Appendix 1: Glossary for Chinese and Japanese Names and Terms

CHINESE

A Jia Ai Siqi banxiang Cao Juren Chen Dabei Chen Duxiu Chen Jiang Chen Yanheng Cheng Changgeng Cheng Yanqiu chengshihua chuan shen dan daomadan Datong Yuehui Diyi Wutai Du Heng fayunei, xingyuwai , Fang Zhizhong Feng Gengguang Feng Xiaoyin Fu Sinian Fu Yunzi Gai Jiaotian gailiangxinxi Gao Langting Ge Gongzhen

gewuju Guo Jianying guodu xi Guoju Xuehui Guoju Yundong guzhuang xinxi Han Shiheng Hou Feng Hu Jinxu Hu Shi huadan Huang Fanchuo Huang Shang Huang Zhigang

(or Huang Su ) Huang Zongjiang Huang Zuolin huashan Ji Yun jiadingxing Jiang Miaoxiang jianlixiaoguo Jiao Xichen Jiao Xun jiaxianghuiyi jingju jingxi

224 Mei Lanfang and the International Stage

kunqu kunju laosheng Li Feishu Li Jinshen Li Kaixian Li Shizeng Li Taohen Liang Qichao liangxiang Lin Baishui Lin Chuanding Lin Mo Lin Yutang Liu Bannong

(or Liu Fu ) Liu Chunhua Liu Haisu Liu Tianhua Liu Yizhou Liu Yunqiu Lu Xun Ma Er

(or Feng Shuluan ) Mei Dang Mei Lanfang Mei Qiaoling “Mei xue ” Mei Yutian Mei Zhufen moshenghuaxiaoguo nandan Nie Gannu (or Erye ;

Zang Qiren ) Ouyang Yuqian qi Qi Rushan Qin Su qingyi Shang Xiaoling Shanghai Xin Wutai she shen chu di shensi Shi Zhecun

Shisandan (or Hou Junshan )

shizhuang xinxi Sun Huizhu Tan Xinpei Tang Xianzu tangma Tian Han Wang Guangqi Wang Jide Wang Jingwei Wang Xiaoyin Wang Yaoqing Wang Youyou

(or Wang Zhongxian ) Wang Zhongsheng Wang Zijia Wei Changsheng Wu Nanru Wu Ying wusheng Xia Zhengnong xian shen shuo fa xianggu xiangzhengzhuyi xiaosheng xieyi xieyizhuyi xingge hua

biaoyan xingsi xinju Xiong Foxi “xiong furen” xiqu Xu Beihong Xu Chengbei Xu Dachun Xu Muyun Xu Zhuodai

(or Xu Banmei ) Xun Huisheng Yan Huiqing

(or W. W. Yen)

Appendix 1 225

JAPANESE

Yan Rong Yang Longshou Yao Hsin- nung Yao Yufu Ye Gongchuo yijing Yu Cai Yu Shangyuan Yu Zhenfei yuan Yuan Muzhi Yuan zaju yuanchang yunshou Zang Maoxun Zhai Guanliang Zhang Houzai

(or Liaozi )

Zhang Mingqi Zhang Pengchun

(or P. C. Chang) Zhao Taimu Zhao Zunyue Zhengyue Yuhua

Hui Zheng Boqi Zheng Yiqiu Zheng Zhenduo

(or Xi Yuan ) Zhonghua Xiqu Yinyue

Yuan Zhou Yan Zhou Zuoren Zhuang Jingke Zou Taofen zouyuanchang

Akita Tsuyuko Akita Ujaku Akutagawa Ry ūnosuke

Aoki Masaru Band ō Tamasaburō V

Fukuchi Nobuyo Got ō Asatarō Haji Seiji Hamada K ōsaku

(or Seiryō Sei ) hanagata Hanako Hanayagi Sh ōtarō Hatsuse Namiko Ibaraki Noriko Ichikawa Sadanji II Ichimura Uzaemon XV

Ihara Seiseien Ikeda Daigo

iroko It ō Nobuhiko jigei “joyū mondai” Jūgatsu Sh ō kabuki Kanda Kiichir ō

(or Kanda Chōan ) Kan ō Naoki Kawai Takeo Kawakami Otojirō Kawatake Shigetoshi Kinoshita Junji Kinoshita Mokutar ō Kōyōan Kubo Tenzui Kume Masao Kyūryūban Masamune Hakuch ō Masuda Tar ōkaja Matsumoto K ōshirō VII

226 Mei Lanfang and the International Stage

michiyuki mie Miyake Sh ūtarō Miyamoto Yuriko Mizuki Tatsunosuke I Mori Ritsuko Morita Kan ’ya XIII Morita Kan ’ya XIV Murata Kakuko Murata Uk ō

(or Ukō Sanjin ) Naba Toshisada Nagai Kaf ū “naimenka” Nait ō Konan

(or Naitō Torajirō ; Fuchi Fukei Sei )

Nait ō Meisetsu Nakagi Teiichi

(or Nakagi Sei ) Nakamura Fukusuke IV Nakamura Fukusuke V Nakamura

Kan ’emon III Nakamura

Utaemon V Nakauchi Ch ōji Nanbu Sh ūtarō nanori Nishihara Daisuke “Nisshi shinzen” Nogami Yaeko noh Obata Y ūkichi Okakura Kakuz ō

(or Okakura Tenshin ) Ōkura Kihachir ō onnagata Onoe Baikō VI Osaka Ch ūō Kōkaidō (

)

Osanai Kaoru Rakuyōan Sada Yacco (or Sadayakko) Sawamura Sōj ūrō VII

Senda Koreya “Shina shumi” shingeki shinpa Shir ō Uno Suzuki Torao

(or Hyōken Chinjin ) Takarazuka Shōjo Kagekidan

Takarazuka

Daigekij ō Tanaka Keitar ō

(or Tenjaku ) Tanizaki Jun’ichiro Teikoku gekijo

(or Teigeki ) Teikoku Joy ū Yōseijo

Tokuda Sh ūsei Tsubouchi Sh ōyō Tsuji Ch ōka

(or Chōka Sanjin ; Tsuji Takeo )

Tsutsui Tokujirō Uemura Kichiya I wakaonnagata wakashu kabuki Yamamoto Ky ūzaburō Yosano Akiko Yoshida Toshiko Yoshikawa K ōjirō Yoshikawa Misao Yoshino Sakuz ō Yoshizawa Ayame I

(or ) Zeami

Appendix 2: Chinese and Japanese Historical Newspapers and Magazines

CHINESE

Banyue pinglun Beijing huabao Beiyang huabao Beiping chen bao Chen bao Chen bao fukan Chun liu Da wanbao Dagong bao Dongfang zazhi Gu geng Guowen zhoubao Jinbu ribao Jing bao (The Peking

Press) Jing bao (The Crystal) Juxue yuekan Liang you Liyuan gongbao Lun yu Lüxing zazhi Mang zhong Minjian zhoubao Minguo ribao Minzhong jiaoyu banzhoukan

Qinghua fukan Rensheng xunkan Shehui ribao Shehui yuebao

Shehui xinwen Shen bao Shenghuo Shi bao Shidai gonglun Shijie ribao Shishi xinbao Shuntian shibao Sin Chew Jit Poh Tai bai Weinasi Wenxue shidai Wenxue zhoubao Wenyi huabao Wuhan ribao Xi shijie Xian dai Xianshi Xiao jing bao Xiju congkan Xiju yuekan Xin qingnian Xin sheng Xinmin bao Xinwen bao Yong bao Yu si Zhonghua ribao Zhongyang ribao Zhongwai pinglun

228 Mei Lanfang and the International Stage

Chuo koron Engei gahō Engeki shinchō Hototogisu Jiji shinpo Josei Kageki Kokumin shinbun Miyako shinbun

Osaka asahi shinbun Shin engei Shin kōron Shūkan asahi Tokyo asahi shinbun Tokyo nichinichi shinbun

Yomiuri shinbun Yorozu chōhō

JAPANESE

Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. For a more detailed account of Mei’s life and career, see Scott 1971. 2. See Tian 2008, 147–50. 3. See the advertisements of Mei Lanfang’s first appearance in Shanghai,

Shen bao , November 4 and December 17, 1913. 4. Quoted in Leung 1929, 66. For more contemporary descriptions of aspects

of Mei Lanfang’s acting, see the same work, 66–71. 5. In an interview, Mei Lanfang made this statement of his view on the

reform of traditional Chinese theatre. See Zhang 1949. 6. In an official forum on the reform of traditional Chinese theatre, fol-

lowing Mei Lanfang’s previous statement, Mei Lanfang was forced to renounce his original position. See Zhang and Wang 1949.

7. See Tian 2008, 159–73. 8. See Mei 1962e, 82–84. 9. For studies of the early and modern history of jingju , see Mackerras 1972;

Goldstein 2007. 10. See Tian 2000. 11. For an examination of the photographic representation of Mei Lanfang,

see Kim 2006. 12. For example, Xu Chengbei, a leading specialist on Mei Lanfang, has

argued that one of the main reasons for Mei’s superiority is his contact with world culture on the international stage that embraced Mei unques-tionably and inevitably as the most outstanding contemporary representa-tive of China’s time- honored theatre and culture (Xu 2000, 144).

13. See Huang 1962; 1981, 14–29, and Sun 1982; 1987. Recently, Huang Zuolin’s and Sun Huizhu’s views in question have been challenged by a few Chinese critics (See Fu 2010).

14. Huang Zongjiang’s neologism was endorsed by Mei Shaowu, Mei Lanfang’s son, who used it to cover global studies of Mei Lanfang (Mei Shaowu 2006b, 498–504).

15. See Banu 1986; Risum 2001; and Saussy 2006. 16. These two articles have since been revised and expanded in Tian 2008,

39–59, 61–82; 2010, 215–69, 271–334.

230 Notes

1 REDEFINING A CULTURAL NATION AND REIFYING A THEATRE TRADITION: MEI LANFANG’S

INTERNATIONAL DEBUT IN JAPAN

1. For Japanese studies, see Itō 1981 and Yoshida 1986; 1987. Itō Nobuhiko’s and Yoshida Toshiko’s investigations document different aspects of Mei’s performances in Japan, but they are far from being thorough and miss out some of the most important documents. Even more significantly, they do not amount to an in- depth and critical study of their subject.

2. Some of these sketches were published under the title “Butai no Mei Lanfang” (Mei Lanfang on stage) in Tokyo asahi shinbun , October 23, 1924, 5.

3. See Yomiuri shinbun , May 2, 1919, 1. 4. See Tokyo asahi shinbun , April 26, 1919, 5; Tokyo asahi shinbun (Evening

edition), October 15, 1924, 2; Yomiuri shinbun , October 15, 1924, 2; Miyako shinbun , October 15, 1924, 10; Kokumin shinbun , October 19, 1924, 6.

5. See Yomiuri shinbun , May 1, 1919, 1; Tokyo asahi shinbun , May 1, 1919, 6; Yorozu chōhō , May 1, 1919, 4.

6. “Manjō no kanshū o misu” (The packed audience is spellbound), Osaka asahi shinbun , May 20, 1919, 7.

7. See Matsuda 1919; Li 1919; Shōkaiko 1919. 8. See Miyako shinbun , October 13, 1924, 11; Miyako shinbun , October 15,

1924, 10; Chōka 1924. 9. See also Yomiuri shinbun , October 15, 1924, 2.

10. For a Chinese translation of the forum minutes, see Jin Fengji 1996. 11. Also see the Imperial Theatre’s advertisement, Yomiuri shinbun , April 29,

1919, 1. For a complete list of Mei Lanfang’s 1919 and 1924 performances at the Imperial Theatre and other venues, see Yoshida 1986, 102–5.

12. For a list of these plays, see Tokyo nichinichi shinbun 1919a; Shuntian shi-bao , April 17, 1919, 5.

13. For example, Tanaka Keitarō (1880–1951), a sinophilic bibliophile, was extremely angry that Ōkura Kihachirō and the Imperial Theatre blindly altered the programs Mei had prepared for his tour, without regard to Mei’s studied intention and conscientious care to demonstrate to the Japanese audience all aspects of his artistic achievements (Tenjaku 1919, 106–7).

14. For a critical account of Tanizaki’s experience of the Chinese theatre as part of his Orientalist fantasies of China, see Nishihara 2003, 162–65, 169–70, 174–79; 2005, 140–47, 151–55.

15. Similarly, Naba Toshisada (1890–1970), sinologist specializing in ancient Chinese history and culture, argued that it was naive for people who became accustomed to Japanese and foreign theatres to use the simplicity of scen-ery and props on the Chinese stage as evidence to completely belittle and

Notes 231

denigrate the Chinese theatre as backward and inferior. For him, there are two positions to stage and observe a play: one from an objective position, and the other from a playwright’s, or a practitioner’s, subjective position. The objective position necessitates realistic scenery and props. According to Naba, the Chinese theatre belongs to the subjective position and thereby it is characteristic of the Chinese theatre to use the actor’s gestures and movements as well as simple props to suggest or imply the subjective mood of the scenes without the use of realistic scenery and elaborate props. Naba further stressed that it is also the life of the Chinese theatre (Naba 1919, 161–69). For Suzuki Torao (1878–1963), sinologist specializing in classi-cal Chinese literature, it is simply not feasible to judge the Chinese theatre against modern theatre, Western or Japanese. He argued that since the Chinese theatre like Tiannü san hua was centered on singing and dance, anyone who looks at it with the attitude of modern drama that focuses on spoken speech and portrayal of characters will be disappointed from the very beginning (Hyōken 1919, 67–68).

