a shift in policy for primary education in mozambique
TRANSCRIPT
Running Head: A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 1
A Shift in Policy for Primary Education in Mozambique
Claire Nerenhausen
Teachers College, Columbia University
Integrative Project
April 2014
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 2
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
CPI Corruption Perceptions Index
DAC Development Assistance Committee
EFA Education for All
EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment
EP1 Escola Primária 1º grau [Lower Primary School]
EP2 Escola Primária 2º grau [Upper Primary School]
ESG1 Escola Secundária Geral 1º ciclo [First Level of Secondary School]
ESG2 Escola Secundária Geral 2º ciclo [Second Level of Secondary School]
FASE Canada’s Assistance to Education in Mozambique
FBO Federal Business Opportunities
FRELIMO Frente de Libertação de Moçambique [Mozambique Liberation Movement]
FTI Fast Track Initiative
GCCC Gabinete Central de Combate á Corrupção [Central Office for Combating Corruption]
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNI Gross National Income
GDI Gender-Related Development Index
GPI Gender Parity Index
HDI Human Development Index
IAACA International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities
IFP Instituto Formação de Professores [Teacher Formation Institute]
ISCED International Standard Classification of Education
IMF International Monetary Fund
INE Instituto Nacional de Estatística [National Institute for Statistics]
IR Intermediate Results
IRC International Rescue Committee
MINED Ministério da Educação [Ministry of Education]
ODA Official Development Assistance
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OHCHR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
PEE Plano Estratégico da Educação [Strategic Education Plan]
PQG Plano Quinquenal do Governo [Government Five-Year Program]
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 3 QIM Quality Instruction Management
RENAMO Resistência Nacional de Moçambique [Mozambique National Resistance]
SACMEQ Southern African Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality
SNE Sistema Nacional de Educação [National System of Education]
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
UNSD United Nations Statistics Division
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WB World Bank
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 4
Table of Contents
1. Executive summary……………………………………………………………………………………....6
2. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………8
2.1. Political context……………………………………………………………………………….8
2.2. Economic context……………………………………………………………………………...8
2.3. Social context………………………………………………………………………………...10
2.4. Educational quality and context……………………………………………………………...10
3. Key Issues and Challenges……………………………………………………………………………...11
3.1. Poor governance and corruption……………………………………………………………..13
3.2. Lack of access to primary schools…………………………………………………………...14
3.3. Poor pre-primary education………………………………………………………………….15
3.4. High dropout rates……………………………………………………………………………16
3.5. Urban/rural disparity…………………………………………………………………………17
3.6. Inadequate teacher workforce………………………………………………………………..18
3.6.1. Poor quality………………………………………………………………………..19
3.6.2. Lack of teachers…………………………………………………………………...21
3.7. Low student support………………………………………………………………………….22
3.8. Lack of educational funding…………………………………………………………………22
4. Donor Involvement Analysis…………………………………………………………………………...24
4.1. Donors………………………………………………………………………………………..24
4.2. Donor-Funded Projects………………………………………………………………………25
5. Underserved areas of educational review………………………………………………………………26
6. Is pre-primary education necessary?.…………………………………………………………………...29
References…………………………………………………………………………………………………32
Appendix A: Human development indicators……………………………………………………………..35
Appendix B: The Mozambican school system………………………………………………………........37
Appendix C: Financial education indicators………………………………………………………………39
Appendix D: SACMEQ indicators…………………………………………………………………..……40
Appendix E: Comprehensive donor matrix…………………………………………………………….....42
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 5
List of Tables
Table 1: Economic indicators for Mozambique 2003-2012………………………………………………..9
Table 2: SACMEQ learning achievements for primary education, 2000 & 2007………………………...11
Table 3: Education indicators……………………………………………………………………………..16
Table 4: Illiteracy rate by province, 2007…………………………………………………………………18
Table 5: Number of total teachers for EP1 and EP2 and the percent that are untrained…………………..20
Table 6: Financial forecasts based on budget and execution of education funds 2010-2011……………..24
Table 7: Mozambique’s top ten donors of gross ODA and allocation to education* (2010-11 average)…25
Table 8: Donor involvement matrix for primary education in Mozambique……………………………...26
