LETTERS

Letters are written to a person (a friend, a newspaper editor, etc) or a group of people (students’ society, the local NGOs, local authorities, etc) for a specific reason (to give advice, to make a complaint, etc). They include:

Informal letters, to people you know well, written in a personal chatty style; Formal letters, to managers, officials, etc, written in a polite formal style; Semi-formal letters, to people you do not know well, or to people you know but

you want to sound polite and respectful (a teacher, a superior), written in a polite and respectful style.

A. INFORMAL LETTERS- are sent to people you know well (friends, relatives) - include information, such as recent news, personal problems- are written in a personal, chatty tone, having an informal style

Informal style is characterized by the use of: everyday vocabulary, e.g. I had a great day colloquial expressions/idioms, e.g. drop me a line phrasal verbs, e.g. get on, settle in short forms, e.g. I’ll, don’t, won’t

TASK 1: Read the sample letter and: underline the part of the letter that is the main reason for writing; put in a box the verbs/structures in past simple that give news; circle the verbs/structures that are used to express future plans; identify the structure of the letter by completing the blank spaces on the

right.

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66 Victory StreetFagaras

2nd May, 2006

Dear Mark,

I am sorry it took me so long to decide to write to you. I have been busy with work since I came back to Romania. I want to thank you for this wonderful summer holiday. It was the most interesting holiday I’ve ever spent. I could never imagine that I would have so much fun in a foreign country.

Since I returned home I have gone to work day by day. It is a difficult period for us because we have a lot to do in order to accomplish the new NATO standards. Sometimes I feel very tired and I’d like to have a short break at least for a day or two. It is not possible at this moment. The only way to feel better is playing with my son, who is two years and almost three months old. He is in good health and he likes to play with me and his mother very much.

I hope that we will meet again as soon as possible. Have I told you how amazing winters are here? Wouldn’t you like to come to Fagaras for Christmas? I promise I’ll teach you some Romanian carols, and we can also go skiing on the hills nearby. What do you say?

I’m looking forward to hearing from you soon.

Yours, Martin

INTRODUCTION

Paragraph 1

BODYParagraph(s) 2-3-4

CONCLUSIONFinal paragraph

TASK 2: Look at the suggested letter topics below. How many body paragraphs would each letter have? What kind of information would you include?

1. You are about to visit a friend in another country and you are not sure what clothes to take with you and how to get to their house.

the number of body paragraphs may vary depending on the topic/task requirements

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e.g. two body paragraphs:- ask about clothes to take with you- ask directions to get to your friend’s house

2. You have recently moved into a new house. Write a letter to your family describing your new house and inviting him/her to spend a week with you.

3. Your best friend has invited you to attend his/her wedding. Write a letter thanking him/her

for the invitation and asking for details about the event.

4. Your office mate is going to attend the same course as you. Write a letter giving him information about the city, the accommodation, and schedule.

TASK 3: Write your own informal letter on one of the following topics:

1. Write a letter to a friend telling him/her about a party you have recently been to, describing a person that you met there.

2. Write a letter to your friend, apologizing for not having attended his wedding party and explaining him the reasons.

3. You had an unpleasant experience while traveling abroad. Write a letter to a friend, describing what happened and giving suggestions/recommendations for similar situations.

TASK 4: A. Read the following text and decide:1. Why is the letter written?2. Is it written in formal or informal style?3. Is the style appropriate for the letter?

B. Replace the underlined sections with the more formal equivalents from the given list:

at the earliest opportunity payment arrangements nevertheless

in order to furthermore thank you in addition to

to consider to discuss however should be brought to the meeting

concerning therefore a further inform us of your availability

your previous to schedule a number of issues moreover

failure to meet received to authorize interim prior to

to query to grant to complete to contact

Thanks for your letter. I got it 14 Sept. I’ve sent a coy to comp. H.Q. along with a memo re. your financial situation. I’ve set a meeting for 3 Oct at 11 am to talk about another bank loan. So, please let us know if you can make it a.s.a.p.

But, we might ask you a few things to do with your inc. and exp. before giving you a loan. Also I need to get in touch with the G.M. to okay it. Plus, we’ll first have to think about the last time you didn’t keep up with payments.

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Anyway, in the meantime, you need to fill in this business plan. Bring it to the meeting with you.

C. Make further changes to the text by replacing the abbreviations with their full- length version.

e.g. “inc. and exp.” = “income and expenditure”

B. FORMAL LETTERS - are sent to people in official positions or people you don’t know well; - can be used to apply for a job or course, make a complaint, give or request

official information, etc; - are written in a formal style, with a polite, impersonal tone.

Formal style is characterized by the use of: advanced vocabulary e.g. I am writing to enquire whether; formal linking words and phrases e.g. Furthermore, the manger needs

to be contacted; passive voice e.g. The business plan should be brought to the meeting. polite forms without contractions e.g. I would be grateful if… colloquial expressions, phrasal verbs, idioms and short forms are not

used in formal style.

1. LETTER OF APPLICATION

TASK 1: Read the sample letter and match each paragraph with the type of information it contains. Then write them sequentially in the right section of the text.

Paragraph 1 closing remarksParagraph 2 personal qualitiesParagraph 3 age, present job, qualificationParagraph 4 opening remarks/reason(s) for writingParagraph 5 experience

Dear Mrs. White,

With reference to your advertisement in Wednesday’s edition of the San Antonio Post, I am interested in applying for the position of high school teacher.

I am 34 years old and currently teaching in San Antonio. I have a BSc degree awarded by the Texas University in 1995. I completed my certificate in education at Austin Teacher Training College in 1996.

I have been working for Palo Alto Secondary School in San

INTRODUCTIONParagraph 1

BODYParagraph 2

Paragraph 3

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Antonio since 1997. During this time, I have enjoyed teaching a variety of subjects, such as English, History and Geography.

I consider myself to be punctual, industrious and reliable. I enjoy working with children and teenagers and have good people skills.

I enclose a reference from my present employer. I would be grateful if you would consider my application. I am available for interview any weekday morning. I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours sincerely,(signature)Jane Bowman

Paragraph 4

CONCLUSIONParagraph 5

TASK 2: Write a letter of application in response to one of the ads below:

1. Hard-working young assistant wanted for part-time job in a bookshop during July/August. No sales experience needed, but a good understanding of English is essential. Apply in writing to Bookworms.

2. Large department store seeking ambitious and experienced floor manager to work on a full time basis. Computer skills an asset. For more information call J.T. Reeves at 217-3233.

2. LETTER OF COMPLAINT

Emil Chidean11 Primaverii Street

Zip Code 42568Cluj-Napoca, Romania

17th October 2006Sasha Polanski3 Paulista Bvd.Sarajevo, Croatia

Dear Manager,

I am sorry to contact your company with a complaint. Last, in autumn, on 5th November, I bought from your specialized store a video camera. I chose a Panasonic XP5 model, an expensive product. I used it the entire time I stayed in your country. Unfortunately, after I arrived in Romania, it did not work properly anymore. I decide to write this letter because the camera is completely out of order now.

OPENING REMARKS

BODY

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At the beginning, in Romania, the video camera purchased from your store got blocked while recording. First, I tried to charge the battery full, but it proved not to be the right solution. After that, I thought there was something wrong with the CD. I changed three kinds of CDs but my camera still did not function.

The warranty for this product is available until 2nd November 2006. I think the problem can be solved by your service department within this period of time. If it is possible, your store should replace my camera with a new one, as specified in the contract and the warranty certificate.

I am waiting for an answer as soon as possible.

Respectfully, Emil Chidean

CLOSING REMARKS

TASK 1: Read the situations and list at least two complaints for each of them:

I. A month ago you ordered some skiing equipment from a sports shop and paid by credit card. Although you asked for it to be sent by courier, you have received nothing. You urgently need this equipment.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

II. You recently bought an air conditioner which has been advertised on television. On receiving it, you discovered that it was nothing like the product shown in the advertisement.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

III. You have just come back from a package holiday where you were disappointed by the lack of facilities and poor services.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

TASK 2: The main purpose of a letter may be to communicate information to a reader. However, another important purpose of a letter may be to express the author’s attitude or emotion on the subject to the reader.