16. Japanese scholar Yasushi Nagata has also recently reminded us of the pre–war Japanese interest in assimilating traditions and cultures of Asian theatre as part of Japan’s colonialist agenda of controlling other Asian countries (Yasushi 2010, 295).

17. Another reviewer even observed that Mei’s superb presentation of the god-dess’ travel in the air was the most brilliant part of his performance in Tiannü san hua (Bonchō 1919).

18. Uemura Kichiya I (date unknown; in the 1670s) was a celebrated onna-gata actor for his dances, in particular, for his influence on contemporary women’s fashions.

19. Ayame was said to have criticized Tatsunosuke for his lack of ability in the presentation of jigei (Yoshizawa 1969, 56).

20. See Chapter 3 . 21. See Tian 2000; Morinaga 2002, especially 255–65. 22. See Murata 1919, 61–63. 23. See Kano 2001, 15–24; Edelson 2009, 15–20. 24. See Chōka 1919b. 25. See Maruo 1924, 28–29. 26. For a photo showing Akita Tsuyuko in the role of Yang Guifei, see Kageki

59 (February 1925): n.p. 27. For more on actresses on jingju and kabuki stages, see Tian 2000, 78–97;

Isaka 2006, 105–31. 28. Mei’s interest in modern Japanese theatre was also known to the Chinese

theatre circle, as one critic noted that because of his trip to Japan, Mei was said to have shown a great interest in the new theatre ( xinju ) and to have been particularly enthusiastic about Li Taohen’s proposal to build a new the-atre in Beijing, following the style of modern Japanese theatre (Ma 1919b).

29. See speeches by Yamamoto Kyūzaburō and Shirō Uno at the forum on Mei’s performance (Mei, Yamamoto et al. 1924, 7–8).

232 Notes

30. See Liu Huogong 1920, Part 8, 6–7. 31. See also Ishiyama 2009.

2 “THE GENTLEMANLY ‘LEADING LADY’” AS “AMBASSADOR IN ART”: MEI LANFANG’S 1930

TOUR OF THE UNITED STATES

1. See Leung 1929, 58–59. Hedges, however, warned Mei against “one great danger” that Mei would introduce foreign elements and ideas into Chinese theatrical art when he saw foreign dramas, which would make his “stately dancing and exquisite singing”— “worthy representatives of the Chinese stage”— lose “their purity.” Mei agreed and vowed to strive to preserve “the purity” of his art.

2. For an examination of the role of Qi Rushan as a “cultural broker” in the planning and organization of Mei’s American tour with a view to broker-ing glory for the Chinese nation, see Guy 2001.

3. See Moy 1929; 1930a. These programs include short introductions to Mei Lanfang and the Chinese theatre, history and importance of female impersonation, character types, pantomime and acting, costumes, stage properties and symbolism, musical instruments, and Mei’s repertoire (plays and dance pieces).

4. See Lai 1930. 5. See Tian 2008, 141–43. 6. Otis Skinner’s correspondence with MacMurray, October 15, 1927, Dance

Collection, New York Public Library, quoted in Rao 2000, 137. 7. But when Mei left the city, this enthusiasm was greatly tempered as Mei

was said to have displeased the local Chinese American communities by allegedly neglecting them and refusing to give charity performances (See Letian 1930a).

8. See Qi Rushan’s letters, Jing bao (Peking Press), April 20 (1930): 5; see also Qi 1964d, 12–14.

9. See Wainscott 1997, 91–140. Wainscott does not mention the productions of The Yellow Jacket . For a study of the American productions of this play, see Harbeck 1996.

10. See Qi 1964c, 39. 11. Without a full consideration of the conditions of contemporary American

stage and without an in- depth look at the American critical reception of Mei’s performances, some critics overstress the role of the West’s or America’s Orientalist interest in the exotic— and the Chinese response to it— in the success of Mei’s American tour. Joshua Goldstein consid-ers Mei’s tour an exploitation of “tactical Orientalism” (Goldstein 1999, 415; 2007, 270–80); Nancy Yunhwa Rao attributes Mei’s success to American elite society’s lasting exotic and aesthetic interest in chinoiserie

Notes 233

(Rao 2000, 137–46); Cecilia J. Pang goes even further by concluding that “Mei Lanfang’s success in the United States can be credited entirely to the management and brokering of cultures by Qi Rushan, who helped tailor Mei’s entire tour to the foreign taste for the exotic” (Pang 2005–6, 375). All these arguments attest to the limits and excesses of a postcolonial approach to the subject. For a more balanced account of the role of culture brokering in Mei’s success, see Guy 2001.

12. According to Eric Bentley, Young’s theatre criticism rests on two princi-ples: “the autonomy of art” and “the autonomy of each of the arts,” and for Young, what unites the autonomy of the theatre art is “a single idea,” the “singleness of intention in the mind which will draw all else with it” (Bentley 1982, 48–50).

13. Young’s essay on Mei Lanfang has been considered one of his best critical reviews— “a tour de force ” (Isaacs 1942, 261). In a letter dated April 23, 1930, Young wrote that “Mei Lan- fang said few articles in China had ever understood his art as I did, and sent copies all over China” (Pilkington 1975, 315). Young met and talked to Mei about the latter’s performances. In a letter dated May 2, 1930, Young noted that “I saw much of him, he used to spend hours here” (Pilkington 1975, 319). According to Qi Rushan, Young came to Mei’s hotel at least once to exchange his experi-ence of Mei’s performances and his comments were approved by Mei and Qi (Qi 1964c, 31–36).

14. In a letter dated April 23, 1935, Young said that “I can get fighting wild over Mei Lanfang, Duse or Plato” (Pilkington 1975, 606).

15. See Atkinson 1930a; Collins 1930a. 16. Some similar statements are as follows: “The actor, as a man, is merged

completely in the design he is creating” (Ruhl 1930b); “you never behold him as aught but the feminine characters that he plays upon the stage. This celebrated Chinese actor kept the illusion of his portrayals ideally intact . . . His creations of character are . . . both artistic and singularly real” (Schallert 1930); Mei’s “assumption of feminine moods and actions is complete” (Warren 1930).

17. See Tian 2000. It should be noted that Charles Collins, drama critic of the Chicago Tribune , in fact called Mei Lanfang “the Chinese marvel of hermaphroditism in acting”— implying the homosexual appeal in Mei’s acting (Collins 1930b, 21).

18. In 1986, the International School of Theatre Anthropology, directed by Eugenio Barba, organized an international congress in Denmark on the subject of “The Female Role as Represented on the Stage in Various Cultures.” The congress was dedicated to Mei Lanfang. Susan Bassnett and Erika Munk, two participants of the congress, later questioned the congress’ assumptions and perceptions of the representation of female roles by female impersonators from different traditions and cultures. Munk has made this observation in particular reference to Mei: “For its publicity

234 Notes

poster, ISTA used an old photograph of Mei Lan- Fang, robes blowing in the wind, holding two swords, the face a perfect mask of androgyny . . . No matter how much Mei contributed towards modifying a repressive tradi-tion, however, making him an emblem of the representation of women on stage holds us firmly within that tradition” (Munk 1986, 36. See also Bassnett 1987).

19. In his introduction of Mei Lanfang for his American tour, Hu Shi again speaks of the Chinese drama as being “historically an arrested growth” (Hu 1929, n.p.).

20. See “The Idol of the Orient Who Has Captivated N.Y.,” program for Mei’s engagement at Philharmonic Auditorium.

21. Mark Cosdon has noted how Mei’s success that made America more familiar with the exotic art of the Chinese theatre may have negatively affected America’s reception of the 1936 Broadway production of a classi-cal Chinese play, Lady Precious Stream (Cosdon 1995, 186).

22. See Tian 2008, 142–43. 23. For example, Seigei Eisenstein cautioned Mei Lanfang and his Chinese

colleagues against any modernization of the art and technology of their traditional theatre (Kleberg 1992, 137; VOKS 2010, 176).

24. See Tian 2008, 147–49; 175–91. 25. See, in particular, Haberman 1967, 84–87; Lifton 1995, 190–97; Lifton

1998, 76–85; Lee 2000, 82–99; and Chen 2002, 108–12. 26. See, for example, Lee 2000, 84; Lifton 1998, 78–81. 27. For a detailed description of the company’s presentation of the piece, see

Sherman 1979, 145–48. 28. St. Denis noted that in her studies of the different forms of Oriental danc-

ing, she was not concerned with their traditional methods and fixed forms but with “revealing certain visions and convictions” of her “spiritual prog-ress” and with “what message of beauty” she might bring back from those ancient lands that “will give clarity and calm and a deeper meaning to our unrhythmic lives” (St. Denis 1925).

29. Anne Douglas acknowledged that she had never practiced so hard in her life as with Mei’s “sword dance” she tried to learn for her performance (Sherman 1983, 72).

30. See also “Meiguoren yanli de Mei Lanfang ji Zhongguo ju” (Mei Lanfang and the Chinese theatre in American eyes), Dagong bao , May 2 and 9 (1930): 13; “Zhuiyuxuan you Mei zalu” (Miscellaneous notes on Zhuiyuxuan’s [Mei Lanfang’s] tour of America), Shen bao , March 3, 4, 29, 31 (1930); April 1, 2, 7, 8, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 (1930); “Mei Lanfang zai Mei shi zhi suoji” (Miscellaneous notes on Mei Lanfang’s stay in America), Liyuan gongbao , December 8, 11, 14, 17 (1930): 1; “Haiwai Mei xun” (Overseas news on Mei), Liyuan gongbao , March 2, 11, 14, 17, 26, 29 (1930); April 7, 11 (1930); May 11, 17, 23 (1930); Beiyang huabao , April 5, 19, 26 (1930); May 3, 17, 27, 29 (1930); June 5, 10, 12, 21, 28 (1930);

Notes 235

July 5, 17, 19 (1930); Beijing huabao (The Peking Pictorial News), May 10 (1930); June 27 (1930); July 6, 9, 24 (1930); August 11 (1930); Qin 1930.

31. Beiyang huabao juxtaposes three pictures showing respectively Tan Xinpei, the late Great King of Actors, traveling in a carriage in Beijing on his way to pay a New Year call; Shang Xiaoyun, one of the four great actors of female roles, riding on a donkey on his way to meet and marry his second wife; and Mei Lanfang driving with the mayor of San Francisco on a parade honoring the Chinese actor. The pictorial presentation shows unmistakably Mei’s superiority over his predecessors and his contemporary colleagues, as one of the captions sums up in a satirical note: “All being said, in the end Dr. Mei is rightfully Dr. Mei” ( Beiyang huabao 1931). About the American invitation to Tan Xinpei to perform in the United States prior to Mei’s 1919 visit to Japan, see Liu Yunqiu 1935. Speaking of the Mei Lanfang Troupe’s propagation of Mei’s success in Russia, Liu Yunqiu argued that Mei’s trip was not worthy enough to gain glory for the Chinese nation, still less to spread the Oriental art and culture. Even if his foreign trip had the potential to do so, Liu continued, Mei did not supersede Tan Xinpei in that regard, given Tan’s great reputation— and thereby the American invitation to him— as “the only renowned artist in the world today” with his aria recordings in great demand both in Japan and in America.

32. Zhao’s (signed as Zhi) letter was also published in Shen bao (Zhi 1930). 33. See Shenghuo 5 (29) (June 1930): 490–93. 34. According to an American reporter, Mei’s visit served not only as “a pur-

veyor of the most finished and modern in the theatrical art of China” but also a reminder of “the amusing fact” that despite its compromises with American influences, the Chinese theatre in New York’s Chinatowns “adheres more rigidly to the old classical traditions in its methods of pro-duction than did the offerings of Mei Lan- fang,” who “has banished his musicians from the stage to behind the setting” and whose music “is much softer, with only an occasional percussion instrument,” in contrast to the Chinese theatre in Chinatowns, which still used “the noisy brasses and continuous accompaniment of music in a scale strange to Western ears” (Lynn 1930).

3 GLORY OR SHAME TO THE CHINESE NATION: THE CHINESE DEBATE ON MEI LANFANG’S 1935

VISIT TO THE SOVIET UNION

1. For a detailed account of the Soviet sale of the Chinese Eastern Railway, see Wu 1950, 234–47.

2. On the premise of the Sino- Soviet cultural cooperation, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kuomintang government sent special telegrams to Zhang Pengchun and the president of Nankai University where Zhang

236 Notes

was a professor, asking the president to allow Zhang to accompany and support Mei Lanfang during his visit to Russia. In response to the official request, the president gave Zhang a period of special leave and Zhang, who had previously declined Mei’s initial request of support because of his teaching responsibility, agreed to travel with Mei (See Dagong bao 1935a). Zhang, educated in the United States, was a noted educator and one of the pioneers of modern Chinese theatre. He had previously assisted Mei Lanfang during his 1930 tour in the United States.