List of Figures
Figure 1: Gender Parity Index in primary level enrollment and completion……………………………...10
Figure 2: Causes and effects of low literacy in primary education………………………………………..12
Figure 3: Net enrollment and completion rates for primary school……………………………………….15
Figure 4: Number of lower (EP1) and upper (EP2) primary schools from 2000-2010……………….......15
Figure 5: Trained teachers in primary education as a percentage of the total……………………………..19
Figure 6: Primary school teacher to student ratio…………………………………………………………21
Figure 7: Distribution of public expenditure per level (%) in 2006……………………………………….22
Figure 8: Estimated costs (%) by education level and for principle programs in 2010…………………...23
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 6 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Mozambicans were colonized by the Portuguese for centuries before winning a war for independence in
1975. This war was directly followed by an extremely violent civil war, resulting in over one million
casualties that ended in 1992 with a peace agreement between opposing political parties, FRELIMO and
RENAMO; FRELIMO has held the presidency since. Recently, in October of 2013, this peace agreement
was broken and violence has erupted in Mozambique with the 2014 presidential elections quickly
approaching.
Despite hardships, Mozambique has had considerable economic growth since independence with
an average annual GDP growth rate of 7.2% since 2003 (World Bank, 2013). However, with poor
governance riddled with corruption, rating 123rd out of 176 countries on the Corruption Perceptions
Index, the majority of Mozambicans remain in poverty (Transparency International, 2013). In 2013, over
60% of the population was living below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day (WB, 2013).
In addition to high poverty rates, Mozambique ranks 185th out of 187 countries on the Human
Development Index. Furthermore, problems are numerous within the education system, including severe
gender inequalities.
After independence, Mozambique took control of their education system with the creation of the
National System of Education (SNE). SNE created a system of free and compulsory primary education
consisting of lower primary, grades 1-5, and upper primary, grades 6-7. However, there still remain many
problems within the primary education system as reflected in low nationwide learning outcomes of youth.
Despite a lack of qualified primary school teachers, improvements include an increase in primary
education enrollment and completion and an increase in female learning outcomes.
There are many components to take into consideration when investigating the causes and effects
of low learning outcomes among primary school students in Mozambique. The following are some of the
key issues that affect these outcomes in primary schools. Poor governance and corruption can affect the
distribution of funds and determine how schools are managed. Access to primary education continues to
be a problem as primary school completion rates lag far behind enrollment rates for a multitude of
possible reasons including a lack of EP2s. There is a general lack of pre-primary education to prepare
students for literacy practices in primary education. Dropout rates are high are in part due to
comprehension problems, lack of materials and inadequate learning environments. There exists
urban/rural disparity regarding the quality of education as the social services become scarcer farther from
provincial and national capitals. Furthermore, teachers are inadequately trained leading to poor quality of
instruction and a lack of teachers for the growing number of students, resulting in high student-teacher
ratios. In addition, chronic poverty contributes to high child labor rates as students are sometimes more
inclined to help with the family farm than to receive an education. Finally, the amount of educational
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 7 funding allocated to primary education is not yielding beneficial results. Fortunately, the Government of
Mozambique is addressing most of these key issues but some developments have been delayed resulting
in poor outcomes and achievement gaps.
Fortunately, Mozambique is not alone in their efforts to improve their primary education system.
As one of the poorest countries in the world, Mozambique is a frequent recipient of aid. Among the top
donors of official development assistance are the United States, Portugal, the United Kingdom and
Canada with the US and Canada allocating the largest percentages of their aid to the education sector
(75% and 80% respectively) (OECD, 2013). According to Aid Data (2013), Mozambique has been
offered US$57.6 billion in international funding since 1947 resulting in 20,028 projects from 50 funding
organizations.