I. Put the phrases below into categories, depending on what emotion or attitude they convey.

a)dissatisfaction b) satisfaction c) apology d) annoyance e) desires f) gratitude

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I am particularly unhappy about… I’m

sorry to have to say…

I’m sorry that… I’m very keen to…

Unfortunately, …

I was delighted to see/hear that… Thank you so

much for…

Happily, … Please accept my apologies for… Despite

my request for…

…is not what I expected What would suit

me best is…

… was most impressive Even though I previously

mentioned…

II. Complete the possible sentences below from different letters by adding a phrase from above.More than one combination may work.

a. The way she remembered all our names ________________.b. ________________ try your new software.c. ________________ your colleague behaved abominably.d. ________________ we arrived in time for dinner.e. ________________ the flowers.f. The design ________________.g. ________________ the mess we made.h. ________________ her disability, no ramp was available.i. ________________ a lecture room with an OHP.j. ________________ privacy, the papers got to hear about it.k. ________________ we were too late.l. ________________you passed your driving test.m. ________________ we didn’t made the funeral.n. ________________ the suggested colour scheme for the kitchen.

III. Choose three sentences and decide who wrote the letter to whom and about what.

TASK 3: You are an office worker and you are dissatisfied with the layout of your office. There are a number of points that you are not happy about:

Windows don’t open – no ventilation Book shelves – cut out natural light Open plan desks – workers easily distracted Office used as a corridor Doors constantly opened and banged shut by through-traffic Photocopier, franking machine and color printer – noisy and give off fumes Desks (your desk) too near coffee area – too noisy and smoky Coffee area – always messy

Write a letter to your employer explaining what is the reason for your dissatisfaction and what you think should be done.

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TASK 4: Write a complaint letter on one of the following topics:

1. You are currently attending a military course abroad. You are dissatisfied with the accommodation and services provided. Write a complaint letter to the base administrative office, explaining the situation and your expectations.

2. You are on a mission abroad. You work for the logistic department and you were in charge with ordering some office equipment. You made a mail order but on receiving the parcel you discovered that it was nothing like the products you had seen in the catalog. Write a complaint letter to the company customer service, requesting immediate measures to be taken in order to solve the situation.

3. You are on a long term mission abroad together with your family. You have noticed that at your son’s school, the students are left unattended. Write a letter of complaint to the headmaster, asking him to take immediate steps and make sure that the situation does not continue.

3. LETTER OR REQUEST

TASK 1: Read the following sample letter of request and answer the questions:1. Who is the letter addressed to?2. What is the reason for writing?3. Where is the request stated?4. What is the suggested solution?

205 Logan RoadMemphis, Tennessee 31650

April 22, 2006

China Sea Buffet331 Spruce StreetMemphis, Tennessee 31640

Dear Sir/ Madam,

I am writing in connection with a pair of gloves I left in your restaurant on 25 November.

I would be very grateful if you could send me the gloves to the address above. Please find enclosed a check for $2.50 to cover postage.

I look forward to hearing from you soon. If you need any further information, please do not hesitate to get in touch.

Sincerely yours,Mr. A.M.Case

TASK 2: Look at the situations below and answer the questions:

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Situation 1: You want to request a loan from your bank manager for home improvements.Situation 2: You want a travel agency to send you brochures concerning the holiday packages they offer for large groups.Situation 3: You want the town council to place special bins in your area to encourage recycling.Questions:

What greetings would you use? What reasons for writing would you suggest? What results do you expect? What closing remarks would you use? How would you sign the letters?

TASK 3: Write your own request letter on one of the following topics:

1. You a member of an environmental protection society which is organizing a “clean-up” weekend. Write a letter to the head master of the local school asking for students’ help. Explain what activities will be involved and how useful it will be for the community as a whole.

2. You coach an amateur football team. Write a letter to the local school requesting permission to use their facilities and explaining why your team cannot find facilities elsewhere. Suggest how this may be arranged so that your team’s training will not interfere with the school’s activities.

3. You are in charge with organizing a military international seminar. Write a letter to the local City Council asking for a guide to join the group of guests in a sightseeing tour of the city. Suggest tourist objectives to be visited and a possible schedule.

INFORMAL / FORMAL LETTERS- Comparative approach –

14 Alcol RoadDallas, Texas

12th Feb., 2006

17 Brick StreetLos Angeles, California

4th March 2006

Holiday Travels84 Claredon RoadLos Angeles, California

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Dear Jane, Thank you for your letter. It was lovely to hear from you, and yes, I’d really like to come and stay next weekend. You know how much I love spending weekends in the country after working all week in the city. I’ll catch the usual bus on Friday evening.

Do you remember Harry? Well, I met him at a party the other day. He’s fine, busy as always. We went to the theater together and saw an amusing play by Miller.

Anyway, I’ll give you more of my news when I see you. Must rush now because I’m going to see Jack’s new flat this evening. I’m really looking forward to the weekend. Give my best wishes to Peter and the children.

Love, Pat

Dear Sir,

I saw you advertisement for holiday cottages in the Guardian newspaper.

Could you please send me a copy of your 2005 brochure, and include information such as price lists and booking arrangements?

I look forward to hearing from you, and thank you in advance.

Yours faithfully, Jack Black

TASK: Compare the two letters in terms of: layout opening/closing remarks salutation organization and content informal/formal language

Write your conclusions in the following table:

INFORMAL LETTER FORMAL LETTER

e.g. sender’s address and date – top right corner

LAYOUT e.g. sender’s address and date – top right corner

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SALUTATION

OPENING/CLOSING REMARKS

ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT

FORMALITY(structures)

Here are suggested some expressions that can be used for these types of letters. Feel free to choose the ones you like!!!

BEGINNING LETTERS ENDING LETTERS CLOSINGS

I am sorry it has taken me so long to reply…

I have just received your letter…

I was very sorry to hear…

What a surprise to get a letter from you after such a long time…

I am looking forward to hearing from/to seeing you soon…

I hope you will soon be well…

I hope to hear from you soon…

Please give my love/regards/best wishes to…

Sincerely…

Sincerely yours…

Cordially yours…

Best,…

Best wishes,…

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You will be glad to hear that…I hope you and your family are well…

Thank you for answering my letter so quickly…

How nice it was to hear from you…

It has been so long since you wrote that…

Looking forward to receiving news about…

Yours,…

Best regards,…

Love,…

In reply to your letter of…

I am sorry to have to say that…

I wonder if you could…

In accordance to your request…

Please accept my thanks for…

I regret to inform you that…

I acknowledge your letter of…

I have carefully considered your…

I am writing to inquire if…

I sincerely hope that you will be able to help me in this matter.

I would greatly appreciate an early reply.

Looking forward to a reply at your earliest convenience, I remain,…

Would you please let me know as soon as possible whether you could be willing to…

I am looking forward/I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Respectfully,…

Respectfully yours,…

Your truly,…

Yours faithfully,…

Your sincerely,…

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY: Letters that changed history

Read the following letters:

Dear President Lincoln,

I regret to have to inform you that tonight’s theatre performance has been cancelled. This is due to a last minute technical problem that cannot easily be remedied.

Please accept my sincere apologies for the

Dear Diana,

Thank you for your company the other night. I really enjoyed going to the theatre with you and hearing all

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inconvenience caused to you and your wife, and it is my sincere hope that we shall be able to reschedule the theatre visit in the near future.

Your humble servant,Kurt N. CallKurt N. CallTheatre Manager

about your week.

I’m writing because I’m sure you, like I, have been reading the newspapers and have seen the pictures of us together published in the tabloid press. I imagine that you have also read and heard people speculating about us, discussing the possibility that we may be having a relationship.

For this reason I feel that we shouldn’t see each other again. I hope that this does not come as too much of a shock and that you understand. I would like to wish you every success for the future.

Charles

Dear Mr. Gates

Thank you for coming to visit us at IBM last week. We were very interested in the presentation you gave us of your new computer software (Microsoft), and, following preliminary trials, feel that you have a very good product.

IBM would be interested in using your “Windows” software, but in agreeing to do so cannot agree to you retaining the rights to future upgrades and improvements.

We look forward to hearing how you wish to proceed.

Yours sincerely,

Jack Peachy

Jack Peachy

Dear Paul,

It was good to meet you at the church fair last week. I’m glad you enjoyed listening to may band and I was pleased that you were interested in joining us.