3. See the directive issued by the Executive Yuan on February 6, 1935 (Zhongguo Dier Lishi Danganguan 2001b, 12–13).

4. See Mei Lanfang’s telegram to Wang Jingwei (Zhongguo Dier Lishi Danganguan 2001b, 18).

5. See the Chinese Embassy’s telegram (Zhongguo Dier Lishi Danganguan 2001b, 10–11).

6. See the telegram by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Zhongguo Dier Lishi Danganguan 2001b, 12).

7. See Yuan Muzhi’s response to Hu Jinxu’s accusation ( Zhonghua ribao , October 14, 1934, sec. II, 4).

8. Tretyakov contended that it is not entirely difficult for the Chinese to address contemporary themes with the methods of the Chinese theatre. He singled out the performance of Fisherman’s Revenge , a play he called “a revenge of the oppressed,” for its ideological resonance with the Soviet audience (Kleberg 1992, 133; VOKS 2010, 167).

9. See Chapter 5 . 10. Here Fu used directly the English word, “symbolism,” unsure of its

Chinese translation. 11. Here Fu used directly the English word, “formalism,” in addition to his

Chinese translation of the word. Fu’s argument appears self- contradictory as he attacked, at the same time, the “formalism” of the Chinese theatre as one of its drawbacks that makes it totally devoid of any “aesthetic value” (Fu 1918a, 326–27).

12. For more about the National Theatre Movement, see Tian 2008, 147–51. 13. Mei’s use of the term “patternism” may have been influenced by Zhang

Pengchun’s understanding of the conventional style of the Chinese the-atre. Zhang stated with the presence of Mei at a tea party in New York on February 18, 1930, that Mei’s acting “was not symbolic or realistic, but ‘stylistically patternistic’” ( New York Times 1930b). Later in his essay included in the brochure prepared for Mei’s Russian tour, Zhang explains and summarizes what he calls “the process of patternisation”— the process of formalizing and making “aesthetically satisfying” the actor’s observa-tion of actual ways of doing things from which the actor’s conventional movements are taken (Zhang 1935a, 42). According to a report in Moscow Daily News , Zhang spoke of the actor’s use of “the conventionalized pat-terns of movements” as “a vital point in understanding the Chinese the-ater” ( Moscow Daily News 1935e).

Notes 237

14. Xia’s editorial was a response to the questions put forward by a reader who was troubled by Han Shiheng’s attack on the Chinese theatre and who demanded Shen bao for an answer (see Li Ruhui 1934).

15. Stanislavsky’s letter was included in Clark 2007, 221–22. 16. Here it is interesting to note that Qin cites the case of Ichikawa Sadanji

II who remained untransformed and entrenched in the remains of feu-dal kabuki even after he had once participated in the shingeki movement under the influence of Osanai Kaoru and later performed in the Soviet Union in 1928.

17. See Da wanbao 1935c; Moscow Daily News 1935a and 1935d. 18. The cartoon was signed by Sapajou. Sapajou was the professional name

of Georgii Avsent’ievich Sapojinikoff, a former Lieutenant in the Czar’s Imperial Russian army. He worked for the North- China Daily News, a venerable bastion of the British establishment in Shanghai, as a prolific and accomplished cartoonist.

19. See Moscow Daily News 1935c; Da wanbao 1935d; Pishi 1935b. 20. See Izvestiia , May 20, 1933 (cited in Wu 1950, 239). 21. See Shen bao 1935b; Da wanbao 1935a, 1935b, and 1935f; Yong bao

1935a and 1935b; Chen bao 1935; Bo 1936; Xiaoshan 1935. In his essay, “To the Magician of the Pear Orchard,” Eisenstein calls Mei “the first bearer of the perfected images of Chinese classical cul-ture” and “the great master who represents the best that Chinese culture has created” (Eisenstein 1996a, 67. See also Eisenstein 1935b, 28).

22. See Liang you 1935; Dongfang zazhi 1935; Dagong bao , April 12 and 18, 1935, 9; Weinasi (Venus) 1 (1) (August 15, 1935): 12; Xin Sheng (New life) 2 (14) and 2 (16) (1935): n.p.

23. See Mei 1935c; Dagong bao 1935d; Rensheng xunkan 1935. 24. Writing for Zhongyang ribao about Zhang Pengchun’s speech, one critic

likewise claimed that the success of Mei’s Russian tour decided the value of China’s old theatre and that his own appraisal of the value of the old theatre was validated by Zhang’s (Ni 1935).

25. See Tian Han 1934a. 26. According to Cao Juren, who was present at the conversation between Shaw

and Mei, Shaw put the question to Mei in a meeting with Chinese writ-ers on his 1933 visit to Shanghai. Shaw said to Mei: “As a playwright I know that the audience wanted to listen quietly to the actors performing on stage. Why does the Chinese theatre, on the contrary, like the beats of big drums and gongs? Is it that the Chinese audience enjoys listening to the theatre with great noise and excitement? A British child listening to the show would have been terrified and gone mad.” Mei answered: “There were also quiet moments in the Chinese theatre. Kunju , for example, does not use drums and gongs from beginning to end.” Not satisfied with Mei’s brief and opportune answer, Cao later wrote both Shaw and Mei, accounting for the use of drums and gongs in the Chinese theatre (See Cao 1985, 92–93).

238 Notes

4 LEARNING THE “PRACTICAL LESSON”: THE INTERPRETATIONS AND APPROPRIATIONS OF MEI LANFANG’S ART BY THE SOVIET THEATRE

1. For official correspondence on the arrangements for Mei Lanfang’s visit, see Zhongguo Dier Lishi Danganguan 2001a, 8–11.

2. For Vassiliev’s introduction to Mei Lanfang and the Chinese theatre, see also Vassiliev 1935b; 1935c.

3. In a letter to Qi Rushan upon the arrival of the Chinese troupe in Moscow, Guo Jianying, an actor of the troupe, mentioned that he saw many posters in Moscow streets and markets ( Dagong bao , April 12, 1935, 12).

4. Several Chinese newspapers ran headlines, reporting from Moscow that all the tickets were sold out ten days ahead of Mei Lanfang’s first public performances and that according to VOKS’s estimate, as many as five hundred thousand people were eager to purchase tickets for Mei’s perfor-mances (See Shi bao [The Eastern Times], March 23, 1935, 7; Xinmin bao [New citizen], March 23, 1935, 1; Yong bao , March 24, 1935, 1; Chen bao , March 23, 1935, 2).

5. The date (1933) Filippov gave for Mei Lanfang’s performance in the Club was obviously incorrect.

6. “Fei Chen- o” and “Tiger General” are two titles of one same play ( Cihu ). 7. Stanislavsky was reported to have spoken “enthusiastically” of Chinese theat-

rical art, “comparing it with ancient Greek art” ( Moscow Daily News 1935g). 8. See Mei Lanfang’s letter to Qi Rushan, written from Russia at the end of

his performances in Moscow and Leningrad. This letter was published in Dagong bao , May 15, 1935, 12. See also Mei 1962f, 40–49. Mei Lanfang’s note was partially confirmed by Edward Gordon Craig who recorded his contact with Mei Lanfang during his stay in Moscow (see Tian 2007, 162–66; 2008, 84–88).

9. Mei Lanfang noticed that in a dark box on the second floor of the Grand Theatre, Stalin was possibly watching him perform. Like Mei, Li Feishu and other members of the Chinese troupe were keen on the possibility of Stalin’s presence at Mei’s last performance. But long afterward they remained puzzled and wondered whether Stalin actually attended the per-formance (Li 1939).

10. Mei Lanfang’s letter to Qi Rushan was published in Dagong bao , May 15, 1935, 12. As indicated in his letter, Mei Lanfang was pleased that in so many press reviews that could be amassed into a whole collection, not a single unpleasant word was said about his performances.

11. In his account of the Russian and Chinese preparations for his trip, Mei Lanfang cited Percy Chen’s report and the latter’s interviews with Eisenstein and Meyerhold as evidence of the Soviet understanding of the significance of his visit (Mei 1986, 127–32).

12. For more information, see Chapter 5 .

Notes 239

13. But at the same time, Nemirovich-Danchenko added that “by itself the Chinese performing art is not so meaningful that could compel attention for long” (Nemirovich-Danchenko 1979, 441).

14. Xiqu is a generic term that refers to various forms of traditional Chinese theatre. For convenience I use the Chinese term, in this chapter and occasionally elsewhere, to refer to forms (primarily kunqu and jingju ) of China’s “old,” “traditional,” or “classical” theatre.

15. Meyerhold’s experience of a kabuki performance testifies to the signifi-cance of such direct contact. After watching the performance of a kabuki theatre troupe in Paris in 1930 Meyerhold reflected in 1931: “I know the kabuki theatre by way of theory. I know the techniques of kabuki theatre from some books and iconographic materials, but when eventually I have attended one of its performances, it seems to me that I had not read any-thing, that I did not know anything about it” (Meyerhold 1980, 99).

16. See Mei Shaowu 1981, 63. In his autographed dedication to Mei Lanfang of his article, “The Principles of Film Form,” published in the English journal Close Up (8 [3] [September 1931]: 167–81), Eisenstein called the Chinese actor “the greatest master of form.” The autographed journal sur-vived the Cultural Revolution thanks to Mei Shaowu’s brave act of hiding it— under his bed— from being looted and destroyed by the Red Guards (Mei Shaowu 2006a, 295).

17. For this particular reason, Mei Lanfang, in his first address to the Soviet community after his arrival in Moscow, felt obliged to explain, apologeti-cally, that because classical Chinese theatre speaks in an ancient language inaccessible to the masses, the viewer pays more attention to the skill of the performer than to the theme of the play (See Tretyakov 1935c).

18. This passage was not included in the published version (Eisenstein 1935a). Eisenstein’s view was shared by Chang Peng- chun (Zhang Pengchun), director of the Chinese troupe, who stated in his introduction:

While the subject matter of the traditional plays contain ideas of tradi-tional values that are no longer suitable for the present era, we venture to suggest that the consummate art of the actor may contain elements both suggestive and instructive, not only for the new theatre emerging in China but also for modern experimentation in other parts of the world. For it is a fact that the modern theatre is everywhere reacting against the photographic realism predominating a generation ago, and modern experiments in theatrical art are being directed toward simplification and synthetization. ( Moscow Daily News 1935e; Zhang 1935a, 45)

19. Almost a decade ago, Tretyakov had spoken of the Chinese theatre being “one of the most powerful forms of aesthetic narcosis” or “an aesthetic- religious hypnosis” for the Chinese masses and had considered Mei Lanfang who specialized in female roles was the ideal feminine beauty representing the manners and ways for each Chinese girl in a stable and conservative petty- bourgeois family (Tretyakov 1982, 245–46).

240 Notes

20. See Meyerhold 1978b, 97; 2010, 145. This piece is a different version of Meyerhold’s speech delivered at the forum on Mei Lanfang’s performance, organized by the All- Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries and held on April 14, 1935, after Mei’s final performance in Moscow. As I will show later, some parts of the speech were not included in the minutes of the forum (VOKS 2010; Kleberg 1992).

21. “ Uslovnost’ ” (“convention” or “conventionality”) and “ Uslovnyi ” (“con-ventional”) (Meyerhold 1968, 123–42). Edward Braun’s translations of the Russian words are “stylized” or “stylization,” as in “stylized theatre” and “conscious stylization” (Meyerhold 1969, 36–39, 49, 58–63); Beatrice Picon- Vallin’s are “convention,” as in “théâtre de la convention” and “con-vention consciente” (Meyerhold 1973, 105–9, 119–23); Nina Gourfinkel’s are “théâtre stylisé,” “stylisation,” or “théâtre de convention consciente” (Meyerhold 1963, 31–33, 275); George Petrov’s are “relativistic” or, occa-sionally, “conditional” (Rudnitsky 1981, 138–41). Chinese translations read as “ jiadingxing ” (hypothetical or suppositional). In this article, “con-vention” and, correspondingly, “conventional,” “conventionality,” and “conventionalized” are adopted throughout.

22. Vladislav Ozerov was the author of a number of tragedies in the style of French neoclassicism. See also Meyerhold 1992, 369; Gladkov 1997, 167. Note “convention” and “stylization” instead of “conventionality” in Picon- Vallin’s and Law’s translations, respectively.

23. See Meyerhold, “The New Theatre Foreshadowed in Literature,” “The Theatre- Studio,” “First Attempts at a Stylized [Conventional] Theatre,” and “The Stylized [Conventional] Theatre” (Meyerhold 1969, 34–64).

24. The French translation is slightly different: “the Chinese spectator pene-trates the content of the pieces played by Mei Lanfang; he comprehends the feminine personages created by the actor, because the actor uses a language which is habitual to this country, to this nation” (Meyerhold 1980, 234).