In addition to bilateral donors, multilateral donors have contributed project and program support
for numerous education interventions in Mozambique. Among these are the World Bank, UNICEF, and
UNESCO as well as the World Literacy Fund. A trend has emerged within the project support for literacy
education in the form of Early Grade Reading Assessments. In collaboration with the Research Triangle
Institute and implementing organizations, USAID has in place an EGRA plus Quality Instruction
Management project to improve the quality and quantity of reading instruction in Mozambique. The
EGRA trend has been borrowed and adapted by other countries including Egypt, Ethiopia and Malawi. As
the case with using any “best practice” or policy borrowing and lending, limitations exist and each policy
must adapt to the given context to achieve maximum results, in this case – improved learning outcomes
for primary school students in Mozambique.
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 8 2. INTRODUCTION
This review will look in-depth at the problem of low learning outcomes in primary schools in
Mozambique. Given the current political unrest, economic hardships, and problems with gender parity,
primary education has suffered in quality. Among other reasons, these contribute to poor literacy
instruction and therefore, low reading outcomes for children in primary school.
2.1. Political Context
Mozambique has a turbulent history including, but not limited to, repression under centuries of
Portuguese colonial rule, and a ten year war for independence, immediately followed by a bloody 16 year
civil war, finally concluding in 1992. Since indepdence in 1975, the presidency has been held by the
FRELIMO (the Mozambique Liberation Front) political party. Democratically elected President Armando
Emilio Guebuza has guided the government of Mozambique in rebuilding its strong country with an
emphasis on the education system.
Unfortunately, education reform has taken a back seat in Mozambique lately with tensions
between FRELIMO and opposition party RENAMO (Mozambican National Resistance). With the 2014
presidential elections quickly approaching, RENAMO is fighting back against the current FRELIMO
administration. Violence by Dhlakama ‘s RENAMO army has increased in recent weeks involving raids
on vehicles, kidnappings, and most recently, attacks on health posts (Hanlon, 2013). The peace deal
signed by the two parties that ended the bloody civil war of more than one million casualties has been
officially broken. RENAMO strikes back after FRELIMO troops were accused of raiding Dhlakama’s
guerilla hideout in the mountains of Gorongosa in late October, 2013.
In addition to political conflict, Mozambique has an ongoing problem with institutional
corruption. In 2012, Mozambique ranked 123rd out of 176 countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index
(Transparency International, 2013). Problems like corruption and poor governance are possible causes to
the lack of success with education interventions, affecting literacy improvements.
2.2. Economic Context
Since independence, Mozambique has had an extremely fast growing economy with an average GDP
growth rate of 7.2% between 2003 and 2012 (World Bank, 2013). Additionally, according to the IMF
(2011), the income per capita rose an average 5% between 2005 and 2009. As seen below in Table 1,
growth is not limited to the GDP and income. The already large population continues to grow with an
average growth rate of 2.2 as listed by UN Data’s (2013) 2010-2015 indicators.
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 9 Table 1: Economic indicators for Mozambique 2003-2012
Indicator 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
GNI per capita, PPP
(current international $) 530 570 630 640 700 760 820 890 940 1020
Population, total (in
millions) 19.87 20.43 21.01 21.58 22.17 22.76 23.36 23.96 24.58 25.2
GDP (current US$ in
billions) 4.66 5.69 6.57 7.09 8.03 9.89 9.67 9.27 12.56 14.58
GDP growth (annual %) 6.02 8.77 8.67 6.32 7.28 6.83 6.34 7.08 7.32 7.40
Source: World Bank, 2013
However, despite a growing economy, poverty is still a terrible reality. In 2008, a staggering 60% of the
population was living below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day and 82% were living on
US$2 a day or less (World Bank, 2013). Fortunately, these numbers are down from 2003 statistics where
75% lived on US$1.25 a day and 90% on US$2 (World Bank, 2013). Like many other nations,
Mozambique is coming back from the international financial crisis and their economy is expected to grow
at an increased rate.