Unfortunately, I have had an argument with the other members of the band and we have split up. I hope you’re not too disappointed about this. I want to be a painter, so I have decided to go to art college and won’t have time for music any more. Good luck with everything.

Cheers, John

Answer the following questions:1. How did American President Abraham Lincoln die and where?

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2. How was Bill Gates able to build his “virtual” empire?3. Who did Prince Charles marry in 1981?

4. How was “The Beatles” formed?

Discussion: How would history have been different if these letters had been in fact sent?

Writing: Think of other similar situations and write letters that might have changed the course of history (e.g. Brutus writes to Julius Caesar and tells him about tells him about the plot against him.)

MILITARY WRITINGMEMOS AND REPORTS

1. MILITARY REPORTS - as required by NATO structures, in accordance to NATO documents- progress reports, inspection reports, after-action reports

SAMPLE TASK: You have just returned from a course. Write a report to your commanding officer in which you talk about the course. Mention the following points:

graduation day description of a mate advantages to your career

TO: Capt. Mike AustinFROM: Lt. Tom SinclairSUBJECT: Course presentationDATE: Nov, o2, 2006 LOCATION: FLC, SibiuDESCRIPTION OF EVENTS: In the blank spaces provided, write the content of each paragraph:Yesterday I graduated from the English course at the Foreign Language ____________________

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Center in Sibiu. It was a very interesting experience and I learnt a lot of new and valuable things. Yesterday afternoon we had the graduation ceremony, and before that we had to take the final exam, which was very difficult and lasted for 3 hours. During the graduation day, we had a very big ceremony with all the students that graduated that day and all the teachers and other guests, friends and family.

During the course I made a very good friend which I still keep in touch with. He is from Timisoara and is also a lieutenant, like me. He is 25 years old, a tall, athletic person. He is a blue-eyed, dark-haired, very charming man. He proved to be a very good colleague, a very sociable and reliable person; he helped me a lot throughout the course.

I consider that this course was very challenging but also a good and beneficial experience for me, in the light of my future career. Now, I have better chances to go on a mission or on a course abroad. I recommend that this course be followed by military personnel in need of improving their English knowledge and skills.

________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

DATE: Nov, o2, 2006 SIGNATURE: LT. Tom Sinclair

TASK: You are part of a NATO/PfP mission. Last night, while patrolling, you witnessed an accident involving a military jeep. Write a report to your CO, describing the incidents and actions. Include the following:

Description of events Description of the guilty driver Recommendations/lessons learned

TO:FROM:SUBJECT:DATE OF INCIDENT: LOCATION OF INCIDENT:DESCRIPTION OF EVENTS:

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DATE: SIGNATURE:

2. MEMORANDUM (MEMO) A. THE FORMAL MEMORANDUM - to correspond formally (internally and externally) with commanders, staff,

agencies, military personnel within the Department of Defense.

SAMPLE TASK: Write a memo to inform the personnel about the following:

MILNET MEETINGPersonnel in question: IT specialists/O1- 6/NCOs

1. Meeting place: Officers’ ClubDate/time: 12 Dec/0900 hrs

2. Purpose: discussions, progress, evaluation, obstacle identification 3. List of participants: to be received by 02 Dec 2006.

MEMORANDUM FOR: See distributionSUBJECT: MILNET meeting, 12 Dec 2006

1. The next LF Command information technology specialists meeting will be held in HQ conference centre in the officers’ club building on 12 Dec 2006, 0900 hrs. The presence of all personnel involved in the MILNET project is mandatory.

2. The meeting will be chaired by the HQ Chief IT specialist and its purpose is to evaluate the progress and discuss the bottlenecks encountered.

3. Addressee will advise this office of the names of participants by 02 Dec 2006.

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(Name) L. Battlefield (Rank) Colonel (Position) Chief, Administrative

(Department) Services

TASK: Write a memo to inform the personnel about a seminar of operational law. Include the following:

Law experts/officers Land Forces Academy 15 February/0800hrs Lectures (rules of engagement, humanitarian aid), debates, progress,

evaluation, obstacle identification Lists of participants to be received by 05 February

B. THE INFORMAL MEMORANDUM- used to correspond informally (internally) within a unit, organization, or agency

SAMPLE TASK: Write a memo in which you report that your raincoat was stolen.

MEMORANDUM

1000-4536328360

05 Jan 07

Report of stolen article:In the blank spaces provided, write the content of each paragraph.

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1. This memo is to inform you that my raincoat was stolen in the mess hall on 03 Jan 07.

2. On 03 Jan 07, it was raining as I went to the mess hall to have lunch. I left my raincoat in the corridor because it was wet. Then I went inside to have lunch. When I returned, my raincoat was missing.

3. I am assuming it was stolen.

______________

______________

______________

NAME RANK

TASK: Write a memo in which you report that your camcorder was stolen.

C. THE MEMORANDUM FOR RECORD- used to document conversations, meetings and other events for future reference

SAMPLE:

04 January 2007

MEMORANDUM FOR RECORD

Subject: Command Procedure Manual Update

1. All Company Commanders are to review the attached documents. These procedures are being implemented into the Command Procedure Manual.

2. These procedures are effective immediately.

Jerome H. Jones, Capt, USAExecutive Officer

TASK 1: Observe the format of the sample memorandum for record. How is it different from the other two types of memos?

TASK 2: Correct the style in the following memorandum:

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MEMORANDUM FOR: list of addressees

SUBJECT: Legal Advisor Meeting, 15 February 2007

It is my pleasure to inform you that we are going to organize the LF Command legal advisors meeting in HQ conference centre in the officers’ club building at 10 a.m. on 15 February 2007. All the officers and NCOs who work in this office have to be present.

The meting will be chaired by the HQ Chief legal advisor and its purpose is to evaluate the newly implemented NATO rules and regulations and discuss possible means of interpretation.

We expect to receive the lists of the participants by 08 February 2007.

THE PARAGRAPH

PARAGRAPH UNITY

THE PARAGRAPH

In written form, English is divided into paragraphs to distinguish one main idea from other main ideas. The paragraph is the basic unit of composition.

TOPIC VERSUS TOPIC SENTENCE

The first sentence of a paragraph is usually called the topic sentence. It is possible to place the topic sentence at the end of the paragraph (as a kind of conclusion), or even in the middle (as a kind of link between the two parts). It is even possible not to have a topic sentence at all; in this case we say that the topic sentence is implied or suggested. However, remember that a topic sentence placed at the beginning of a paragraph is the clearest kind of paragraph organization.

What makes a good topic sentence? Try to make a statement about your topic which limits it to a certain extent. One good way to limit your topic is to place key words or phrases in the topic sentence. These words or phrases are sometimes called controlling words or phrases, since they control the organization of the paragraph. In a paragraph on soccer, for example, they will immediately indicate to the reader that you plan to do one of the several things:

Discuss the history of soccer

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Compare it with another sport

Describe its difficulty

Explain the rules of the game

PARAGRAPH UNITY

Besides a topic sentence, a paragraph includes several other sentences which in some way contribute to or support the idea in the topic sentence. In other words, all these sentences must be related to the topic and must therefore refer back to the topic sentence. Notice the arrows in the following diagram.

Topic Sentence ____________________________________________________

Supporting Sentence

Supporting Sentence

Supporting Sentence

Supporting Sentence

and so forth

It is possible, of course, that some sentences may be directly related to the preceding supporting sentences (that is, they provide examples, details, or further explanation):

Topic Sentence ____________________________________________________

Supporting Sentence

Supporting Sentence

Supporting Sentence

Supporting Sentence

and so forth

TASK 1: Identifying Irrelevant Sentences

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The following paragraphs contain sentences which are not directly related to the main idea of those paragraphs. Draw a line through the irrelevant sentence(s) of each paragraph. Then circle the key words in the topic sentences.

1. 1Different people spend their weekends in different ways. 2Some enjoy going in the mountains to hike, ski, or just relax. 3Water skiing is much more difficult than snow skiing. 4Others prefer going to the beach to enjoy the seashore activities and to get a suntan. 5Some of these people work very hard during the week, others have rather relaxing jobs. 6Still others like to relax by staying home and reading a good book.