25. An English translation of this Pravda editorial, “Muddle Instead of Music: Concerning the Opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District ,” was included in Platt and Brandenberger 2006, 136–38. The unsigned editorial was attributed to P. M. Kerzhentsev, Chairman of the Committee on Arts Affairs under the Council of People’s Commissars of USSR. It was also said to have been reputedly written by Andrei Zhdanov (See Fitzpatrick 1992, 187). In her letter to Stalin, Zinaida Raikh, Meyerhold’s wife, said that “Kerzhentsev cursed Meyerhold as practically an ‘enemy of the peo-ple’” (An English translation of Zinaida Raikh’s letter was included in Clark 2007, 328–30). Indeed, Meyerhold “was in some respects probably the hidden target in the Lady Macbeth affair” (Fitzpatrick 1992, 200).

26. An English translation of the Politburo’s resolution on the closure of the Meyerhold Theatre was included in Clark 2007, 247–48.

27. Like Meyerhold and Eisenstein, Tretyakov defended the Chinese theatre from being labeled as merely conventional and formalistic. For him, one

Notes 241

important achievement of the Chinese theatre’s visit is that it finished off a very unpleasant fantasy of the Chinese theatre as being “conventional from beginning to end.” He emphasized the “quantitative and qualita-tive potential for realism” in the Chinese theatre and he believed that “its future lies precisely in this potential”: “This theatre with such prodigious history and such historic sedimentation is predisposed to even petrify, and no doubt it has its own difficulties. But within these sumptuous fossils beat so many living pulses, any ossification fractures” (Kleberg 1992, 133; VOKS 2010, 167).

28. Mei Lanfang expressed his high regard of the genius of Meyerhold in a talk with the Soviet press ( Vecherniaia moskva 1935b; Da wanbao 1935g).

29. See also Meyerhold 1968, 225. Meyerhold cited from Pushkin’s draft of a letter to N. N. Raevsky in 1829, which became part of the drafts of his preface to his tragedy, Boris Godunov . The letter was originally written in French and Pushkin used directly the French word “vraisemblance” and the French phrase “invraisemblance de convention” (See Pushkin 1928, 63; the French text was also included in Pushkin 1998, 246–47):

While writing my Godunov I reflected on tragedy . . . it is perhaps the most misunderstood genre. They have tried to base its laws on verisi-militude, and that is precisely what the nature of drama excludes. Not to speak of time, place, etc.— what the devil verisimilitude is there in a hall cut in two parts, of which one is occupied by 2000 people, sup-posedly unseen by those on the boards? . . . Isn’t all that only a conven-tional unverisimilitude? The true geniuses of tragedy never troubled themselves over any verisimilitude other than that of characters and situations. (The English translation is from Pushkin 1963, 367)

In a draft note on tragedy at the time when he was working on Boris Godunov , Pushkin wrote:

Of all forms of composition the ones most lacking in verisimilitude (invraisemblables) are the dramatic, and of dramatic works, the tragic, as the spectator must forget, for the most part, the time, the place and the language; must accept, by an effort of the imagination, poetry and ideas expressed in an accepted idiom. (Pushkin 1998, 130)

Meyerhold continued to write: In Pushkin’s short play set in the age of chivalry the mowers flail with their scythes at the legs of the knights’ horses: “some horses fall injured and others run wild.” Pushkin . . . who welcomed such “stylized improbability” [conventional unverisimilitude], is hardly likely to have expected real horses, previously schooled to fall injured and run wild, to be brought on to the stage. In writing this stage direction Pushkin might almost have foreseen the actor of the twentieth century riding on to the stage on a wooden steed . . . or on the caparisoned wooden frames with papier maché horses’ heads. (Meyerhold 1969, 140)

242 Notes

Meyerhold might have considered Pushkin’s (and his) modernity primi-tive had he known that as early as the thirteenth century, the staging of Chinese Yuan drama had begun to use a bamboo horse, or simply a whip, to represent a real horse. As I have investigated elsewhere, the presence of horses and other animals on the Yuan stage is suggested by “a combina-tion of stage props, narratives of speech and song, appropriate gestures and movements of the player, and the imagination of the playgoers” (See Tian 2005/2006, 416).

30. These paragraphs were not included in the minutes of Meyerhold’s speech at the forum on Mei Lanfang, although Nemirovich- Danchenko mentioned “Meyerhold’s Pushkin reference” in his concluding speech. Aleksandr Pushkin’s original statement is: “Verisimilitude [ pravdopodo-bie ] is still presumed to be the primary condition and basis of dramatic art. What if it were demonstrated that the very essence of dramatic art distinctly precludes verisimilitude? . . . Where is the verisimilitude of a building divided into two parts, one of which is filled with spectators who have agreed, etc.?” (Pushkin 1981, 9. The Russian text of the essay can be found in Pushkin 1949, 211–21).

31. This version of Eisenstein’s essay was translated from a 1939 typescript in Eisenstein’s archive. The convention in question was listed as “Ma Pen [ sic ]” ( ma bian or ma pien — horse whip). It was also listed in another version (Eisenstein 1935a, 765). The 1935 version included in the VOKS brochure (1935b)— written prior to Mei Lanfang’s visit— does not list this conven-tion. It was most likely added to the later versions by Eisenstein after he saw the demonstrations and performances by Mei Lanfang and his colleagues. A Moscow press report of Mei Lanfang’s appearance in the Masters of Art Club on March 20 carries a photo of Mei Lanfang demonstrating the act-ing convention of horse- riding ( Vecherniaia moskva 1935a).

32. See also Meyerhold 1975, 129, 141. 33. See Tian 1997, 214–15. 34. For examples, see Chapter 5 . 35. For an analysis of the grotesque in the commedia dell’arte and the work

of Hoffmann, Wedekind, and Gogol, see Kayser 1981, 37–40, 68–76, 105–6, 131–33, 124–28; for a discussion of Meyerhold’s debt to the com-media dell’arte , see Moody 1978; for Meyerhold’s notes on Callot and Goya, see Meyerhold 1969, 139, 141, 285; for an examination of “the car-nivalesque grotesque” in Meyerhold’s work, see Picon- Vallin 1990, 83–85, 335–37.

36. Later Meyerhold seemed to have contradicted himself by asserting that “The grotesque isn’t something mysterious.” Nevertheless he emphasized that it is— perhaps not “simply,” to me— “a theatrical style that plays with sharp contradictions and produces a constant shift in the planes of perception” (Gladkov 1997, 142).

37. Michael Chekhov noted that Meyerhold “saw everything from its evil side”: “He dug the cruelest things out of human beings and qualities,

Notes 243

made archetypes of them and put them on the stage for all of us to recog-nize some of our baser natures within them” (Chekhov 1963, 41).

38. This part of Meyerhold’s speech is slightly different from that recorded in the minutes of the forum: “We have spoken a great deal about the so- called rhythmic construction of performance. But whoever sees the work of Dr. Mei Lanfang appreciates the great power of rhythm this ingenious master of the stage displays” (Kleberg 1992, 134; VOKS 2010, 169).

39. This part of Meyehold’s speech is not included in the minutes. 40. It should be noted that ancient Chinese and Japanese theatres did not

feature a “director” in the modern sense. 41. For works available in English see Wichmann 1991; Pian 1971; 1979. 42. See Eisenstein 1983, 217–18. Eisenstein quotes from Lin Yutang 1935, 292.

5 THE EFFECT OF DISPLACEMENT: BERTOLT BRECHT’S INTERPRETATION AND REFUNCTIONING

OF MEI LANFANG’S ART

1. For a slightly different version of Brecht’s essay translated by Eric Walter White, see Brecht 1936; Brecht 1993c. For Eric Bentley’s translation of the essay, see Brecht 1949b; 1961. A close look at the English translations of Brecht’s essay by Eric White and Bentley, which were apparently based on one same German text yet to be published, and the German text published in 1957 and translated by John Willett shows that Brecht had made some more revisions before it was first published in German. What is missing is the German text both White’s and Bentley’s translations were based on.

In these English translations, “Verfremdungseffekt” has been trans-lated as “Effect of Disillusion” (Eric White), “Alienation Effect” (Bentley and John Willett; for one time, Bentley translated it as “effect of estrange-ment”). Willett’s translation has given currency to the widespread use of “Alienation Effect,” but some other writers (Fredric Jameson, Silvija Jestrovic, Douglas Robinson, and others) have argued against Willett’s translation and have instead proposed “Estrangement Effect.” In French translation, the term is rendered as “Effet de distanciation” (Brecht 2000b). Chinese translations of the term are “ moshenghua xiaoguo ” and “ jianli xiaoguo ,” the first of which means the effect of estrangement or defamil-iarization while the second conveys the effect of both alienation and dis-tancing. The choice of these different terms in different languages— none of which adequately conveys the full meaning(s) of Brecht’s neologism, if taken out of the context of Brecht’s writings, may lead to unnecessary misreadings. However, it does not alter in any significant degree Brecht’s interpretation of Chinese acting as seen in the context of Brecht’s writings and viewed from the perspective of the Chinese theatre.

2. See Tian 1998, 86–97; 2008, 175–91.

244 Notes

3. Brecht must have seen Mei Lanfang’s impromptu demonstrations and/or performances sometime between March 12 and April 13, 1935, not in May 1935, as John Willett mistakenly noted (1964b, 99).

4. According to Mei Lanfang’s recollection, he performed in six playlets: Yuzhou feng (The Cosmic blade, or Beauty defies tyranny, or Madness by pretence), Fenhe wan (By the Fen River bends, or The suspected slip-pers), Cihu (Killing the Tiger, or Fei Chen- o and the “Tiger” General, or The death of the Tiger General), Dayu shajia (The fisherman’s revenge, or Revenge of the oppressed), Hongni guan (The rainbow pass), and Guifei zui jiu (The drunken beauty). He also performed six dances from six other plays, including Xishi (Xishi), Mulan cong jun (Mulan joins the army), Sifan (or Nigu sifan — Nun longs for the mortal world), Magu xian shou (Magu offers her birthday gift), Bawang bie ji (The King’s farewell to his concu-bine), and Hongxian dao he (Hongxian steals the box) (Mei 1962f, 44). In his letter to Qi Rushan noted previously, Mei provided a list of plays and dances he and his troupe performed. This list includes all six short plays and the dances Mei performed with the notable exception of Bawang bie ji that was not listed. Nor was it included in the program prepared for the Chinese troupe’s visit to Russia that includes synopses of the plays and dances from Mei’s repertoire (See Performances of Mei Lan- Fang in Soviet Russia: Synopses of Plays and Dances from His Repertoire [n.p., 1935]).

5. This “document” was published in Chinese in Zhonghua xiqu (Chinese traditional theatre) 7 (1988): 1–34, and was reprinted in Mei Lanfang yishu pinglun ji (An anthology of reviews on Mei Lanfang’s art), edited by Zhongguo Mei Lanfang Yanjiu Xuehui and Mei Lanfang Jinianguan (Beijing: Zhongguo Xiju Chubanshe, 1990), 709–43.

6. It is interesting to note that Kleberg’s otherwise brilliant dramatic presen-tation of the different views of these Soviet and European artists on Mei Lanfang and Chinese acting has caused considerable confusions that have led scholars not only in China but also in Germany to the misidentifica-tion of Kleberg’s fictional work as the original document or protocol that records the minutes of the Russian forum on Mei Lanfang’s performance. Kleberg’s work was published in German in Lettre International (3 [1988]: 75–81) as “Die Zauberlehrlinge” with a misleading subtitle, “Protokoll einer Diskussion vom 14 April 1935 in Moskau aus Anlaß des Gastspiels des chinesischen Schauspielers Mei Lan- fang in der Sowjetunion.” The editors of the journal must have published it as the real thing instead of a fictional work as it is grouped together with four scholarly articles on the-atre. In her biography on Helene Weigel, Sabine Kebir mistakes Kleberg’s work for the original protocol and gives a lengthy summary of the fictional debate, in particular, the speech delivered by Brecht (Kebir 2000, 142–45). Unfortunately, in his work on Brecht’s dramatic theory, John White fur-ther cites from Kebir’s work in regard to Brecht’s participation in “a debate after Mei Lan- fang’s 1935 exhibition performance of Chinese acting,” in

Notes 245

which “Brecht became the main target of an anti- formalist polemic, in the presence of Stanislavsky himself” (White 2004, 70). These confusions occurred in spite of the fact that Kleberg himself had clarified the issue in 1992 when he edited and published the original minutes in Russian (Kleberg 1992) and again in 1996 with the publication of the minutes in German (Kleberg 1996a), and that my article in 1997 has detailed the issue for the first time in an English publication (Tian 1997, 200–222).

7. See the English translation of the full original minutes (VOKS 2010). I would like to thank Professor Lars Kleberg for providing me a copy of the original minutes. See also Kleberg 1992; 1993; 1996a. Craig, however, met Mei Lanfang and Yu Shangyuan in Moscow on some other occasions (Tian 2007, 162–66; 2008, 84–88). In his recollection, Yu Shangyuan also recorded his meetings with Craig (Yu 1935).

8. See Bertold Brecht, “Über die Zuschaukunst,” “Theater und Publikum,” “Über das Theater der Chinesen,” “Über ein Detail des chinesis-chen Theaters,” “Die Beibehaltung der Gesten durch verschiedene Generationen,” “Theater” (Brecht 1993a, 124–29); “Bemerkungen über die chinesische Schauspielkunst” (Brecht 1993b, 151–55). The last piece was not included in previous collections of Brecht’s work.