As President Guebuza stated at the Columbia University World Leader Forum (2013),
employment opportunities are also low in Mozambique and job creation is of high priority for the current
administration. However, the president did not mention job creation in the education sector. Due to the
large amounts of arable land and fresh waterways, more jobs are being created in agriculture and fisheries
than in schools (IMF, 2011). Furthermore, about 80% of the Mozambican workforce never finished the
first level of primary school and 13% of the workforce is still enrolled and working to complete primary
school (IMF, 2011). In order to improve the literacy rate among Mozambican youth, the quality of
education has to increase, and in order for that to happen there needs to be a larger and better quality
teacher workforce.
Based on the largely agricultural society, an improved primary education system can improve the
life opportunities of youth, particularly those most vulnerable: girls and children in rural areas (Fox, L.,
Santibañez, L., Nguyen, V., & André, P., 2012). “Since 2003, high growth has been sustained by a
combination of natural resource extraction financed by foreign direct investment and sector service
expansion, while the agricultural sector, which employs the majority of the labor force, has experienced
slower growth…The key, development challenge for Mozambique is to further accelerate the country’s
economic development by reshaping its growth patterns to benefit a larger segment of the population”
(Fox, L., Santibañez, L., Nguyen, V., & André, P., 2012, p. 1-2). Improving learning outcomes and
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 10 boosting the quality of primary education for agricultural populations can greatly contribute to
Mozambique’s economic growth.
2.3. Social Context
In addition to ranking very low on the Human Development Index (185 out of 187 countries),
Mozambique ranks very low on the Gender Parity Index for primary education (UNDPb, 2013). For more
information on HDI trends, GPI, and Mozambique’s overall human development, see Appendix A. As
seen below in Figure 1, GPI is represented as the ratio of girls to boys in primary school. As seen in the
figure, girls are less likely than boys to enroll and complete primary school. Fortunately, Mozambique has
shown great improvement for
gender parity in primary school.
GPI increased from 0.76 in 1990
to 0.91 in
2012 for enrollment, but girls are
still at a disadvantage. GPI for
completion of primary school has
also increased from 0.64 in 1990
to 0.86 in 2012, despite a decrease
in 2001, but still lag behind
enrollment. In spite of successful
efforts to increase the access to
education in Mozambique and
enrollment rates in primary
school, there are still problems
with student retention. A potential
cause for high dropout rates could
be due to poor learning outcomes.
If a child cannot understand the
material taught in class there is a
higher chance of them dropping out of school.
2.4. Educational Quality and Context
In 1983, Mozambicans first took charge of the education system from the Portuguese by creating the
National System of Education (SNE) that worked to replace the highly selective missionary, public and
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
Gender Parity Index in primary level enrollment
Gender Parity Index in primary level completion
Note: Enrollment rates for 1996, 1997, and 2003 and completion rates for 1996, 1997, 1998, and 2003 were unavailable. Therefore, data for these years were kept constant to the previous year. Source: UNSD, 2013 & World Bank, 2013
Figure 1: Gender Parity Index in primary level enrollment and completion
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 11 private schools of the Portuguese that were in place prior to independence (SACMEQ, 2012). The SNE
established a structure for general education that still consists of a free and compulsory primary school
that is split into lower primary (EP1), grades 1-5 and upper primary (EP2), grades 6-7. The structure of
secondary school education was also divided into two cycles, ESG1, grades 8-10 and ESG2, grades 11-
12. For more information about the Mozambican education system see Appendix B. Overall, due to the
lack of teachers to accommodate the large number of students, schools are designed on a multi-shift
system where students attend school either in the morning, afternoon, or night, limiting the hours they
spend in the classroom.