2. 1Ever since the time of Greeks, drama has played an important role in people’s lives. 2The Greek tragedies and comedies were a central part of the life of the citizens of ancient Greece. 3During the Middle Ages, Bible stories were acted out in churches, and wandering companies of players performed in the streets. 4William Shakespeare lived during the Elizabethan period. 5The English language has changed somewhat since Shakespeare’s time. 6In modern times, drama is brought directly into people’s homes through the magic of television. 7Television also offers people such things as quiz variety and shows.

3. 1The general population often resists innovations, whether practical or aesthetic. 2When the early experimenters in the field of aviation began their work, there were many who said, “If God had wanted man to fly, He would have given him wings.” 3The Wright brothers made the first powered flights in a heavier-than-air craft in 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. 4Even today there are many who strongly object to modern art and music as being nothing more than “splashes of paint and honing horns”. 5The painter Picasso’s well-known masterpiece “The Three Musicians” is done primarily in blues and browns.

4. 1Zoos are popular with all children. 2They are able to see examples of wildlife from all continents. 3In wildlife preservers in Africa, the animals wander about freely without far of being captured. 4Perhaps the favorite spot in a zoo is the elephant cage. 5There the elephants entertain children by spraying themselves with their trunks and doing various tricks. 6The children are especially delighted when an elephant takes peanuts from them with its trunk.

TASK 2: Identifying Suitable Topic Sentences

After reading each of the following paragraphs, select the most suitable topic sentence from the three choices following it, and write the sentence which you have selected in the blank then try to explain why each of the other two items is not appropriate.

1. _____________________________________________________________________________. Where Britons end certain words with –se, Americans usually end the same words with –ce, (British practise versus American practice); the reverse is sometimes true, too (British defence versus American defense). Notice also the British preference for final –re over the American –er (metre versus meter). Finally, most Americans consider neighbor a correct spelling, but a Briton characteristically adds a u and spells the word neighbour.

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a. British and American English are not the same. b. There are some minor differences between American and British

spelling. c. The endings of British and American words are not the same.

2. __________________________________________________________________________________. The operation of both devices can be thought of as being divided into three phases: input, processing, and output. In the case of the computer, the information which is fed into the machine – the data – is the input; the internal operations of the machine constitute the processing; and the result – usually a printout – is called the output. The telephone, too, acts on information presented to it and produces a result. The input is the actual dialing of the number. The switching system which locates the number can be considered the processing phase. Finally, the telephone rings on the other end of the line, indicating that the call has been completed; this constitutes the output.

a. Both the computer and the telephone are helpful inventions. b. Computer terminology, such as input and output, is frequently used in

other contexts. c. Despite apparent differences, the operation of the computer and the

telephone have much in common.

TASK 3: Supplying Appropriate Topic Sentences

The topic sentences of the following paragraphs have been omitted. After a careful reading, write an appropriate topic sentence for each.

1._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.The one most people are familiar with is the “desk dictionary”, sometimes referred to as a general – purpose dictionary. Another kind is the pronouncing dictionary, which is concerned with a word’s pronunciation more than with its meaning. A third type is the bilingual dictionary, which lists the words in one language and attempts to give equivalent meanings in another language. Other types include technical dictionaries, special-purpose dictionaries, and scholarly dictionaries.

2._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ . Under this system, the customer’s monthly telephone bill includes specific information for each long-distance call: the date and the time of each call, the rate charged per minute (based on the company’s discount system), the length of time the call took, the number and the place called, whether the call was direct-dialed or operator-assisted, and the amount charged for the call. As each call is placed, all of this information is fed into a computer and programmed onto each customer’s billing card, thus simplifying and clarifying the entire billing process. The telephone company hopes that its billing procedure will reduce the number of

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inquiries and free its employees to do work which computers are not yet able to perform.

3._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.Surveys indicate that Social Security benefits constitute the main source of income (about 37 percent) for retired Americans who are over sixty-five years of age. The Social Security system, which is a fund financed jointly by workers, employers, and the federal government, provides monthly payments to retired persons and pays for some of their medical bills. Earnings from part-time jobs account for approximately 25 percent of the income of retired Americans. Almost half of the retired population works on a part-time basis, and most do so at a lower salary than they earned before retirement. Assets, including property, stocks, and money saved during working years provide another 23 percent of retirement income. Surprisingly, money from pensions (retirement plans) supplies only 13 percent of retirees’ total fiscal support. The remaining 2 percent is attributed to unspecified other sources.

4._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. It will teach you how to pronounce new words correctly. It will also show you the correct spellings of these words. Most dictionaries will then give you certain important grammatical information about each word – whether it is a noun or an adjective, for example, or how the past tense of a verb is spelled. Many dictionaries will also give the etymology of a word, telling you which language it originally came from. But perhaps most importantly, a dictionary tells you what a word means. Most words have several meanings, and a good dictionary helps you to understand the word in all its different meanings by giving you clear definitions and useful examples.

5._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. In some cultures, the act of touching another person is considered very intimate and is therefore reserved for people who know each other very well. In the United States, for example, young children are taught that it is rude to stand too close to people. By the time they are adults, Americans have learned to feel most comfortable when standing at about arm’s length away from the people to whom they are talking. And many Americans do not touch each other with great frequency while talking (this is particularly true of men). In contrast, other cultures have more relaxed ruled regarding touching. For example, it is usual for friends - both men and women – to embrace each other when they meet. When they talk, they generally stand closer than Americans do, and they touch each other more often. They are as much at ease doing this as Americans are with more space between them, and they feel just as uncomfortable with Americans’ “touching rules” as Americans feel with theirs.

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6.________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________First, with a word processor it is possible to type over a word or words that you want to change, while with a standard typewriter it is necessary either to erase or use correction fluid or tape and then type in the corrections. The second advantage is that you can add words or sentences in the middle of paragraph and then command the computer to put your text back in proper paragraph form. When using a standard typewriter, the only way to add new information is to retype the entire paragraph. A third benefit of using computer to write is that you can move entire paragraphs within longer papers simply by pushing a key. With a typed text, this can be accomplished only with scissors and paste, which produces sloppy-looking work.

WAYS OF SUPPORTING TOPIC SENTENCES

TASK 4: There are many ways in which we can support a topic sentence. Read the following paragraphs, then decide what methods were used for developing and clarifying the topic sentences. Also, try to provide a definition or description of that particular method.

1. Some of the most interesting words in English are the actual names of the people first involved in the activities suggested by the meanings of the words. The word boycott, for instance, derives from the case of Sir Charles Boycott(1832-97),a land agent in Ireland whose tenants ostracized him because he refused to lower their rents. Vidkun Quilsing’s name quickly became am infamous addition to the English language during World War II. He was a Norwegian politician who betrayed his country to the Nazis, and his name, quilsing, is now synonymous with traitor. Perhaps a more common example is Levis. These popular blue jeans are named after Levis Strauss, the man who first manufactured them in San Francisco in 1850. Perhaps most omnipresent of all is the sandwich, named after the Fourth Earl of Sandwich (1718-92), who created this quick portable meal so that he would not have to leave the gambling table to eat. Other words in this unique category include lynch, watt, davenport, and zeppelin.

2. Landlords usually require a renter to sign a very complicated contract called a lease. It stipulates the length of time the person must stay in the apartment and the amount of rent he or she must pay. It can limit the number of people allowed to live in the apartment and restrict the renter from having pets. A lease may prohibit the renter from subletting and include a provision by which the renter is charged a certain amount of money if he or she breaks the contract. The agreement also includes the responsibilities of the landlord, such as providing adequate heat, garbage removal, and exterior maintenance of the apartment building.

3. The term population explosion is usually applied to the rapid growth of the last three centuries. In the 200 years from 1650 to

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1850, world population doubled and reached its first billion. In the next 80 years, it doubled again; and by 1975, it had doubled once more to a total of 4 billion. At the beginning of the 21st century, it is estimated it will exceed 6 billion and possibly approach 8 billion unless there is a major reduction in birth rates or major increase in death rates.