9. Svend Borberg’s play, Circus Juris , was premiered in March 1935, at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen, Denmark. Brecht studied Borberg’s work and the Danish theatre in 1935 through Ruth Berlau, a Danish actress and one of Brecht’s close collaborators.

10. White’s translation of “Einfühlung” was a paraphrase; Bentley and Willett directly translated it as “empathy.” In his short pieces on Stanislavsky, Brecht specifically notes that what he means by the word is “Identifikation” (identification) (Brecht 1993a, 175, 178–80).

11. In my study of the twentieth- century Chinese- Western intercultural the-atre, including Brecht’s interpretation and inculturation of the Chinese theatre, I have presented my view of intercultural theatre as a site, and a process, of displacement and re-placement of culturally specific and dif-ferentiated theatrical forces (Tian 2008, 2, 11).

12. See Frye 1976, 36; 2006b, 416; 2006a, 480; 1957, 365. 13. For a detailed reconstruction of Brecht’s staging of the play, see Fuegi

1987, 132–67; for a photograph illustration of the production, see Hurwicz 1964.

14. See Figure 59 in Fuegi 1972, 316. 15. For studies in the performance of Yuan drama, see Crump 1980; Tian

2005. 16. It should be noted that in Chinese acting, characters are distinguished by

makeup, not by masks (in White’s and Bentley’s translations, “Masken” is translated as “makeup,” not “masks”). In 1942, in an essay on film music, Brecht wrote again that “The Chinese theatre produces these types of effects with masks” (Brecht 2000c, 15). The German word “Maske” also

246 Notes

means “makeup.” It is not clear if Brecht used the word to convey the exact meaning of “makeup,” although his remark is followed immediately by a phrase: “i.e. simply by painting” (But a mask can be painted, too). In his play, The Horatians and the Curiatians , Brecht also instructs his actors to follow “a convention of the Chinese theatre” that “the elements of those armies can be indicated by little flags which the Generals wear on wooden shoulder frames” (Brecht 1997, 290). Brecht’s description is not accurate. In fact, in Chinese acting, the general always wears four flags, regardless of the number of regiments he commands.

17. Both White and Bentley translated “Selbstentfremdung” as “self- estrangement” (Brecht 1936, 118; 1949b, 70).

18. In Willett’s translation of Brecht’s essay the woman is misidentified as the wife; in White’s and Bentley’s versions the identification is correct.

19. It is interesting to call attention to Jean- Paul Sartre’s experience of the performance of traditional Chinese theatre. Sartre saw a performance of Beijing Opera in Paris in 1956. The French playwright describes in his lecture on Brecht’s Epic Theatre how the Chinese actors conjure up the illusion of a river and a boat or create the illusion of night in the full blaze of the footlights solely by their pantomimic actions without the assistance of properties (Sartre 1976, 103–4).

20. The German word, “Haltungen,” also means “attitudes.” In his essay, Brecht talks about the “attitude [Haltung]” of the Chinese artist as expressed in his body and his self- observation (Brecht 1964b, 92–93).

21. Brecht most likely saw Mei Lanfang’s impromptu demonstration of this acting convention (see Note 31 of Chapter 4).

22. See Tian 2000. 23. For an English translation of Tretyakov’s article, see Tian 2010, 161–64. 24. Here Brecht refers to Stanislavsky’s theory. In his short studies of

Stanislavsky, Brecht likewise considers “the complete conversion” “a dif-ficult thing” (Brecht 1993a, 180).

25. See Huang 1990, 257–58. 26. For an English translation of Jiang’s article, see Tian 2010, 79–84. 27. For an English translation of Yu’s article, see Tian 2010, 85–89. 28. In Brecht’s German text as translated by Willett, this quotation reads:

“The coldness comes from the actor’s holding himself remote from the character portrayed, along the lines described. He is careful not to make its sensations into those of the spectator. Nobody gets raped by the individual he portrays; this individual is not the spectator himself but his neighbour” (Brecht 1964b, 93). The contrast of the Asian star and stage is, however, included in Brecht’s early essay (“Bemerkungen über die chinesische Schauspielkunst,” Brecht 1993b, 154). It is interesting to note that in his short notes on Stanislavsky, Brecht is also against the European bourgeois stage for its central interest in individuality that for Brecht undermines the

Notes 247

authority of Stanislavsky’s method of empathy or identification (Brecht 1993a, 175).

29. White’s translation, “a startled cry at one of the actor’s gestures escaped from a spectator sitting by me” (Brecht 1936, 120), or Bentley’s, “a spec-tator sitting near me let out a startled cry at one of the actor’s gestures” (Brecht 1949b, 73), conveys without ambiguity the involuntariness of the spectator’s reaction.

30. White’s translation: “In the first place, it is difficult when watching Chinese actors to rid ourselves of the feeling of estrangement that they excite in us as Europeans. But we must remember that their acting has the same effect on their Chinese spectators” (Brecht 1936, 120–21); Bentley’s translation: “In the first place it is difficult, when watching the Chinese act, to rid ourselves of the feeling of strangeness that they arouse in us because we are Europeans. One must be able to imagine they achieve the alienation effect also in their Chinese spectators” (Brecht 1949b, 74).

31. Brecht’s emphasis. Willett’s translation does not mark the emphasis nor does White’s or Bentley’s.

32. There is a handwritten note under the text: “This attempt has as a subject the transport of a foreign technology” (Brecht 1992a, 751).

33. The English translation is from Brecht on Film and Radio (Brecht 2000c, 162). This collection includes an English translation of the full text of “The Threepenny Lawsuit.” John Willett translated “Umfunktionierung” as “transformation” in his translation of parts of the text (Brecht 1964a, 48).

34. In his “Short Organum for the Theatre,” Brecht writes again that “the social aims of these old devices were entirely different from our own” (Brecht 1964a, 192).

35. White’s translation reads “the realm of illusion” (Brecht 1936, 121). In Willett’s translation, this passage differs from White’s and Bentley’s and does not include the line “If one has learned to think dialectically . . . can be used to combat magic with.” John White has suggested that the pas-sage in White’s translation— “Only those who have leaned to think dia-lectically will hold it possible that a technique derived from the realm of illusion can be used as a weapon in the struggle against illusion” (Brecht 1936, 121)— may have been added at the German end of the proofread-ing process (White 2004, 93). But the evidence that Bentley’s translation includes the same passage with a slightly different wording and a close comparison of Bentley’s and White’s translations all point to the fact that the German text Bentley used was the same one used by White. This indicates that the two identical German texts must have been approved by Brecht and, therefore, the passage cited previously must have been in the original text, not added in the proofreading stage of White’s English translation. While the German text used by White and Bentley was never

248 Notes

published, the German text used by Willett for his translation was first published in 1957 (not in 1949 as mistakenly noted by Willett [Brecht 1964a, 99]. Willett may have confused Brecht’s full- length essay with his early essay published in 1949, “Bemerkungen über die chinesische Schauspielkunst”— see my previous discussion). Thus the omission of the passage from the 1957 text must have been made by Brecht himself. By the way, it is surprising to me that John White does not mention Bentley’s translation, given his pointed discussion on the dilemma Brecht’s trans-lators have to deal with (White 2004, 93) and the fact that it is Bentley who first translated the “Verfremdungseffekt” as “alienation effect” throughout his translation with the exception of one time as “effect of estrangement.”

36. This passage is not included in Willett’s translation. 37. Quoted in Jameson 1998, 84. Jameson’s translation. 38. Brecht called his “Short Organum for the Theatre” “a description of a

theatre of the scientific age” (Brecht 1964a, 205). It is worth noting that in White’s and Bentley’s translations, there is no such clear characteriza-tion of Chinese acting as “the artistic counterpart of a primitive technol-ogy, a rudimentary science” (Brecht 1964b, 96). It must have been added later by Brecht to underline the difference between Chinese acting and his epic theatre and to stress the modernity and scientific superiority of his system.

39. For a critical examination of the Chinese interpretations and reinventions of traditional Chinese theatre from the perspective of the Stanislavsky system, see Tian 2008, 159–73.

40. For instance, some critics have even argued, “the most important source from which Brecht derived his concept of the alienation effect seems to have been the acting style of Mei Lanfang” (Bai 1998, 428), and Brecht’s “creative” interpretation of Chinese techniques— even though “idiosyn-cratic” and mistaken— became “a cornerstone of his theory of Epic the-atre” (Weber 1989, 17; Bai 1998, 428).

CONCLUSION

1. For instance, in his materialist take on Mei’s approach, A Jia, a leading director and theoretician, criticized particularly Meyerhold (“a formalist director,” as A Jia called him) for his praise of Mei’s hand gestures which, according to A Jia, were designed to portray those idle and morbid women of the feudal aristocratic class, not the working women of the laboring masses (A Jia 2005, 21–22).

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A Jia, 248n1 Actors Association (Lingjie Lianhehui),

96–97 Actors’ Equity Association, 67 aestheticism, 2 , 47 , 118 Ah Chic, 63 Ai Siqi, 119 Akita Tsuyuko, 50 , 231n26 Akita Ujaku, 38–39 Akutagawa Ryūnosuke, 24 , 28–29 Alienation, 146 , 148–49 , 153 , 159–60 ,

169 , 171 , 180–81 , 183 , 185 , 190 , 193 , 196 , 202 , 205–206 , 243n1

see also defamiliarizing ; distance ; estrangement ; Verfremdung

Alienation eff ect (A-eff ect), 171 , 175 , 177 , 180 , 182–92 , 194 , 196–97 , 203 , 205–208 , 211–13 , 218 , 243n1 , 247n30 , 248n35 , 248n40

see also distancing eff ect ; eff ect of disillusion ; estrangement eff ect ; jianli xiaoguo ; moshenghua xiaoguo ; Verfremdungseff ekt

American Association for Better P hotoplays, 68

Andreev, Leonid, 154 anti-illusionism, 90 , 92 , 148–49 ,

153–54 , 159 , 189 , 194 see also antirealism

antirealism, 2 , 14 , 47–48 , 62 , 69–71 , 73 , 79 , 92 , 115 , 153 , 217

see also anti-illusionism

Aoki Masaru, 33 Appia, Adolphe, 160 , 162–63 appropriation, 121 , 178 , 212 , 217–18 Aristotelian, 178 , 196 , 206 Arosev, A. Y., 136–37 Artaud, Antonin, 80–81 Association for Entertainment Reform

and Citizen Education (Zhengyue Yuhua Hui), 19–20

Atkinson, Brooks, 74–75 , 84–85 , 87 , 90 , 96

avant-garde, 2 , 12 , 14 , 62 , 69 , 80 , 90 , 113 , 115 , 141–43 , 153 , 155 , 158 , 216 , 219 , 220

Bai, Ronnie, 248n40 Baker, George Pierce, 60 Bandō Tamasaburō V, 55–56 banxiang , 169 Barba, Eugenio, 218–21 , 233n18 Barnes, Ralph W., 139 Barrymore, John, 66 Barthes, Roland, 197 Bassnett, Susan, 233n18 Bauer, Marion, 81 Bawang bie ji ( King’s farewell to his

c oncubine ), 10 , 67 , 94 , 244n4 Beauty defi es tyranny , 111 , 202–203 ,

244n4 see also Cosmic blade, Th e ; Yuzhou

feng Beiyang huabao , 99–101 , 235n31 Bel Geddes, Norman, 71 Belasco, David, 63 , 68

Index

286 Index

Benchley, Robert, 93 Benjamin, Walter, 177–78 , 186 Bentley, Eric, 179 , 212 , 233n12 ,

243n1 , 245n10 , 245n16 , 246nn17–18 , 247nn29–31 , 247n35 , 248n38

Bernhardt, Sarah, 155 Biomechanics, 138 , 143 , 155–56 , 161 ,

163–64 , 168–69 Bloch, Ernst, 185 , 187 , 190 , 210–11 Blok, Alexander, 157 Bogdanov, Alexander, 112 Bolitho, William, 88 , 95 Bolton, Whitney, 78 Booth, Edwin, 63 , 68 Borberg, Svend, 245n9 Boris Godunov , 152 , 165, 241n29 Bourdieu, Pierre, 179 Braun, Edward, 150 , 240n21 Brecht, Bertolt, 14 , 76 , 113 , 153 ,

159 , 170–71 , 218–21 , 243n1 , 244n3 , 244n6 , 245nn9–11 , 245n16 , 246nn19–21 , 246n24 , 246n28 , 247nn29–35 , 248n38 , 248n40

Genesis of his essay on Mei Lanfang and Chinese acting, 176–80

history of his concept of the A-eff ect, 180–85

interpretation of Mei Lanfang’s art and Chinese acting

against Stanislavsky, 178–80 , 195–96 , 198; Th e fourth wall and the A-eff ect, 188–89; quotation and identifi cation, 197–205; “Self-Observation” and “Self-Alienation,” 190–97; spectating, 205–208

refunctioning, 209–13 use of Chinese elements, 185–87

Briusov (Bryusov), Valery, 144 Brown, John Mason, 68 , 73–74 , 76 Bubus the Teacher , 154 , 162 Buss, Kate, 64