Education is among the positive trends in Mozambique along with improved health services,
particularly in rural areas (IMF, 2011). Access to primary education rose from 30.8% in 2002/3 to 37.3%
in 2008/9, and illiteracy among women fell from 54% in 2004 to 40.8% in 2008 (IMF, 2011). The
Number of children in primary schools (grades 1-7) has increased by an average growth rate of 8% a year
from 3.3 million children in 2003 to 5.3 million in 2010. Although making strides toward increased
access, the Government of Mozambique has not been able to keep up with quality improvements to
education (USAID, 2013). Fortunately, there has been a trend in policy with USAID and the Research
Triangle Institute with regards to Early Grade Reading Assessments that focus on literacy rates of
students in grades 2-3. EGRA has been borrowed by multiple countries and yielded positive results.
However, as previously mentioned, the current state of political unrest in Mozambique might delay
educational progress.
3. KEY ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
“The rapid expansion [of Mozambique’s primary education system] has placed intense pressure on school
management, teaching personnel, and the overall quantity and quality of effective classroom instruction,
resulting in a large number of overcrowded multi-shift schools, growing student/teacher ratios, and
plummeting reading and math test scores” (USAID, 2013). The expansion of increased access is a
positive achievement for Mozambique’s education system, but unfortunately it comes at the cost of
quality. In turn, literacy rates remain low and the cycle of illiteracy continues.
There are many challenges to improving the education system in Mozambique, and specifically
learning outcomes among children in primary education. As seen below in Table 2, reading and
mathematics scores have decreased and there remain discrepancies between males and female. Female
literacy as a ratio to male literacy has improved, but there still remains a wide gap. All scores in
Mozambique, even those disaggregated by province (as seen in Table 4 on page 18), are lower for
SACMEQ III than SACMEQ II despite an overall improvement in the region. For more data on
Mozambique’s reading and writing scores, see Tables 1.5, 1.6, and 1.7 in Appendix D.
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 12 Table 2: SACMEQ learning achievements for primary education, 2000-2007
Reading Mathematics
Indicator 2000 2007 2000 2007
SACMEQ overall mean (cross-country comparison) 500 512 500 510
Mozambique mean, total boys and girls 517 476 530 483
Mozambique mean, boys 519 478 537 488
Mozambique mean, girls 514 473 520 479
Note: Mozambique first participated in SACMEQ II in 2000 and then again in SACMEQ III in 2007. Source: SACMEQ, 2013; Crouch, 2011, p. 12
In order to better understand the problem of low learning outcomes in primary education I have drafted a
simplified problem tree, pictured below in Figure 2. Based on my research there are a litany of factors that
contribute to the problem of low student achievement which is why there is no “magic bullet” solution.
Unfortunately, there are also many consequences to the same problem that can lead to slowed progress
and improvements.
Figure 2: Causes and effects of low learning outcomes in primary education
Effects: • Limited opportunities for horizontal/vertical mobility • Economic stagnation • Low transition rates to secondary or tertiary education • Undereducated workforce • High dropout rates and perpetuation of low learning outcomes
LOW LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY EDUCATION
Causes:
Lack of Resources Poor Quality of Instruction Socio-Economic Variables Lack of funding
• Lack of funding • Underdeveloped pre-primary
education • Lack of educational
resources/materials • Poor access
Low emphasis on teacher training • Poor teacher quality • Inadequate literacy instruction
Corruption
• Poor school management • Poor governance
Cycle of illiteracy • Illiterate parents of students • Lack of community or family
support • Children kept home to work • Urban/rural disparities
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 13 Many of the main challenges outlined above are addressed in this section. Based on my desk review, I
suggest that the following issues to be discussed contribute directly or indirectly to low literacy rates
among primary school students.
1. Poor governance and corruption
2. Lack of access to primary schools
3. Poor pre-primary education
4. High dropout rates
5. Urban/rural disparity
6. Inadequate teacher workforce
a. Poor quality
b. Lack of teachers
7. Low student support
8. Lack of educational funding
Fortunately, there are plans in motion in the education sector in Mozambique to improve the quality of
primary education and strengthen institutional capacity to improve youth literacy as outlined in the
government’s five-year program, Plano Quinquenal do Governo (PQG), (2010-2014) and the Strategic
Plan for Education, Plano Estratégico da Educação, (2012-2016) (OHCHR, 2011). Among the education
indicators of the strategic plan are primary school enrollment and completion rates. As for measuring and
managing the quality of education, the following devices have been deployed.