4. Physical gestures and body language have different meanings in different cultures, and misunderstanding these signals can sometimes be embarrassing. Although I had spent a lot of time among non-Americans, I had never realized what this could mean in practical terms. I had an experience which taught me well, however. Some years ago, I organized and accompanied a small group of visiting foreign students to New York for four days of sightseeing by bus. Because these students were rather young, and because New York is such an overwhelming city, I was constantly counting heads to be sure we hadn’t lost anyone. In the U.S., it is very common to count people or things by pointing the index finger and, of course, I used this method. One young man became extremely quiet and pensive, and I thought that perhaps he wasn’t enjoying himself. When I asked him what the matter was, he replied, “In my country, we count people with our eyes. We use our fingers to count the pigs.”

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT – PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION

I. ENUMERATION

1. DEFINITION - a technique used to arrange supporting sentences in a logical and cohesive

manner- the structure of an enumerative paragraph: general class

members/parts

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

There are three kinds of materials that can be found in any good library. First, there are books on all subjects, both in English and in many other languages. These books are organized according to the subject, title and author in a central file called the card catalog. Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for a period of two to four weeks. Second, there are reference books, which include encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, atlases, and so forth and which generally must be used in the

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library itself. Third, there are periodicals – magazines, newspapers, pamphlets – which are filed alphabetically in racks, or which have been microfilmed to conserve space.

Topic sentence: There are three kinds of materials that can be found in any good library.

Types of library materials: books, reference works, periodicals

Supportive information: description/examples

The coherence and cohesion of the paragraph is ensured by:

Enumerators: - key words

- included in the topic sentence - announce what the paragraph is structured on - examples: kinds, types, classes, parts, elements, factors, characteristics, aspects, divisions, subdivisions, categories

Listing signals: - connectives of sequence - examples: first, second, third

Order of the supportive sentences: - equal order: all the items are equally important

- ascending order: one item is more important, essential and is placed LAST -descending order: one item is more important, essential, and it is placed FIRST

TASK 1: Analyzing enumerative paragraphs

1. Of the ten largest cities in the United States in the late 1980s, three are located in the state of Texas. Of these, Huston, which ranks fourth in the country, has the biggest population with 1,705,697 residents. Next comes Dallas, which has 974,243 people and is the seventh largest city in the U.S. The smallest Texas city on the top-ten list is San Antonio, ranking tenth among U.S. cities and having a population of 842,779.

Enumerator(s):city/population____________________________Listing signals: next, the smallest ___________Order: descending_____________________________________

2. Astronomers use three basic types of telescopes to explore the vastness of space. The refractor telescope uses two lenses – one to collect light from a distant object and bring it into focus, and another in the eyepiece to magnify the image. Second, there is a reflector telescope, which makes use of a concave mirror instead if a lens to reflect light rays to the upper end of the telescope. Last, and perhaps most important in terms of studying phenomena outside the earth’s atmosphere, is the radio

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telescope, which gathers waves with a wire antenna serving as a parabolic reflecting surface. The discovery of mysterious quasars and pulsars was made possible by this kind of telescope.

Enumerator(s):________________________________________Listing signals: _______________________________________Order:_______________________________________________

3. Air travel, as determined by the number of passengers served in the United States’ busiest airports, has been steadily increasing uring the later part of the 20th century. In 1977, 13.2 million passengers boarded, deplaned or transferred through Washington D.C.’s National Airport, while in 1987, that figure rose to over 14.3 million. Next in volume of passengers was San Francisco’s International Airport, which served 20.2 million people in 1977 and 28.5 million in 1987. Finally, Chicago’s O’Hare Field, the nation’s busiest airport both in 1977 and 1987, tallied an increase in air travelers from 44 million to well over 53 million.

Enumerator(s): _______________________________________Listing signals: _______________________________________Order: ______________________________________________

4. Because the earth turns on its axis at the same time as it is moving around the sun, there are two ways to determine the period of time which constitutes a day. It is possible to define a day as the interval of time between the highest point of the sun in the sky on two successive days. This determination, mean solar time, produces the twenty-four-hour day when it is averaged out of the year. It is equally possible, however, to define a day as the period of time between the points when the vernal equinox is directly overhead. This method of measuring is called sidereal time and is almost four minutes shorter per day than solar mean time.

Enumerator(s): _______________________________________Listing signals: _______________________________________Order: ______________________________________________

5. Educational researchers have identified four distinctive learning styles which students use when attempting to master new information and concepts. First, some students prefer auditory learning. They learn best from lectures, tape recordings, and class discussions. The second of these styles is tactile learning.

This is a learning-by-doing approach, which involves such things as dissecting animals to handle their internal organs rather than dealing about them. Still other students are best suited to experiential learning. Making use of all their senses, such as a field trip to a forest when studying botany, is the best way for these learners to understand new material fully. The last of

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these styles is visual learning. The student who favors this style relies heavily on what can be seen – books and charts, for instance – to acquire knowledge. Of these four learning styles, none is considered best; but rather they are descriptive of techniques individuals use to learn effectively.

Enumerator(s): ______________________________________Listing signals: ______________________________________Order: _________ ____________________________________

6. Bioethicists, a new breed of scientist-philosophers, concern themselves with pressing problems which have arisen as a result of technological advances in modern medicine. One consideration is the recent development of techniques which enable doctors to perform test-tube cross-fertilization, producing the test-tube babies. Recombinant DNA, or genetic engineering, is another medical achievement which is accompanied by dubious moral implications. Artificial organ implantation (heart, kidneys, eyes) generates questions of who should be chosen as recipient of these life-sustaining gifts and how these choices should be made. On the opposite end of the spectrum, machines which are capable of prolonging life indefinitely, even though the patient may never regain consciousness, bring up the problem of establishing a precise definition of what death is.

Enumerator(s): _______________________________________Listing signals: ________________________________________Order:______________________________________________

2. TYPES OF ENUMERATION

A. PROCESS PARAGRAPH - tells how something is made or done (usually in present tense) - an enumeration of steps or stages:

- most common enumerators: step, stage, phase

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

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Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

and so forth

In his will, Alfred Nobel left specific instructions as to how the winners of the science awards he endowed are to be selected. First, each year the Swedish Academy of Sciences (physics and chemistry) and the Caroline Medical Institute (physiology and medicine) solicit nearly 2,000 recommendations from past laureates, university professors and other experts from all over the world. The second step is the review of recommendations received and the selection of preliminary candidates by special committee members are specifically instructed that those chosen “shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind” and that no consideration be given to the candidates’ nationalities. Next, after lengthy investigation and discussion, the final choices are made for each discipline. Finally, telegrams informing them of their awards are sent to the new Nobel laureates about one month prior to the award ceremony.

TASK 2: Analyze the sample paragraph and write the required information in the blank spaces:

Topic sentence – key words: ________________________________________________Enumerator(s): ___________________________________________________________Listing signals: ___________________________________________________________

TASK 3: Write 2 process paragraphs, giving instructions (how to boil an egg, how to make a sandwich, how to send an e-mail, etc.) and directions (how to get from point A to point B).

B. CHRONOLOGICAL (NARRATIVE) PARAGRAPH - a time sequence - a list of event - enumerators (rarely used): thing, event

- time clues: past verb forms prepositional phrases of time

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

Although the U.S. Air Force was not officially created until after the Second World War, it had existed under other names since the beginning of the century. The Army Air Forces were started in August 1, 1907, as a part of the Aeronautical Division of the U.S. Signal Corps, and it was more than one year later that this small division carried out its first mission in its own airplane. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, the Aviation Service, as it was then called, had only thirty five pilots. On December 7, 1941,

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in 1956 in January in the evening at 0900 at noon on Monday on July 6 on March, 9, 2006

the renamed Army Air Forces had only 3,000 of their 10,000 planes ready for combat. Finally, in 1947, the U.S. Air Force was established as a separate branch of the military.

TASK 3: Arrange the events chronologically on the time line:

1907

Aeronautical Division

TASK 4: Rewrite the process paragraph (about Nobel Prize winners). This time, assume that the entire process occurred several months ago. In other words, describe it as a real past event. The first sentence has been provided as example:

Earlier this year, preparations were made once again to pick the new Nobel science laureates.________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

TASK 5: Write about the events in the life of __________, which contributed to his/her success.