Callot, Jacques, 157 , 242n35 Campbell, Mrs. Patrick, 68 Cao Juren, 132 , 237n26 Cao Kun, 23 Carter, Edward C., 69 Caucasian Chalk Circle , Th e ,

185–87 , 208 Chang’e ben yue (Chang’e fl ies to

the moon), 7 , 29 Chaplin, Charles, 68 Chekhov, Michael, 157 , 242n37 Chen, Percy, 127 , 136 , 140 , 192 ,

238n11 Chen bao , 53–54 , 126 Chen Dabei, 4 , 61 Chen Duxiu, 2 , 80 Chen Jiang, 112–13 , 122 Chen Kaige, 13 Chen Yanheng, 200 Cheney, Sheldon, 69–70 , 72 , 83 Cheng Changgeng, 201 Cheng Yanqiu, 116 chengshihua , 152

see also conventionalization ; s tylization ; xieyi

China Institute, 67 China Society of America, 68 Cihu , 60 , 110 , 238n6 , 244n4

see also Death of the Tiger General, Th e ; Tiger General

Claudel, Paul, 78–79 Clayborough, Arthur, 158 Collins, Charles, 78 , 81 , 233n17 commedia dell’arte , 90, 157 , 242n35 Comoedia , 101 Constructivism, 2 , 118 , 147 , 169 Conventional Th eatre, 143–46 ,

148–49 , 152–54 , 159–61 , 163–67 , 170 , 218 , 240n23

see also stylized theatre ; Th eatre of Convention

conventionalism, 6 , 12 , 28 , 36 , 38 , 92 , 113 , 116 , 120 , 130 , 140 , 217

see also xieyizhuyi

Index 287

conventionality, 143–45 , 148–49 , 151–52 , 171 , 240nn21–22

see also jiadingxing conventionalization, 6 , 53 , 72 , 74 , 84 ,

94 , 113 , 116 , 131 , 144–46 , 152 , 155–56 , 166 , 216 , 220 , 236n13 , 240n21

see also chengshihua ; stylization; xieyi Copeau, Jacques, 69 Coquelin, Constant-Benoît, 155 Cornell, Katharine, 68 Cosdon, Mark, 234n21 Cosmic blade , Th e , 111 , 202 , 244n4

see also Beauty defi es tyranny ; Yuzhou feng

Craig, Edward Gordon, 45 , 69 , 72 , 137 , 139 , 176 , 238n8 , 245n7

Crane, Charles R., 60

Da wanbao , 103–104 , 115 , 117–18 , 126 , 130–31

Dagong bao , 99–100 , 126–27 Daiyu zang hua (Daiyu buries fl owers),

7 , 24–25 , 29–30 , 40 , 64 , 204 dan , 4 , 8 , 12 , 110 , 129 , 201

see also female impersonation ; men playing women’s roles ; nandan ; onnagata

daomadan , 12 Datong Yuehui (Great Harmony Music

Society), 97 Dayu shajia , 110–11 , 244n4

see also Fisherman’s revenge, Th e Death of the Tiger General , Th e , 73 , 75 ,

83 , 88 , 176 , 195 , 206 , 244n4 see also Cihu ; Tiger General

defamiliarizing, 185 , 243n1 see also Alienation ; distance ;

e strangement ; Verfremdung Deng Xia gu (Lady Deng Xia), 4 Denishawn Dancers, 94 Derrida, Jacques, 81 , 183–85 Dewey, John, 60 displacement, 14 , 30–31 , 36 , 45 , 55 , 86 ,

89–90 , 92–94 , 96 , 151 , 159 , 173 , 175 , 179–80 , 183–85 , 187 , 190–91 , 209 , 212–13 , 216 , 218–22 , 245n11

see also placement ; re-placement distance, 150 , 155 , 171 , 180 , 185 ,

189–90 , 194 , 204–207 , 221 , 243n1

see also Alienation ; defamiliarizing ; estrangement ; Verfremdung

distancing eff ect, 185 , 243n1 see also Alienation eff ect ; eff ect of

disillusion ; estrangement eff ect ; jianli xiaoguo ; moshenghua xiaoguo ; Verfremdungseff ekt

Douglas, Anne, 94–95 , 234n29 Drunken beauty , Th e , 8 , 202–204 , 244n4

see also Guifei zui jiu Du Heng, 109–10 Dullin, Charles, 219 Duncan, Isadora, 162 Duse, Eleonora, 155 , 233n14

Eagleton, Terry, 209 eff ect of disillusion, 243n1

see also Alienation eff ect ; d istancing eff ect ; estrangement eff ect ; jianli xiaoguo ; moshenghua xiaoguo ; Verfremdungseff ekt

Eisenstein, Sergei, 68 , 115 , 120 , 126–28 , 130–31 , 136–42 , 154 , 156 , 161 , 166 , 176 , 213 , 217–19 , 221 , 234n23 , 237n21 , 238n11 , 239n16 , 239n18 , 240n27 , 242n31 , 243n42

on Mei Lanfang’s art and the Chinese theatre, 146–47 , 155 , 161

on the Th eatre of Imagery as seen in Mei Lanfang’s art and

the Chinese theatre, 166–67; in contrast to Mei Lanfang’s art and the Chinese theatre, 168–69

288 Index

Elizabethan theatre, 63 , 65 , 74 , 89 , 92 , 144

Eltinge, Julian, 79 emotional experiencing, 11 , 155 , 157

see also inner experiencing empathy, 181 , 187–90 , 202 , 205–206 ,

245n10 , 247n28 see also identifi cation ; she shen chu di ;

xian shen shuo fa epic theatre, 180–84 , 186 , 188–91 ,

196–97 , 207 , 209 , 211 , 246n19 , 248n38 , 248n40

see also non-Aristotelian Esslin, Martin, 185 , 208 estrangement, 181 , 185 , 193 , 205–206 ,

213 , 246n17 , 247n30 see also Alienation ; defamiliarizing ;

distance ; Verfremdung estrangement eff ect, 185–86 , 196 ,

243n1 , 248n35 see also Alienation eff ect ; distancing

eff ect ; eff ect of disillusion ; jianli xiaoguo ; moshenghua xiaoguo ; Verfremdungseff ekt

Eurasian Th eatre, 219–20 Excelsior , 101 Exception and the Rule , Th e , 187 exoticism, 26 , 67 , 84–86 , 101 , 121 ,

132 , 137 , 185 , 195 , 216–17 , 232n11 , 234n21

Expressionism, 2 , 70–71 , 90 , 92 , 217

Fairbanks, Douglas, 60 Fang Zhizhong, 109 Federal Th eatre Project, 90 female impersonation, 17 , 39 , 46–47 ,

49 , 61–63 , 68 , 77–80 , 83 , 106 , 109 , 113–15 , 117 , 122 , 128 , 132 , 140 , 194–95 , 217 , 232n3

see also dan ; men playing women’s roles; nandan ; onnagata

feminism, 12 , 32 , 80 Feng Gengguang, 60

Feng Xiaoyin, 53 Fenhe wan (By the Fen River bends),

244n4 see also Suspected slippers, Th e

Filippov, Boris, 138 , 238n5 Fisherman’s revenge , Th e (or Revenge of

the oppressed ), 110 , 176 , 236n8

see also Dayu shajia Flanagan, Hallie, 90 Fogel, Joshua A., 34 formalism, 2 , 8–9 , 47 , 113 , 116 , 130 ,

133 , 141–42 , 144–47 , 183 , 201 , 209–10 , 212 , 217 , 221 , 236n11 , 240n27 , 248n1

Frye, Northrop, 185 Fu Sinian, 2 , 6 , 116 , 236nn10–11 Fu Yunzi, 97 Fuchs, Georg, 69 , 160 Fuegi, John, 185–86 Fukuchi Nobuyo, 21 , 51–52 Fuller, Loie, 162 futurism, 2

Gai Jiaotian, 153–54 , 193 gailiang xinxi , 3 Gao Langting, 199 Garin, Erast, 162–64 Ge Gongzhen, 103 , 126 , 128 Gensō no kokoromochi , 50 Gensō to Yō Kihi , 50 Gladkov, Aleksandr, 144 Gogol, Nikolai, 157 , 242n35 Goldstein, Joshua, 232n11 Good Person of Sezuan , Th e , 185 , 187 Good Soldier Schweik , Th e , 191 Gorchakov, Nikolai, 150 Gordon, Mel, 168 Gotō Asatarō, 47 Gourfi nkel, Nina, 240n21 Goya, Francisco, 157 , 242n35 Gozzi, Carlo, 144 Graham, Martha, 78–79 , 95

Index 289

Greek theatre, 74 , 76 , 89 , 91 , 92 , 144 , 166 , 220 , 238n7

grotesque, 146 , 148–50 , 156–60 , 165–66 , 169–70 , 172–73 , 208 , 217 , 221 , 242nn35–36

see also Th eatre of the Grotesque Guangzhou Ballet Troupe, 13 Guifei zui jiu (Th e imperial concubine

gets drunk), 8 , 10 , 24–25 , 30–32 , 48 , 55 , 100 , 202 , 244n4

see also Drunken beauty, Th e Guo Jianying, 128 , 238n3 guodu xi , 6 Guoju Xuehui (Society for National

Th eatre), 98 guzhuang xinxi , 7

Haji Seiji, 48 Hamada Kōsaku, 37 Hampden, Walter, 68 Han Shiheng, 118–19 , 237n14 hanagata , 40 Hanako, 162 Hanayagi Shōtarō, 39 Hara Takashi, 20 Hatsuse Namiko, 49–50 Hauptmann, Elisabeth, 211 Hazlitt, Henry, 76 , 78 He Who Said Yes/He Who Said No , 211 Hecht, Werner, 183 Hedges, Frank, 58 , 232n1 historicization (Historisierung), 177 , 191 Hoff mann, E. T. A., 157 , 242n35 Hong Shen, 2 , 98 Hongni guan (Th e Rainbow pass), 21 ,

24 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 140 , 244n4 Hongxian dao he (Hongxian steals

the box), 244n4 Hopkins, Arthur, 63 , 71 Hou Feng, 123 Hu Jinxu, 108 , 130–31 , 236n7 Hu Shi, 2 , 80 , 82 , 86–87 , 97 , 108 ,

234n19

huadan , 12 , 40 , 48 Huang Fanchuo, 200 Huang Zhigang (Huang Su), 108 ,

129–30 Huang Zongjiang, 14 , 229n14 Huang Zuolin, 221 , 229n13 huashan , 12 Hurwicz, Angelika, 186

Ibaraki Noriko, 11 Ichikawa Sadanji II, 22 , 46 , 237n16 Ichimura Uzaemon XV, 22 , 40 identifi cation (Einfühlung,

Identifi kation), 10–11 , 154 , 156 , 160 , 171 , 179 , 182 , 187 , 189–90 , 193–94 , 197–98 , 200 , 202–203 , 205–208 , 245n10 , 247n28

see also empathy ; she shen chu di ; xian shen shuo fa

Ihara Seiseien, 40 , 51 Ikeda Daigo, 40 illusionistic eff ect, 92 , 114 , 159 , 194–95 Imperial Th eatre, 1 , 15 , 17 , 20–25 , 27 ,

29 , 30–31 , 44 , 48 , 51–52 , 55 , 230n11

Inkinzhinov, Valery, 143 inner experiencing, 10 , 150 , 155–57 ,

159 , 201–202 , 206 see also emotional experiencing

Inspector General , Th e , 165 International School of Th eatre

Anthropology (ISTA), 218 , 233n18

iroko , 44 Irwin, Will, 63 Isaacs, Edith J. R., 72 Itō Nobuhiko, 230n1

Jameson, Fredric, 213 , 243n1 Jaques-Dalcroze, Emile, 160 , 162 Jestrovic, Silvija, 243n1 Ji Yun, 199

290 Index

jiadingxing , 240n21 see also conventionality

Jiang Miaoxiang, 22 , 204 , 246n26 jianli xiaoguo , 243n1

see also Alienation eff ect ; d istancing eff ect ; eff ect of disillusion ; estrangement eff ect ; moshenghua xiaoguo ; Verfremdungseff ekt

Jiao Xichen, 110–11 Jiao Xun, 199 Jiji shinpo , 21 Jing bao (Th e Crystal), 53 jingju (Beijing opera), 3 , 7 , 11–13 , 25 ,

29–30 , 34 , 36 , 38 , 45 , 50 , 51 , 53 , 56 , 60 , 99 , 108 , 110 , 114 , 115–16 , 161–63 , 165 , 168 , 200–201 , 229n9 , 231n27 , 239n14 , 246n19

see also jingxi jingxi , 114 , 119

see also jingju jiuju , 216 Jones, Robert Edmond, 70–71 joyū mondai , 49 Jūgatsu Shō, 48 , 51

kabuki , 26 , 37–46 , 49–50 , 53 , 56 , 112 , 140 , 143 , 166–68 , 218 , 220 , 231n27 , 237n16 , 239n15