1. Adoption of standards and minimal requirements for 1) school planning, administration and
management, 2) infrastructure and school environment, and 3) teaching-learning process.
2. Implementation of internal and external student evaluation systems.
In order to ensure the fulfillment of the abovementioned devices, the Ministry of Education created the
National Directorate of Quality Assurance in June of 2011 (OHCHR, 2011). This branch of the ministry
will focus on the monitoring and evaluation of the quality of education in accordance with the
government’s five-year program. Unfortunately, results and public data are not yet available for these
devices.
3.1. Poor governance and corruption
According to Easterly and Williamson (2011), one of the variable for “best practices” of aid agencies is
selectivity. It is in the best interest of a donor to select countries with low corruption and high
transparency. Unfortunately, (as mentioned in the introduction) Mozambique ranked 123rd out of 176
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 14 countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index in 2012 (Transparency International, 2013). This high level
of corruption makes Mozambique less attractive to donors.
Fortunately, efforts are being made to fight corruption in Mozambique. In 2005, IAACA
established the Central Office for Combating Corruption (GCCC) and improvements have been made in
recent years against corruption including an increasing number of investigated cases. In 2009, 534 cases
of corruption and theft of state property were under investigation, 27 of which went to trial (IAACA,
2010). However, an increase in cases of corruption might also indicate an actual increase in corruption. In
2010, more than 600 cases of corruption and misuses of state funds were registered between November
and December. From these cases, 190 employees were indicted and tried in local courts (IAACA, 2010).
Cases of state funds being misappropriated are highly detrimental for aid effectiveness. Aid that might be
given to Mozambique and specifically allocated to the education sector might not even make it to the
proper destination resulting in a lack of funds and a decreased quality of education. According to the IMF
(2011) GCCC is making progress against corruption by increasing the number of people prosecuted and
sentenced, but progress is slow.
As outlined in the Strategic Plan for Education (PEE), one of the key components to improving
the quality of education is good educational governance and increasing institutional capacity (Ministry of
Education, 2012). The PEE outlines four steps for improving the quality of the education system.
1. Development and professional management of sector recourses (including human resources,
materials and finances);
2. Improvement of planning systems, budgeting, execution, monitoring and evaluation;
3. Integration of cross-cutting issues in key programs in the sector and ensuring the security of
human rights; and
4. Internal and external communication and disclosure of information.
By reducing corruption at the national level and ensuring the proper distribution of funds, aided by
GCCC, the educational institution can be strengthened. School management can make better use of
resources and focus more time on literacy in the primary school classrooms.
3.2. Lack of access to primary schools
Another challenge affecting youth literacy rates is the lack of access to primary schools. Enrollment has
fortunately increased over the last 10 years, but as seen below in Figure 3, the net enrollment rate has
stagnated around 90%. Even with the improvement in enrollment, completion rates still lag behind
accompanied by problems of student retention. For more data on student retention and dropout rates, see
section 3.4.
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 15
Another problem with access
to primary schools is the
sheer number of schools
available to primary school
children. Due to the structure
of primary schools in
Mozambique, there are not
necessarily the same number
of lower primary schools
(EP1s) and upper primary
schools (EP2s). Shown
bwelow in Figure 4 are the
number of EP1s and EP2s
from 2000 to 2010. There is
an increase of about 2,000 schools for both levels, but there remain drastically fewer EP2s. Perhaps, in
2002 when primarys school completion rates were only 61% it would have made sense for there to be
only enough EP2s to accommodate the few
number of students. However, completion
rates were as high as 85% in 2010 and the
EP1/EP2 gap remains just as wide. If
students are expected to complete the lower
level of primary school there should be just
as many schools available as at the upper
primary level.