C. ARGUMENTATIVE PARAGRAPH- support of the thesis statement / development of the main idea - an enumeration of arguments/ reasons- most common enumerators: reason, argument

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

Going abroad to study or to live is not always a pleasure. Anybody can have difficulties trying to adapt to the customs and traditions of the new country. In fact, facing unpleasant situations makes the difference between a brave person and a coward. There are three reasons why a person should try to get assimilated into the new culture. First, it has been demonstrated that the culture shock doesn’t last forever. After a period of time, the discrepancy between cultures will appear smaller. The second reason is that struggling with all kinds of problems will conduct to a greater final satisfaction. Finally, a person who adapted to a new culture will be a bridge connecting the two cultures. This is an important step in the attempt of understanding the differences and the similarities. (Martin)

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TASK 6: Analyze the sample paragraph and write the required information in the blank spaces:

Topic sentence – key words: ________________________________________________Enumerator(s): ___________________________________________________________Listing signals: ___________________________________________________________

TASK 7: Write your own argumentative paragraph, providing at least three arguments for the topic sentence below:

Crime problem can be controlled by applying stiffer and stricter laws. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

II. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

DEFINITION: Comparison = similarity / Contrast = difference

1. Focus on comparison In a paragraph based on comparison, the information is rendered in order to show the likeliness and similarities between the two elements of the comparison (as stated in the topic sentence). Differences are omitted, the focus being on common points.

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

Are you aware of the striking similarities between of the two most popular U.S. presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy? A minor point is that the names Lincoln and Kennedy both have the same number of letters. Both men had their elections legally challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered by their sense of humor, as well as for their interest in civil rights. Lincoln became president in 1860; Kennedy in 1960. Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy’s secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. Neither man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on which he was assassinated. Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on a Friday in the presence of their wives. Both assassins, John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald have fifteen letters in their names, and both were murdered before they could be brought to trial. Just as Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named Johnson, so was Kennedy. And finally, the same caisson carried the bodies of both men in their funeral procession.

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TASK 1: Use the following table in order to analyze the sample paragraph:

ELEMENTS OF COMPARISON COMPARATIVE STRUCTURES - same number of letters in their names - both (their names both have the same…) - elections challenged - both (both men)

Structures used for pointing similarities: Adjectives and prepositions: exactly/ almost/ practically the same…as,

somewhat/rather very/quite similar to, like Conjunctions: both…and, neither…nor, not only…but also Predicative structures: to closely/greatly resemble, to have

things/features/aspects/characteristics/qualities/attitudes in common, there are certainly many/several/two similarities

Connectives: similarly, correspondingly, likewise, in the same way

2. Focus on contrast

In a paragraph focused on contrast, the elements of the comparison are dealt with from the point of view of their differences.

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

According to the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, every person’s personality can be placed somewhere on a scale running from extreme extroversion (an outgoing personality) to extreme introversion (a withdrawn personality). The typical extrovert is particularly fond of people and people- oriented activities: he or she is sociable, likes parties, has many friends, needs to have people to talk to, and does not like reading or studying alone. The typical introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet, retiring sort of person, introspective, fond of books rather than people. Unlike the extrovert, who craves excitement, takes chances and is generally impulsive, the introvert shuns excitement, takes matters of everyday life with proper seriousness, and likes a well-ordered mode of life. Whereas the extrovert tends to be aggressive and loses his or her temper easily, the introvert tends to keep his or her feelings under control, seldom behaves in a n aggressive manner, and does not lose his or her temper easily. The introvert is more reliable and less optimistic than the extrovert, the extrovert may often be subject to criminal or psychopathic behavior, in contrast to the extrovert, who may exhibit neurotic tendencies.

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A further difference between the two involves the ability to remember. Studies have tended to show that the extrovert learns faster than the introvert, but, in the end, remembers last.

TASK 2: Use the following table in order to analyze the sample paragraph:

ELEMENTS OF CONTRAST CONTRASTIVE STRUCTURESExtrovert Introvert on the other hand

SociabilityFond of people, likes parties, sociable

Prefers books to people, is quiet and retiring

Risk-taking

Expression of feelings, aggression

Reliability, optimism

Ability to remember

Structures of contrast: Adjectives: comparative and superlative forms Prepositions: unlike, contrary to, as opposed to Adverbial clauses introduced by: whereas, while Verbal structures: to contrast with, to differ from, to be different from Connectives: however, on the other hand, nevertheless, although, but

The comparison-contrast paragraph can be written according to two types of organizational patterns: the block pattern and the point-by-point pattern.

A. In a block pattern, the writer first presents all topic A information, then gives all topic B information. Generally, this is the easiest pattern to organize and write.

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SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

The two kind of elephants – the African and the Indian – have similarities and differences. The African elephant is large and dark. It has large ears and a sloping forehead. Training the African elephant to de work is sometimes a difficult task. The African elephant sleeps standing up. The Indian elephant, on the other hand, is not as large or as dark. It has smaller ears and a less sloping forehead. Training the Indian elephant to do work is relatively easy. The Indian elephant usually sleeps lying down.

B. Point-by-point comparisons first offer a topic A element compared and/or contrasted with a topic B element, then a second topic A element is compared and/or contrasted with a topic B element, and so on until all terms of comparison and/or contrast have been eliminated.

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH:

The two kinds of elephants – African and Indian – have similarities and differences. The African elephant is larger and darker than his Indian brother. The African elephant also has larger ears and a more sloping forehead than the Indian elephant. Both can be tamed, but the African elephant is not as easily trained as the Indian one. When the African elephant sleeps, it usually stands up, but his Indian brother usually sleeps lying down.

TASK 3: For each the following paragraphs identify: - main idea - paragraph type

- organizational pattern- elements of comparison/contrast- connectives

1. Although they are thousand of miles apart and on different continents, New York City, USA and Cairo, Egypt, are remarkably similar. New York City is over populated with people from all over the world and all walks of life. It has a fascinating mixture of nationalities, cultures, religions, and beliefs. Because of a shortage of land to build outward, most New Yorkers live in high-rise apartment buildings and condos. Because of the large population, there is heavy traffic; this makes the public transportation system indispensable. Besides the subway system, the streets are packed with cars, taxis and buses. New York City is the hub of the international-cultural scene in the entire US. It offers Broadway plays, operas, international cuisine, museums, and many tourist sites, such as the Statue of Liberty, the Empire State Building, and the United Nations. Just as New York City is overpopulated, the same is true of Cairo, the most populated city in Egypt. It also has a variety of nationalities, cultures, religions, and beliefs. The land area is limited, as with New York City, so the Cairens live mainly in apartment buildings of two to twenty stories high. There is heavy traffic in Cairo as well. Besides a small subway system, you can see cars, taxis, buses, motorbikes and even carriages and wagons. Like New York City, Cairo is the center of international-cultural activities in Egypt. It also offers international entertainment, museums, cuisine, and many tourist sites, such as the Nile River, and the Sphinx and the Great Pyramids in a neighboring town. These are two of the world’s most exciting and captivating towns.

Main idea _____________________________________________________________

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Paragraph type_________________________________________________________Organizational pattern___________________________________________________Elements of comparison/contrast___________________________________________Connectives____________________________________________________________

2. Although they are thousand of miles apart and on different continents, New York City, USA and Cairo, Egypt, are remarkably similar. Both cities are overpopulated with people from all over the world and from all walks of life; ach city has a fascinating mixture of nationalities, cultures, religions and beliefs. Since there is no more land to build outward in either city, most New Yorkers live in high-rise apartment buildings and condos while the Cairens live mostly on apartment buildings of two to twenty stories high. There is heavy traffic in New York as well as in Cairo, so the public transportation system in each of these metropolises is indispensable. Besides the subway system, the streets are packed with cars, taxis, buses, motorbikes and, sometimes, even horse-drawn carriages. New York City is the hub of the international-cultural scene in the entire US. It offers Broadway plays, operas, international cuisine, museums, and many tourist sites, such as the Statue of Liberty, the Empire State Building, and the United Nations. In the same way, Cairo also offers international entertainment, museums, cuisine, and many tourist sites, such as the Nile River, and the Sphinx and the Great Pyramids in a neighboring town. These are two of the most exciting and captivating towns in the world.