Kanda Kiichirō (or Kanda Chōan), 35–37 , 51–52

Kanō Naoki, 21 Kawai Takeo, 22 , 50–51 Kawakami Otojirō, 162 Kawatake Shigetoshi, 39 Kayser, Wolfgang, 148–49 , 169 Kebir, Sabine, 244n6 Kihi suishu , 50 King, Eleanor, 95 King’s farewell to his concubine (or

Th e King’s Parting with His F avorite ), see Bawang bie ji

Kinoshita Junji, 11 , 221 Kinoshita Mokutarō, 27–28

Kitchen, Karl K., 79–80 Kleberg, Lars, 176 , 244n6 , 245n7 Kōyōan, 46 , 49 Kubo Tenzui, 46–47 Kume Masao, 23–24 , 30 , 51 kunqu (or kunju ), 7–8 , 12 , 30 , 33–37 ,

56 , 97 , 108 , 237n26 , 239n14 Kyūryūban, 46–48

Lao Zi (Lao Tse), 153 laosheng , 5 , 201 Last Mile , Th e , 74–75 Law, Alma, 168 , 240n22 Lei, Daphne Pi-Wei, 64 Lenin, Vladimir, 120 Li Feishu, 68 , 238n9 Li Jinshen, 127 Li Kaixian, 198 Li Shizeng, 58–59 , 60 , 97 Li Taohen, 18–19 , 24 , 231n28 Liang Qichao, 47 liangxiang , 53 , 168–69 Lin, Yutang, 166–67 Lin Baishui, 61 Lin Chuanding, 131 Lin Mo, 118–19 literary heritage, 112 , 120–22 Littell, Robert, 57 , 81–82 , 84–85 ,

87–88 , 90 Litvanoff , Maxim, 125 Liu Bannong, 59 Liu Chunhua, 110 Liu Haisu, 103 Liu Tianhua, 59 Liu Yizhou, 3–4 Liu Yunqiu, 235n31 Living Age , Th e , 64 , 135 Living Newspaper, 90–91 Liyuan gongbao , 96 Lockridge, Richard, 78 , 84–85 Lorre, Peter, 182 Los Angeles Times , 66 , 84 Lu Xun, 2 , 45 , 107 , 109 , 114 , 117–19 ,

123 , 218 , 221

Index 291

Luoshen (Th e goddess of the River Luo), 7 , 109

Lynn, Grace, 64

Ma Er (Feng Shuluan), 19 Macgowan, Kenneth, 70 , 83 Maeterlinck, Maurice, 160 Magu xian shou (Magu off ers her

b irthday gift), 25 , 244n4 Man Is Man , 182 , 185 Mantle, Burns, 76 , 81 Martin, John, 85 , 87 , 95 Marx, Karl, 209 Masamune Hakuchō, 41 , 46 , 49 Masuda Tarōkaja, 54 Matsumoto Kōshirō VII, 24–25 Matthews, Herbert L., 84 May Fourth Movement, 2 , 16 , 80 , 116 Mayor, A. Hyatt, 79 , 89 Mei Baojiu, 12 , 55 “Mei Clique” (Mei Dang), 19 , 53 Mei Lanfang

as actor-dancer-singer, 80–82 antithesis to realism, 73–77 art of female impersonation, as seen

by American critics, 77–80; Brecht, 194; Chinese critics, 61–62 , 114–15 , 132; Eisenstein, 146; Japanese writers and critics, 46–50; Mei Lanfang, 77–78 , 114; M eyerhold, 140 , 142; Tairov, 171; Tretyakov, 142; T subouchi Shōyō, 41–45

art of synthesis, 82–83 on Chinese and American theatres,

73 , 77–78 Chinese responses to his American

tour, 96–100 Chinese responses to his Japanese

tours, 53–54 early career, 1–3 exoticism in his art, 64 , 66 ,

83–86 , 132

experience and perception of the Japanese theatre, 50–53

fame in contemporary China, 13–14 on identifi cation as the highest realm

of Chinese acting, 201–04 impact on American modern dance,

94–96 innovations in Chinese acting, 12 interested in Stanislavsky, 8–11 in Japanese media, 21–24 performing in guzhuang xinxi , 7 performing in kunqu , 7–8 performing in shizhuang xinxi , 4–7 political irony of his Soviet visit,

124–26 reception in America, 67–69 on selecting plays for his Soviet

tour, 111 on the symbolism of Chinese

theatre, 115–17 and theatre reform, 8 and theatrical modernity, 86–89 third guest performance in Japan, 11 urged to learn from the Soviet

theatre, 123–24 viewed by Akita Ujaku, 39; Brecht,

176 , 190–91 , 194–96 , 198 , 205–206 , 221; Brooks Atkinson, 74 , 84–85 , 87 , 90; Chen Dabei, 61; Du Heng, 109; Eisenstein, 120 , 146–47 , 155 , 161 , 166 , 221 , 239n16; Eugenio Barba, 219 , 221; Fukuchi Nobuyo, 51–52; Haji Seiji, 48; Hamada Kōsaku, 37; Han Shiheng, 118; Hanayagi Shōtarō, 39; Hu Shi, 97; Huang Zuolin, 221; Ibaraki Noriko, 11; Ihara Seiseien, 40; Ikeda Daigo, 40; John Martin, 85 , 87 , 95; Kanda Kiichirō,

35–36; Kawatake Shigetoshi, 39; Kinoshita Junji, 11 , 221; Kinoshita Mokutarō, 27; Kubo Tenzui, 46–47; Kume Masao,

292 Index

Mei Lanfang—Continued 30; Lu Xun, 107 , 109 , 114 ,

117–18 , 123 , 221; Martha G raham, 79; Masamune Hakuchō, 41 , 49; M eyerhold, 140–44 , 151–52 , 160 , 164 , 167 , 220–21; Miyake Shūtarō, 39; Mori Ritsuko, 49; Nagai Kafū, 31; Naitō Konan, 34–35; N akagi Teiichi, 39–40; Nakamura Kan’emon, 38–39; Nakauchi Chōji, 39; Nanbu Shūtarō, 29–30; Nemirovich-D anchenko, 141–42 , 147 , 239n13; Onoe Baikō VI, 48–49; Paul Claudel, 79; Qi Rushan, 25 , 58 , 98 , 221; Senda Koreya, 11 , 38; Stark Young, 57 , 75–76 , 78 , 82 , 120 , 220 , 233n13; T airov, 170–71 , 218; Tanizaki Jun’ichiro, 28; Ted Shawn, 94–95; Tian Han, 107–108 , 119–21 , 123 , 221; T retyakov, 121 , 125–26 , 142 , 196 , 221 , 236n8 , 239n19 , 240n27; Tsubouchi Shōyō, 41–46 , 220; Xia Zhengnong, 111–12; Xiong Foxi, 61; Yosano Akiko, 31–32; Zhang Houzai, 19; Zhang Pengchun, 129

Mei Lanfang Grand Th eatre, 13 Mei Lanfang Jingju Troupe, 12 Mei Lanfang Memorial Museum, 13 Mei Qiaoling, 1 Mei Shaowu, 176 , 229n14 , 239n16 “Mei xue” (Meiology), 14 Mei Yutian, 1 Mei Zhufen, 1 men playing women’s roles, 109 , 112 ,

114–15 see also dan ; female impersonation;

nandan ; onnagata Meyerhold, Vsevolod, 69 , 109 , 115 ,

121 , 126–28 , 130 , 137–38 , 140 , 167 , 170–73 , 176 ,

217–20 , 238n11 , 239n15 , 240n27 , 241nn28–29 , 242n30 , 242nn35–37 , 243nn38–39 , 248n1

appropriation of Pushkin, 149 , 151 , 241n29

on Mei Lanfang, 140–42 on the Th eatre of Convention and

the Th eatre of the Grotesque and his concept of the g rotesque,

148–50; as seen in Mei’s art and the Chinese theatre, 143–44 , 151–52; in contrast to Mei’s art and the C hinese theatre, 148 , 152–60; in contrast to Stanislavsky’s concept of the grotesque, 150; its development, 144–45; its Russian and Western roots, 157; its underlying principles, 145–50

on the Th eatre of Imagery as seen in Mei’s art and the

Chinese theatre, 167; tied to his Constructivist vision of the theatre and his idea of the grotesque, 169–70

on the Th eatre of Rhythm as seen in Mei’s art and the

C hinese theatre, 160–64; in contrast to Mei’s art and the Chinese theatre, 164–66

on the usefulness of Chinese and Japanese theatre, 140–42

michiyuki , 39–40 mie , 53 , 168 Mitchell, Stanley, 184 Miyake Shūtarō, 39 Miyako shinbun , 22 , 25 Miyamoto Yuriko, 31 Mizuki Tatsunosuke I, 41 ,

231n19 modernism, 37 , 69 , 71 , 74 ,

79–80 , 87–89 , 120 , 122 , 158–59 , 210 , 213 , 216 , 218

Index 293

modernity, 2 , 26 , 35–37 , 74 , 79–80 , 86–87 , 89 , 116 , 120 , 133 , 213 , 218 , 221 , 242n29 , 248n38

Mondorf, Harry J., 66 Moore, Douglas, 83 Mori Ritsuko, 49 Morita Kan’ya XIII, 24–25 ,

38–39 , 55 Morita Kan’ya XIV, 55Moscow Art Th eatre, 57, 90, 115,

144, 150 Moscow Daily News , 138 , 236n13 Moscow News , 137 , 139–40 moshenghua xiaoguo , 243n1

see also Alienation eff ect ; d istancing eff ect ; eff ect of disillusion ; estrangement eff ect ; jianli xiaoguo ; Verfremdungseff ekt

Mother Courage , 208 Mother , Th e , 177, 182 Moy, Ernest K., 67 Mu Guiying guashuai (Mu Guiying

takes command), 9 , 12 Mudan ting (Th e peony pavilion), 56 ,

198–99 , 204 Mulan cong jun (Mulan joins the

army), 110 , 244n4 Munk, Erika, 233n18 Murata Kakuko, 49 Murata Ukō, 17–18 , 21–22 , 28

Naba Toshisada, 230n15 Nagai Kafū, 31 Naitō Konan (or Naitō Torajirō), 21 ,

33 , 36–37 , 51–52 Naitō Meisetsu, 31–32 Nakagi Teiichi, 39 Nakamura Fukusuke V, 22 Nakamura Kan’emon, 38 Nakamura Utaemon V, 22 , 40 Nakauchi Chōji, 25 , 39 Nanbu Shūtarō, 29–30 , 51

nandan , 1 , 15 , 42 , 46–47 , 50 , 56 , 107 see also dan ; female impersonation;

men playing women’s roles; onnagata

National Th eatre Movement (Guoju Yundong), 116 , 236n12

nationalism, 16 , 37 , 42 , 109 , 118–19 , 121 , 132 , 173 , 221

naturalism, 2 , 14 , 69 , 70–71 , 80 , 82 , 130 , 140 , 141 , 143–44 , 146 , 149 , 151–53 , 155 , 158–59 , 161 , 163 , 165 , 167–68 , 171–72 , 180 , 189 , 194–96 , 198 , 205 , 211 , 213 , 218

Neighborhood Playhouse, 68 , 71–72 Nemirovich-Danchenko, Vladimir,

9 , 137 , 141–42 , 147 , 176 , 239n13 , 242n30

New Stagecraft, 69–71 , 217 New York Times , 65 , 74 , 84 , 87 Nie Gannu, 110 Nie hai bolan (Great waves on the sea

of evil), 4 Nigu sifan (Nun longs for the mortal

world), 30 , 34 , 244n4 Nishihara Daisuke, 26 Nogami Yaeko, 31 noh , 26–27 , 33 , 35–36 , 40 , 52 , 143 ,

163 , 211 non-Aristotelian, 179 , 188

see also epic theatre nonrealistic, 35 , 71–72 , 75–76 , 90 ,

154 , 216–17 Norman, Karyl, 79 Nü qijie (Su San sent

under escort), 27

Obata Yūkichi, 17 , 19 Occidentalism, 36 , 113 Okakura Kakuzō, 37 Okhlopkov, Nikolai, 139 Ōkura Kihachirō, 16–17 , 19 , 23 , 30 ,

62 , 230n13 O’Neill, Eugene, 71

294 Index

onnagata , 15 , 23 , 38–39 , 41 , 43–46 , 48–50 , 55 , 216 , 220 , 231n18

see also dan ; female impersonation; men playing women’s roles; nandan

Onoe Baikō VI, 25 , 48–51 Orientalism, 26 , 72 , 216 , 230n14 ,

232n11 Osaka asahi shinbun , 21 , 33 Osanai Kaoru, 22 , 53–54 , 237n16 Our Town , 91–93 Ouyang Yuqian, 3 Ozerov, Vladislav, 144 , 240n22

Pang, Cecilia J., 233n11 Petrov, George, 240n21 photographic realism, 73 , 75–76 , 92 ,

167 , 239n18 Pickford, Mary, 60 Picon-Vallin, Beatrice, 148 , 240nn21–22 Piscator, Erwin, 176 , 178 , 183 , 191 placement, 14 , 30 , 86 , 89 , 110 , 113 ,