3.3. Poor pre-primary education
As seen in Figure 1.3 and Figure 1.4 in
Appendix B, pre-primary exists in
Mozambique. However, these institutions
are few and far between, provided by the
Ministry of Health or private institutions,
and located only in provincial capitals
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 20
00
2001
20
02
2003
20
04
2005
20
06
2007
20
08
2009
20
10
2011
20
12
Adjusted net enrollment rate, primary (% of primary school age children)
Primary completion rate, total (% of relevant age group)
Figure 3: Net enrollment and completion rates for primary school
Note: Data was unavailable for 2003 so Figure 3 displays no change from the previous year. Source: World Bank, 2013
Figure 4: Number of lower (EP1) and upper (EP2) primary schools from 2000-2010.
Source: INE, 2011
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
EP1
EP2
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 16 (SACMEQ, 2012). There are also informal means of pre-primary education elsewhere in the country
where mothers drop off their children before going to the fields or to work, but it is difficult to determine
the quality of education the students actually receive. Luckily, there is a policy shift currently happening
within the Mozambican Ministry of Education. The Minister of Education, Augusto Jone Luis first
declared in 2012 that Mozambique will be re-introducing pre-school education in 2013, but more recently
in August of 2013, Luis changed the implementation year to 2014 (All Africa, 2012; 2013).
Pre-primary education is included in the government’s Education Strategic Plan for 2012-2016.
The pre-school education program is scheduled to begin with a pilot program for seven or eight districts
covering about 80,000 children in rural and urban areas. “With the new model, the government wants
greater community participation in pre-school education, but the process will be monitored by the State”
(All Africa, 2013). Unfortunately, it appears as though the implementation of pre-primary education
continues to be delayed and has not yet been employed. Students entering primary school continue to be
unprepared and less able to grasp reading and writing concepts needed for basic literacy learning.
3.4. High dropout rates
As seen earlier in Figure 3, despite increased numbers of net enrollment, the net completion rate is only a
fraction of students enrolled. Below in Table 3 are general education indicators including data
disaggregated by gender on repeaters, dropout rates and transition rates for primary school students. There
are not major gender disparities present, but on average females are more likely than males to repeat
grades, drop out, and not continue on to secondary education. It is difficult to determine what the exact
causes are of high dropout rates, but there are many potential contributing factors. Among these factors
are families needing their children to work (discussed later in section 3.7), mother tongue language
barriers, and inadequate learning environments.
Table 3: Education indicators
Education Indicator 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Percentage of repeaters in primary (female) 24 23 24 --- 21 10 5 6 5
Percentage of repeaters in primary (male) 23 22 23 --- 21 11 5 6 6
Primary dropout rate (female) 13 14 --- --- 12 14 13 13 ---
Primary dropout rate (male) 12 13 --- --- 10 13 11 11 ---
Transition rate from primary to secondary (male) 40 46 --- --- 56 56 61 60 ---
Transition rate from primary to secondary (female) 40 43 --- --- 51 52 56 56 ---
---: Data not available Source: EPDC, 2012
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 17 Despite Portuguese being the national language, it was the mother tongue language for only 1.2% of the
population in 2000 according to UNESCO’s EFA Assessment Report (2000). The issue of bilingual
teaching makes teaching literacy even more difficult. If children do not speak Portuguese at home and are
taught solely in Portuguese they are less likely to learn effectively and can lead to increased student
dropout rates. The Ministry of Education is aware of this problem and is working to develop more
resources and bilingual texts for EP1s. In regards to other textbooks, the Ministry of Education omitted
fees for primary school textbooks in 2004. However, there are often hidden costs, issues with geographic
distribution of materials, and lack of up-to-date texts.