Main idea ______________________________________________________________Paragraph type__________________________________________________________Organizational pattern____________________________________________________Elements of comparison/contrast____________________________________________Connectives_____________________________________________________________

3. Even though both get you to the destination, traveling by car and traveling by plane are altogether different. Traveling by car is one of the cheapest forms of motorized transportation. With the cost of gasoline decreasing, car travel is very cost-efficient. The only big expense connected with car travel might be a maintenance check (and possible repairs), before one sets out on a long trip. Traveling by car takes longest to reach one’s destination; however, if the driver has plenty of vacation time, the length of time of the trip probably doesn’t matter. For the person who enjoys beautiful scenery and sightseeing, travel by car is ideal. Because car travel is slower than some other types of transportation, a person can take advantage of his/her surroundings. In fact, many drivers will make frequent stops to take pictures or to take side trips to see places of interest off the main highway. In contrast to car travel, airplane travel is the most expensive form of transportation. Even though one can sometimes find bargains on plane fares, ticket prices are still costlier than gasoline prices. Flying may be more expensive, but a traveler can get to his/her destination quickly. To get to allocation by car could take days or even weeks. If the traveler is not interested in sightseeing or taking in beautiful scenery, plane travel is the way to go. Ten minutes into the flight, the only scenery one can see is the blanket of clouds through which the plane is flying. Both modes of transportation have their advantages and disadvantages, so neither is the better nor the worse way to go. It is simply up to the individual traveler to weigh the pros and the cons, and then make a decision.

Main idea _______________________________________________________________Paragraph type___________________________________________________________Organizational pattern____________________________________________________Elements of comparison/contrast____________________________________________

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Connectives______________________________________________________________

4. My twin daughters Dora and Lora share a few common traits, yet they differ in several important ways. Naturally, being identical twins, they are alike in appearance. They both have blonde hair, green eyes, and fair complexions. They are approximately the same height and weight, as well. As far as school is concerned, they are equally motivated and always come home with good grades. That’s where the similarities end. Personality-wise, Lora is somewhat shy and quiet, and she has only a few close friends. On the other hand, Dora is extremely outgoing, has joined several school clubs, and has quite a few friends. The girls’ taste in clothing varies, too. Lora seems to prefer conservative, inconspicuous clothing, apparently to match her personality. In contrast, Dora likes to keep up with the latest fads and fashions, no matter how eccentric they are. Probably the biggest difference between the two girls is their interests. Lora is very artistic, so she can always be found drawing, writing poetry, or playing her guitar. Unlike Lora, Dora is the scientist in the family. She loves to take things apart, much to my dismay, in order to see how they work. In addition, she can always be found helping her father whenever he’s working on the car. This all goes to prove that you can’t judge a book by its cover. Even though Lora and Dora look the same on the surface, they are two distinct individuals.

Main idea ______________________________________________________________Paragraph type__________________________________________________________Organizational pattern____________________________________________________Elements of comparison/contrast____________________________________________Connectives_____________________________________________________________

TASK 4: Now write you own compare and contrast paragraph, on one of the following topics:

Differences and similarities between your town and another town you have visited;

Differences and similarities between two military bases; Differences and similarities between you and a colleague of yours who is a

civilian; Differences and similarities between two members in your family; Differences and similarities between your life as a teenager and your life as an

adult.Use any of the two organizational patterns, at least 5 elements of comparison and contrast and relevant connectives to make your ideas coherent and logically linked.

III. CAUSE AND EFFECT

1. DEFINITION - a cause and effect paragraph describes a casual relationship between the topic sentence and the supporting sentences

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- supporting sentences = a list of effects (what a certain situation has lead to or has resulted in)

= a list of causes (reasons or explanation why something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did)

cause # 1 effect #1

cause # 2 SITUATION SITUATION effect #2

cause # 3 effect #3

Model paragraph :

Some scientists warn that the gradual warming of the earth’s atmosphere, known as the Greenhouse Effect, will cause dramatic changes in the world as we know it. First of all, because of the increase in temperature of up to 10 degrees F by the end of the next century, which some believe has already begun, there will be changes in existing patterns of agriculture. Such fertile areas as the U.S. Great Plains may become deserts, while the now arid lands in Saudi Arabia may become grain-producing farmland. Secondly, since rainfall patterns will change, water supplies in some areas will diminish. Experts predict, for instance, that the rice fields in Southeast Asia will someday require irrigation to sustain crops. Changes in water levels will also be responsible for altered living patterns. Coastal areas, such as Florida and the Netherlands, will experience such a dramatic rise in water levels that they will fall below sea level and become uninhabitable. In other areas, like the Great Lakes, water levels will fall; consequently, they will no longer be able to support industry with energy supplies and a ready means of transportation. Since most experts on the Greenhouse Effect are convinced that it is irreversible, they advise us to plan now for how best to cope with a changing world.

Topic sentence __cause and effect_(Greenhouse effect; changes it will bring about)____Supporting sentences _____list and explain the effects____________________________Supportive material _______________________________________________________Listing signals _________________________________________________________Order __________________________________________________________________

CAUSE EFFECTS

Temperature

increase

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Changes in agricultural patterns

Greenhouse Effect

2. STRUCTURAL SIGNALS

a. Sentence Connectors - used to join two complete grammatical structures - the connector is preceded by a semicolon (;)

e.g. In other areas, like the Great Lakes, water levels will fall; consequently, they will no longer be able to support industry with energy supplies and a ready means of transportation.

- the two sentences linked by the connector can be separated by a period (.)

e.g. In other areas, like the Great Lakes, water levels will fall. Therefore, they will no longer

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AS A RESULTCONSEQUENTLY

THEREFOREBECAUSE OF THIS

DUE TO THISHENCETHUS

Great PlainsSaudi Arabia

be able to support industry with energy supplies and a ready means of transportation.

b. Conjunctions – are always preceded by commas

e.g. In other areas, water levels will fall. So they will no longer be able to support industry.

Rewrite the sentences using for as conjunction._____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

c. Clause Structures – intercalated within the structure expressing effect

1.

e.g. be so great that happen so fast that

dry out so much land that The rise in destroy so many crops that agricultural patterns temperature will cause such terrible damage that will change. patterns cause such a severe heat wave that

Fill in the blanks by using so…that, such…that:

There will be __________ great rise in temperature that agricultural patterns will change. This change will occur __________ suddenly and farmers will be __________ unprepared for it that agriculture may even die out in some sections of the United States. In fact, __________ many farmers will be ruined that fewer people may want to become farmers in the future. But even if the number of farmers does not diminish, the great shift in agriculture will have __________ unpleasant consequences that no one will be unaffected by it. It will cause __________ acute hardship and __________ much unhappiness all over the United States that the people may well remember it for centuries.

2. e.g. Since most experts on the Greenhouse Effect

are

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SOFOR

SO + adj/much/many + THATSUCH (A) + adj+noun + THAT

SINCEBECAUSE

BECAUSE OF THE FACT THAT

DUE TO THE FACT THAT

convinced that it is irreversible, they advise us to plan now for how best to cope with a changing world.

d. Phrase Structures – a phrase (group of words) is not a complete sentence; therefore,

it must be connected to the main sentence.

e.g. Due to the increased heat, agricultural patterns will change.

Rewrite the example using because (NOT because of)and as a result (NOT as a result of).

_______________________________________ _______________________________________

e. redicate Structures – predicate = verb + other parts (nouns, adjectives, prepositions)

- can indicate the cause-effect relationship

e.g. Changes in water level will result in changes in the living patterns.

f. Participial Phrases = -ing verbs + preposition

e.g. Water levels will change, leading to changes in living patterns.

Rewrite the example using resulting from.

____________________________________ _____________________________________

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BECAUSE OFDUE TO

AS A RESULT OFIN VIEW OF

TO CAUSETO RESULT IN

TO BE THE REASON FORTO BE RESPONSIBLE FOR

TO CONTRIBUTE TOTO LEAD TO

CAUSINGLEADING TO

CONTRIBUTING TORESULTING IN

RESULTING FROMFOLLOWING FROM

Task 1(focus on effect): Write a developed paragraph in which you answer the following question: What effects has improved technology (in communication, transportation, agriculture) had on life?

