the numerals and symbols of percentage, degree,
coordinate minute and second.
Examples:
Daily average temperature is -5º.
Growth rate is 8%.
A space is used before the symbols of percentage, degree, coordinate minute and
second when the respective symbol is a logical part of the following symbol.
Example:
Average temperature -8 ºC (degree Celsius).
Years should be written in numerals rather than e.g. ‘last year’ or ‘this year’. The use
of more than 3−4 digits should be avoided both in body text and tables, if possible.
Example:
Correlation multiplier r = 0.346 instead of r = 0.345729315379067.
Round figures 100; 1000; 1,000,000 etc are spelled usually when exact figure is not
accentuated. Numerals are used when the exact figure is to be underlined.
Example:
About hundred people attended the meeting. 100 specialists answered the questionnaire.
For large sums it is advisable to use a combination of numerals and spelled-ou
numbers.
Example:
5 m or 5 million
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A number and the accompanying unit of measure, either abbreviation or symbol, is to
be placed on the same row (use Ctrl+Shift +).
In five- and more digit numerals split the digits into groups of three starting from the
right and use commas to separate the groups: 1,234,567 euro.
In value ranges use the unit of measure after the last numeral or before the value
range. Instead of to use en dash.
Examples:
16 to 60 years or 16 – 60 years
In the years 2001 – 2010
4.4.2. Tables
Tables are used for systematic presentation of texts and data. Tables with unprocessed
data (measured by the author or published by other authors) shall be presented in appendices.
Tables containing data calculated or processed in the paper or systematised text tables
are presented in the body text in case the table is no longer than one page. Large tables and
processed tables are presented in appendixes. All Tables are numbered consecutively using
Arabic numbers and either ordinary (recommended for a smaller number (up to 10) of tables)
or multiple level numbering (used for a larger amount of tables). For example: Table 1 or
Table 2.5, the latter standing for the fifth table in section 2. Every table is referred to in the
body text (for example: the results are presented in Table 4), and placed in the text as soon as
possible after the reference.
Table headings are aligned left, leaving a space of 18 pt before and after. This will
separate the Table heading from the preceding text and from the table itself. Heading starts
with the generic name „Table” and the number of the table with a full stop (see an example
after this paragraph). A Table heading starts with an uppercase letter and no full stop is used
at the end. The table heading font size is 12 pt. When all numerical data in the table have the
same unit of measure, the unit is added to the heading in parentheses. Where several units of
measure are used, these will be presented in the respective columns or rows, either in
parentheses or separated from the preceding text by a comma.
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Example:
Table 1. Budget revenues across counties in 2006 – 2011 (thousand euro)
Use borders and gridlines for tables, no shading for the background, only black and
white colours. To insert a table choose Insert → Table and relevant number of columns and
rows. The text and numbers in the table may be in font size 11 pt and line spacing 1.0
(Single). Tables must be centred. Column headings are centred. Texts are aligned left. Do not
use indentation. Capitalise the first letter of the headings of columns and rows. No caps for
the headings of sub-columns.
Example:
Table 2. Heading (unit of measure)
Uppercase first
letter
Uppercase first letter
lowercase first
letter
lowercase first
letter
lowercase first
letter
lowercase first
letter
Uppercase first
letter… … … …
Uppercase first
letter… … … …
Numerals in columns are aligned right so that the decimal points were aligned. It is
recommended to use comma for separating thousands. Columns must have headings,
advisably also the first column. Generic words like type, name etc should be avoided in
headings.
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Example:
Table 3. Indicators characterising labour productivity and wage level (euro)
Indicator AS A AS B
2011 2010 2011 2010
Average monthly wage 804 792 739 725
Sales revenue per employee 20,845 19,956 19,666 18,957
Source: (AS A … 2011; AS B … 2011)
Columns are usually not numbered. Columns may be numbered, for example, when:
a certain column is referred to in the text;
a column shows how the result is received (e.g.: „column 2 × column 3“).
Immediately after the table give a reference to the source(s) of data and/or comments
and Notes (line spacing 1.0). Leave a space of 18 pt between the table and the following text.
When a table is made by the author of the paper, write in the Source: Compiled by the
author/author’s calculations/prepared by the author on the basis of data provided in Appendix
3, etc.
Tables inserted in the text should be as simple and short as possible. Inserted in the
text are usually tables no longer than one page (including Sources and Notes). In case the
table with the references does not fit into the page, it should be started on the next page. The
free space should be used for the subsequent text.