126 , 173 , 179–80 , 190 , 221–22 see also displacement ; re-placement

Platonic, 76 , 92 , 220 Players, 68 Pravda , 121 , 138 , 145 , 240n25 pre-acting, 143 , 153–54 primitive (primitivity), 26 , 30 , 36 , 40 ,

42 , 48 , 52 , 74 , 80 , 86–87 , 89 , 118–19 , 194–95 , 208 , 211–13 , 218 , 242n29 , 248n38

Provincetown Players, 71 psychological realism, 144 , 156 , 158 ,

172 , 195 , 218 Pushkin, Aleksandr, 146–47 , 149 ,

151–52 , 171 , 241n29 , 242n30

qi , 167–69 Qi Rushan, 5 , 7 , 18 , 20 , 25 , 58–60 ,

98 , 108 , 127–28 , 139 , 221 , 232n2 , 233n11 , 233n13 , 238n3 , 238n8 , 238n10 , 244n4

qi yun sheng dong , 164 Qin Su, 122 , 124 , 237n16 qingyi , 3 , 12 , 27 Qintiao , 35 , 46

raccourci , 168 Radek, Karl, 125–27 , 131 , 135 Rakuyōan, 46–47 , 49 , 51 Rao, Nancy Yunhwa, 232n11 realism, 2–3 , 6 , 9 , 11 , 37 , 43–44 ,

47–48 , 51 , 55 , 69 , 70–71 , 73–76 , 78 , 86 , 90 , 92 , 104 , 114–18 , 130 , 133 , 136 , 140 , 144–47 , 186–87 , 216–17 , 221 , 241n27

see also photographic realism ; psychological realism ; socialist realism

refunctioning (Umfunktionierung), 113 , 209–13

Reinhardt, Max, 69 , 71 Reinsch, Paul S., 58 re-placement, 30 , 36 , 89 , 183–84 , 221 ,

245n11 see also displacement ; placement

Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny , 182 , 207

Robinson, Douglas, 243n1 Ruhl, Arthur, 78 , 84–85 , 88

Sada Yacco (Sadayakko), 45 Said, Edward, 26 Salzmann, Erich Von, 64 Sapojinikoff , Georgii Avsent’ievich,

237n18 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 246n19 Sawamura Sōjūrō VII, 22 Scott, Barbara, 68 Seldes, Gilbert, 81 Senda Koreya, 11 , 38 Shakespeare, William, 63 , 90–91 ,

98–99 , 106 , 113 , 122 , 187 Shang Xiaoling, 199

Index 295

Shang Xiaoyun, 235n31 Shanghai New Stage (Shanghai Xin

Wutai), 2–3 Shaw, George Bernard, 130 , 237n26 Shawn, Ted, 94–95 she shen chu di , 156 , 201–202

see also empathy ; identifi cation ; xian shen shuo fa

Shehui xinwen , 114 Shen bao , 4 , 99 , 104 , 119 , 121 , 126 ,

229n3 , 237n14 sheng , 12 shensi , 165 , 169 , 189 Sherman, Jane, 95 Shi bao , 124 Shi Zhecun, 122–23 Shidai gonglun , 106 , 122 “Shina shumi,” 26–27 , 29–32 , 36 ,

54 , 216 shingeki , 3 , 26 , 37–38 , 50–51 , 53 , 216 ,

237n16 shinpa , 18 , 35–39 , 50–52 Shirō Uno, 24 , 52 , 231n29 shizhuang xinxi , 3–7 Shklovsky, Viktor, 183–84 Shostakovich, D. D., 145 Shuntian shibao , 17 Simonson, Lee, 71–72 Sin Chew Jit Poh , 127 Skinner, Otis, 66 , 232n6 Skinner, Richard Dana, 78 , 84 , 116 socialist realism, 117–20 , 136 ,

140–42 , 217 St. Denis, Ruth, 79 , 94–96 , 234n28 Stalin, Joseph, 109 , 120–21 , 124 , 139 ,

238n9 Stanislavsky, Constantin, 8–10 , 121 ,

137 , 139 , 149 , 150–51 , 154 , 158 , 172 , 175–79 , 189 , 195–96 , 200 , 203 , 219 , 237n15 , 238n7 , 245n10 , 246n24 , 246n28

Stanislavsky system, 9 , 11 , 14 , 180 , 189 , 198 , 213 , 218 , 221 , 248n39

Steffi n, Margarete, 177–78 stylization, 3 , 5 , 74 , 90 , 95 , 148 , 161 ,

186–87 , 194 , 240n21 , 240n22 see also chengshihua ;

c onventionalization; xieyi stylized theatre, 172 , 240n21

see also Conventional Th eatre ; Th eatre of Convention

Sun Huizhu, 229n13 Suspected Slippers, Th e , 67 , 139

see also Fenhe wan Suzuki Torao, 231n15 symbolism, 2 , 28 , 35–37 , 63 , 90 , 104 ,

109 , 115–20 , 128 , 130 , 133 , 141 , 146 , 218 , 232n3 , 236n10

see also xiangzhengzhuyi Symons, James M., 148

Tairov, Alexander, 137–38 , 141–42 , 218–19

on the Th eatre of Synthesis as seen in Mei’s art and the

Chinese theatre, 170–72; as d iff erentiated from S tanislavsky’s and M eyerhold’s ideas of the theatre, 172–73

Taizhen waizhuan (Th e unoffi cial biography of Taizhen), 110

Takarazuka Girls’ Opera Company, 24 , 50

Takarazuka Grand Th eatre, 24 Tan Xinpei, 5 , 12 , 97 , 201 , 235n31 Tanaka Keitarō, 230n13 Tang Xianzu, 198 tangma , 192–93 Tanizaki Jun’ichiro, 26–27 , 29 , 230n14 Tatlow, Antony, 187 Th eatre Anthropology, 219 Th eatre of Convention, 91–92 , 143 ,

148 , 170 , 240n21 see also Conventional Th eatre ;

stylized theatre Th eatre of Imagery, 166–67

296 Index

Th eatre of Synthesis, 70 , 82–83 , 149–50 , 170–72

Th eatre of the Grotesque, 143 , 148–49 , 157 , 160 , 166 , 169 , 172 , 218

see also grotesque Th omson, Philip, 149 Th reepenny Opera , Th e , 182 , 210 Tian Han, 45 , 107 , 119–20 , 121 ,

123 , 221 Tiannü san hua (Th e heavenly maiden

scatters fl owers), 7 , 22 , 24–25 , 30–31 , 34–35 , 38–40 , 44–46 , 48 , 51–52 , 54 , 73 , 231n15 , 231n17

Tiger General , 67 , 139 , 238n6 see also Cihu ; Death of the Tiger

General, Th e Todorov, Tzvetan, 85–86 Tokuda Shūsei, 23 Tong nü zhan she (A maiden kills a

snake), 4 Tretyakov, Sergei, 130–31 , 135 , 137–39 ,

141 , 147 , 196 , 219 , 221 on Chinese theatre, 236n8 , 239n19 ,

240n27 on Mei Lanfang, 142 , 221 ,

239n19 on the signifi cance of Mei Lanfang’s

visit, 121 , 125–26 on the use of the Chinese

theatre, 142 Tsubouchi Shōyō, 23 , 41–46 , 51 , 220 Tsuji Chōka (Chōka Sanjin), 17–18 ,

21–22 , 28 , 55 Tsutsui Tokujirō, 76 Tyrrell, Henry, 63

Uemura Kichiya I, 41 , 231n18 unverisimilitude, 149 , 171 , 173 ,

241n29

Vakhtangov, Eugene, 150 , 154 Vassiliev, B., 137

Verfremdung , 183–84 , 190–91 see also Alienation ; defamiliarizing ;

distance Verfremdungseff ekt , 177 , 179 , 185–86 ,

190 , 213 , 243n1 , 248n35 see also Alienation eff ect ; distancing

eff ect ; eff ect of disillusion ; estrangement eff ect ; jianli xiaoguo ; moshenghua xiaoguo

verisimilitude, 75 , 92 , 146 , 149 , 151 , 168 , 199 , 241n29 , 242n30

VOKS (Th e All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries), 103–104 , 121 , 124 , 136 , 138 , 141 , 238n4 , 240n20 , 242n31

Wagner, Richard, 63 , 160 , 162–63 , 207–208

Wainscott, Ronald H., 70 , 232n9 wakaonnagata , 41–43 , 220 Waley, Arthur, 211 Wang Guangqi, 114–15 Wang Jide, 161 Wang Jingwei, 105 , 236n4 Wang Xiaoyin, 100 Wang Yaoqing, 201 Wang Youyou (Wang Zhongxian), 4 , 6 Wang Zhongsheng, 3 Wang Zijia, 47 Washington Square Players, 71 Watkins, Mary F., 88 , 95 Weber, Carl, 248n40 Wedekind, Franz, 157 , 242n35 Wei Changsheng, 199 Weidman, Charles, 94 Weigel, Helene, 176 , 181 , 244n6 Wenxue zhoubao , 61 Wexley, John, 75 Whitaker, Alma, 73 , 78 White, Eric Walter, 177–79 , 212 , 243n1 ,

245n10 , 245n16 , 246nn17–18 , 247nn29–31 , 247n35 , 248n38

Index 297

White, John, 178 , 183 , 244n6 , 247n35 , 248n35

Wilder, Th ornton his idea of the theatre in contrast

to Mei Lanfang’s art and the Chinese theatre, 92–94

infl uenced by Mei Lanfang’s art and the Chinese theatre, 91–92

Willett, John, 177 , 180 , 243n1 , 244n3 , 245n10 , 246n28 , 247n31 , 247n33 , 247n35 , 248n36

Wilson, Mrs. Woodrow, 60 Woe from Wit , 152 Wu Nanru, 103 Wu Ying, 198 wusheng , 1 , 153 Wyatt, Euphemia Van Rensselaver, 83

Xi shijie , 127 Xia Zhengnong, 111–12 , 119 , 121–22 ,

237n14 xian shen shuo fa , 156 , 201

see also empathy ; identifi cation ; she shen chu di

xianggu , 44 , 79 xiangzhengzhuyi , 116

see also symbolism xiaosheng , 204 Xie He (Hsieh Ho), 164 xieyi , 92 , 116 , 221

see also chengshihua ; conventionalization; stylization

xieyizhuyi , 116 see also conventionalism

xingge hua biaoyan , 201 xingsi , 165 xinju , 3 , 231n28 Xiong Foxi, 61 Xisi , 109–10 , 244n4 Xu Beihong, 103 Xu Chengbei, 229n12 Xu Dachun, 163 , 199

Xu Muyun, 104 Xu Zhuodai (Xu Banmei), 53–54 Xun Huisheng, 28

Yamamoto Kyūzaburō, 24 , 52 , 231n29 Yan Huiqing (or W. W. Yen), 104 ,

125 , 136 Yan Rong, 198 Yang Longshou, 1 Yao Hsin-nung, 132 Yao Yufu, 22 Yasushi Nagata, 54 , 231n16 Ye Gongchuo, 97 Yellow Jacket , Th e , 71 , 91–94 , 232n9 Yi lü ma (A thread of hemp), 4 yijing , 169 , 189 Yokihi , 56 Yong bao , 105 , 115 , 126 Yosano Akiko, 31–32 Yoshida Toshiko, 230n1 Yoshikawa Kōjirō, 33 Yoshikawa Misao, 22 Yoshino Sakuzō, 25 Yoshizawa Ayame, 46–47 , 231n19 Young, C. Walter, 89 Young, Stark, 57 , 75–76 , 78 , 82–83 ,

96 , 98 , 120 , 196 , 206 , 220 , 233nn12–14

Youyuan jingmeng (Wandering in the gar-den, waking from a dream), 25

Yu Cai, 198 Yu Shangyuan, 116 , 245n7 Yu Zhenfei, 204 , 246n27 yuan , 168 Yuan drama (Yuan zaju ), 40 , 187 , 198 ,

242n29 , 245n15 Yuan Muzhi, 108 , 236n7 Yubei ting (Th e pavilion of royal

monument), 23–25 , 28 , 40 , 46 yunshou , 192–93 Yuzhou feng , 111 , 202 , 244n4

see also Beauty defi es tyranny ; Cosmic blade, Th e

298 Index

zaju , 40 Zang Maoxun, 198 Zarrilli, Phillip, 219–20 Zeami Motokiyo, 47 Zhai Guanliang, 127 Zhang Houzai, 19 , 115–16 Zhang Mingqi, 112–23 Zhang Pengchun (or P. C. Chang),

60 , 68 , 129 , 235n2 , 236n13 , 237n24 , 239n18

Zhao Taimu, 116 Zhao Zunyue, 98–99

Zhdanov, A. A., 120–21 , 240n25 Zheng Boqi, 117 Zheng Yiqiu, 10 Zheng Zhenduo, 61 Zhonghua ribao , 107–108 Zhongyang ribao , 237n24 Zhou Yan, 112 , 122 Zhou Zuoren, 2 Zhuang Jingke, 20 Zichai ji (Th e story of the purple

hairpin), 198 Zou Taofen, 98 Zucker, A. E., 65