Task 2 (focus on cause): Analyze the following paragraph:

Why is it that American working women complain about job discrimination? Statistics suggest that there is a basis for their grievances. According to recent Census Bureau statistics, 45 percent of all women of working age are in the labor force. Although they have made progress in recent years, women are still underrepresented in traditionally male professions. For example, women constitute only 9.4 percent of electrical engineers, 17.4 percent of doctors, and 15.2 percent of lawyers. A second area of complaint is women’s median weekly and yearly earnings in comparison with men’s. The average male factory worker earns $336 per week, while a female worker earns only $225. Further, the salary gap is even more pronounced among women with higher education. The average woman college graduate makes $21,889 annually, but the average male college graduate makes $33,934, a difference of 55 percent.

Topic sentence ______________________________________________________________________Enumerator(s) ______________________________________________________________________Listing signals ______________________________________________________________________

Task 3: Fill in the following chart, with information from the preceding text:

CAUSES EFFECT(S)

Traditionally male professions:

Median weekly/yearly earnings:1. The average factory worker

a.

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b.

2.

a.

b.

Task 4: Reconstruct the paragraph, based on the following chart:

CAUSES EFFECT

TASK 4 – POSSIBLE SOLUTION

It has been estimated that one in every two homes in the U.S. will have a VCR by the end of the century. What factors have led to the overwhelming popularity of the VCR? Probably the major reason for its success is the fact that it is easy to handle. It means that it can be operated by every member of the family; as a matter of fact, even young children can figure out which button to push to enable them to watch a movie. The second reason for the VCR’s popularity is the fact that it saves time and money. People who regularly watch movies in the comfort of their own homes have found that it is much more comfortable and much less expensive than having to go out to public theatres. Finally, VCRs are not nearly as expensive as they used to be; and because they cost so much less than they used to, almost everyone can now afford the pleasure and convenience of watching movies at home.

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Topic sentence: it has been estimated that one in every two homes in the U.S. will have a VCR by the end of the century. What factors have led to the overwhelming popularity of the VCRs?

ease of operation

all family members can operate it

watch movies at home

- avoid crowds- save money

Prices have gone down

very affordable

the VCR has become very popular

THE ESSAY

- a paragraph in an extended form; a sequence of connected paragraphs, organized around one central idea

- a paragraph has a topic sentence, a body, a conclusion

- an essay has an introduction, a body, a conclusion

INTRODUCTION: - prepares the reader for what follows; - contains the thesis statement, the essay’s central idea (it must be general enough to include all the topic sentences in the essay);

BODY: - the longest part; - it explains and supports the thesis statement (usually focusing around 3 main points);

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CONCLUSION: - signals the end of the essay and leaves the reader with a final thought.

ESSAY ANALYSIS: BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

A friend recently made me realize that many people don’t listen as well or as carefully as they should. He told me we often hear what others say, but we don’t listen to what they’re trying to communicate. We’re so busy with the speaker’s words we ignore his communication.

One mistake we make is thinking about the speaker. We merely evaluate the rightness of his words. We look for the speaker’s motivation and make judgments about his logic and syntax. What we don’t do, but we should do, is to seek to understand the feelings and attitudes behind the sentence.

Sometimes we also think for the speaker. We try to solve his problems or to mentally direct his activities. We minimize the seriousness of the problem by thinking for him and having a solution in mind even before he has a chance to describe his ideas.

Another obstacle we have to active listening is thinking ahead; that is, mentally jumping forward to finish the story before the speaker. When we do this we may notice the speaker seems bothered and frustrated, believing (correctly) that we, listeners have missed the message.

We, as listeners, should try, instead, thinking with the person speaking to us. I know that when I speak I like people thinking with me. I’m sure they are thinking with me because I

SUPPORTING MATERIAL

1st supporting paragraph

2nd supporting paragraph

3rd supporting paragraph

2. BODY

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1. INTRODUCTION

3. CONCLUSION

notice them looking at me as I am talking. I see them nodding and I know they’re summarizing what I’ve just said, but they’re not jumping ahead of me. That’s a great feeling to any speaker. My listeners are telling me they really understand how I feel; how things look to me; and how they look through me. That’s what all of us – who wish to be active listeners – should try to do.

TASK 1: Underline the thesis statement, the topic sentence of each paragraph, and the final, concluding thought.

STEPS FOR WRITING AN EFFECTIVE ESSAY: NARROW THE TOPIC – focus on one specific aspect of the general topic

e.g. History of the Desert Warfare Rommel’s February 1942 Counteroffensive in Lybia

The Army of The Future The Infantry Rifle of 2015

TASK 2: Narrow down the following general topics:

Famous Tank Battles

The History of the Submarine

WRITE THE THESIS STATEMENT – it must clearly state, in sentence form, the essay’s central point, the main idea supported by the essay. It must be as specific as possible, limited and direct.

TASK 3: Rewrite the following thesis statements into more developed sentences. (the first two have been done as an example)

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My Army experience was really good.

My family includes several unusual people.

Marriage is a good idea.

Living in a foreign country may be difficult.

Technology is good.

The leadership and the examples set by my commanders helped me mature greatly and made my army experience both educational and exciting.

My uncle, a house painter who lives in a tree house, and my niece, a very successful one-armed mechanic, typify the sort of odd folk inhabiting my family.

ORGANIZING/WRITING THE BODY – the body supports and discusses the thesis statement. Developing the body is basically reduced to derivating topic sentences from the thesis statement, which will be further analyzed in separate paragraphs.

e.g: Thesis statement: There are three things to be observed before buying an used car.

Topic sentence 1: Decide exactly how much you can spend initially and how much maintenance the car might need.

Topic sentence 2: Choose a car of a size to meet your needs.

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Topic sentence 3: Shop around and don’t assume that the first dealer you visit has the best bargains.

TASK 4 : Write you own derivative topic sentences from the given thesis statements.

1. Thesis statement: The computer has changed military life in these three ways.

Topic sentence 1:

Topic sentence 2:

Topic sentence 3:

2. Thesis statement: Married life has both advantages and disadvantages.

Topic sentence 1: Topic sentence 2:

Topic sentence 3:

GIVE YOUR ESSAY A SENSE OF CLOSURE AND FINALITY, BY WRITING IN THE END A MEMORABLE CONCLUDING STATEMENT.

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LETTER TO THE EDITOR

written when you want to express your opinion about a topic that is of interest to the general public, to show your agreement or disagreement, or to discuss a problem and suggest solutions

is a formal piece of writing, written in formal style

Read the letter below and, on the right column, write the content of each paragraph:

11 Bucium Street Cluj Napoca

January 23, 2007

Washington Post84 Calderon Bvd. Washington D.C.

Dear Editor,

As a consequence of your editorial, which appeared in “Washington Post” last week, about one of Benetton’s most controversial ads, I decided to write this letter. I would like to express my humble opinion about that and its critics. In the next lines I would develop three aspects about the advertising of the Italian company.

First of all, I am sure that the ill man and his family gave their agreement for using that photo. This action could have two different reasons: a financial aspect (because the treatment for AIDS requires lots of money) and a moral one (the dying man wanted to sensitize the public opinion about that awkward malady of the last century). His intention was to give a hope to the others who were found HIV positive. I am absolutely convinced that he prayed in his last moments for a quantum leap in the fight against AIDS.

Secondly, I want to remind everybody that Benetton has run for fifteen years a campaign called “Food for Life” in partnership with United Nations. It has the purpose to help the poorest regions of Asia and Africa. People from these parts of the world have faced many social problems, including AIDS. The presentation of that touching photo in the advertising campaign could be an important step in the attempt to prevent AIDS spread and reduce its consequences. The ad has obviously shocked the viewers and might have changed their outlook on life, their attitude and conduct.

The third aspect related to this photo and the reactions against it is censorship. It is well known that the Italian company has brought in front of consumers many shocking images. The photo that started this debate took the man from his bad physical state and gave him a different connotation. The background is a positive one. The ambivalent campaign – for selling products and charity – respects, in my opinion, the dignity of the ill person and the good sense.

I greatly appreciate your editorials and your work for educating people. I sincerely hope our society will be able to concentrate its efforts on the real problems. I would be so glad if that kind of ads managed to make a difference upon the AIDS issue worldwide by changing the perspective and the attitude!

Respectfully, Emil Chidean, Officer Cluj Napoca, Romania

INTRODUCTION

Paragraph 1

BODY

Paragraphs 2 – 41

CONCLUSION

Paragraph 5

1 number of paragraphs may vary, depending on the topic and the task

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