4.4.3. Figures
Figures are all illustrative materials, including graphs, diagrams, maps, drawings,
schemes, photographs, etc. Figures are illustrative materials for the text and/or table
information. Figures must take into consideration that the information they contain is clearly
distinguishable and observable; use suitable types of figures for that. Figures are presented in
the same language as the paper itself; other language text is allowed only by way of
exception. Every Figure has to be referred to in the text. Refer to Figure in a suitable place in
text before that Figure. A space of 18 pt is left between the text and Figure to separate Figure
from the text. Figures are centred. Every Figure must have a caption summarising what the
figure depicts; the caption is laconic and is placed below the figure. Before and after the
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figure caption leave a space of 18 pt. Figure caption starts with the generic name „Figure“ and
number of that figure accompanied by a full stop. The caption begins with an uppercase letter
and no full stop is used at the end. Leave a space of 18 pt after the figure and before the
subsequent text. Recommended font size for symbols, numerals and words used in Figures is
11pt.
Example:
Figure 1. Relationships between financial accounting, cost accounting and management
accounting
Source: (Alver, Reinberg 2002, 21)
When a figure is used to illustrate numerical data gathered from different sources or
processed previously, the source indicated in that figure is the appended table with numerical
data. The original source(s) is indicated in the appended table.
4.4.4. Equations
Important equations for the paper are written on a separate row with explanations
(simple mathematical expressions need not be inserted). For writing an equation the equation
editor in MS Word may be used: choose Insert → Equation (where necessary, choose next
Insert New Equation). The basic font size for equations is 12 pt and font type Times New
Roman italic. Equations are typed on a separate row and are centred. Single letters and
symbols used in equations are printed in italic, not on a separate row. Correct mathematical
symbols have to be used (e.g. * is not multiplication sign). No punctuation marks are used
FINANTS FINANCIAL - - JUHTIMIS MANAGEMENT - - KULU COST - -
ARVESTUS ACCOUNTING ARVES ACCOUN - - AR ACCOUNTING TUS ING
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after equations. Symbols used for the first time and units of measure are defined on the next
row after the equation (line spacing 1.0), starting with „where“. When there are more than one
equation in the paper, these need to be numbered with numbers in parentheses. The equation
number is aligned right on the same row with the equation.
Example:
()
(1)
where
a – fixed costs,b – variable cost rate,
n – number of periods, X – activity content,Y – total costs.
With a large number of equations use multiple level numbering (e.g.: equation 2.3
would be the third equation in chapter 2). The writing style of equations should remain
consistent throughout the paper.
4.4.5. Lists
Lists are printed with line spacing 1.5 and paragraph spacing 0. Lists are formed of at
least two elements which have common attributes. That attribute in the list is mentioned in the
introductory phrase that ends with a colon. The lists are presented:
horizontally (elements are placed on one row in the text),
vertically (elements are placed on separate rows, rows are indented).
Lists with short (e.g. one word) elements may be presented horizontally. When the
sequence and number of elements are important (or elements have to be referred to), theelements shall be numbered (number is followed by a parenthesis) and separated by a comma;
the last element is separated by the word and .
Example:
Scandinavian countries are Norway, Sweden and Finland (the sequence is not important).
or
The main foreign trade partners of Estonia are: 1) Finland, 2) Russia, and 3) Latvia.
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Lists are numbered also in case the list points consist of more than one sentence. In
other cases the numbering (numerals or letters) is not necessary or may be replaced by bullets
(where list items are direct continuation of the preceding text) or other symbols.
Shorter than one-sentence list points begin with lowercase letters and are separated by
a comma or semi-colon; use full stop to end the last point in the list. When one point in the
list contains commas or other punctuation marks, use semi-colon to separate points.
Example:
Home working provides advantages also to employers (Arvola 2006, 38):
1) lower overheads,
2)
growth of labour productivity,
3) experienced workers do not quit and new ones can be hired,
4) improvement of enterprise’s reputation.
Sublists are denoted by lowercase letters in alphabetical order accompanied by the
parenthesis (where sequence of sub-elements is important) or a different symbol than in the
main list.
Example:
Elements in the list are:
1) sequenced (sequence is important, elements are numbered)
a) one-word elements are presented horizontally,
b)
one-sentence elements are presented vertically,
c) multi-sentence elements are presented vertically;
2) not sequenced (sequence is not important, elements are not numbered)
a)
shorter one-sentence elements are presented horizontally,
b) longer one-sentence elements are presented vertically.
One-sentence elements are usually presented vertically. Multi-sentence elements are
presented always vertically and the elements start with an uppercase letter and end with a full
stop. A full stop is used after numerals in numbering.