As reported by the IRC’s Healing Classrooms Initiative, when a child can learn in a safe
environment they are more likely to stay in school and not drop out (IRC, 2006). Because many of the
primary schools in Mozambique are lacking resources, including learning materials, latrines and potable
drinking water, children are less inclined to want to remain in school. These poor conditions are an
indication of poor management of funds to and within the education sector, resulting in poor learning
environments for children, leading to high dropout rates. Fortunately, one of the objectives within the
PEE is to better the physical conditions of schools in general. These physical improvements include
construction, furniture, latrines, water, sports fields, and trees as well as school books and didactic
materials (Ministry of Education, 2012). However, the PEE does not place particular emphasis on these
resources or materials for students and teachers. Within the logical framework to provide universal
primary education to youth new materials are not even mentioned. The only objective where materials
were mentioned was to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of already available resources (Ministry
of Education, 2012).
3.5. Urban/rural disparity
The majority of Mozambique is rural (69%) and urban centers are highly centralized around provincial
and national capitals (World Bank, 2013). Primary schools within and surrounding capitals are better
equipped with resources and materials than those located in rural areas of the Mozambique. In general,
better social services are offered in cities due to the high population density (IMF, 2011). Unfortunately,
with few resources, the primary schools suffer and in turn so do the learning outcomes of the students.
Data provided by SACMEQ (2000) show that student achievement outcomes for reading also reflect the
lowest outcomes in isolated rural areas, slightly better in small towns, and the highest in large cities. For
more information on SACMEQ data, see Table 1.3 and Table 1.4 in Appendix D.
In addition to urban/rural disparities within each of the provinces, there tend to be trends of better
social services offered in the national capital, Maputo, located at the southern tip of Mozambique.
Communications are poor between the capital and more northern parts of the country due to a lack of
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 18 wireless infrastructure and roads. Outlined below in Table 4 are SACMEQ scores for reading and
mathematics for each province in Mozambique. In general, the farther north the province is from Maputo,
the lower the SACMEQ scores. These data indicate poor distribution of schools and trained teachers
throughout the country.
Another realization from this data is that SACMEQ III scores from 2007 are all lower than the
SACMEQ II scores from 2000. There were no major changes in funding between 2000 and 2007so this
dip in scores is likely due to the sudden change in nationwide curriculum in 2004.
Table 4: SACMEQ III student achievements by province (2000 & 2007)
Reading Mathematics
Province 2000 2007 2000 2007
Cabo Delgado 459.9 447.8 497.9 459.7
Niassa 453.8 440.7 488.2 444.7
Nampula 533.8 461.0 539.2 472.1
Zambezia 513.8 469.6 516.7 477.9
Tete 488.1 426.9 510.7 454.6
Manica 511.5 465.8 543.4 482.9
Sofala 512.9 454.2 522.5 471.5
Inhambane 507.8 498.3 540.9 505.7
Gaza 504.0 478.1 525.7 503.9
Maputo (province) 529.6 511.1 534.7 508.8
Maputo (city) 549.1 540.2 546.5 512.2
Mozambique (average) 516.7 476.0 530.0 483.8
SACMEQ (average) 500.0 512.0 500.0 510.0
Note: Mozambique first participated in SACMEQ II in 2000 and then again in SACMEQ III in 2007. Source: SACMEQ, 2010 &, 2013
3.6. Inadequate teacher workforce
One of the biggest problems with literacy instruction for primary school is the teachers. Issues include
weak selectivity processes and qualifications for teachers, the number of teachers trained, and the
distribution of teachers.
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 19 3.6.1. Teacher qualification and quality of teachers
The majority of trained teachers for lower primary schools never attended secondary school (Passos,
2005). Before a policy shift in 2007, a student could attend a three year professional training program
upon completing primary school and be technically qualified for primary school instruction. That is,
seven years education plus three years training. Other options for speedy certification were to receive only
four years of education plus four years training or six years of education and one year of training. Post-
2007, a student must first finish the first cycle of secondary school, ESG1 (grades 8-10) before attending
a two year teacher training program in order to become a primary school teacher. A tertiary level of
teacher training institute, an IFP (Instituto Formação de Professores), is more rigorous and designed for
training secondary school teachers. For a visual example of the education system, see Figure 1.3 in
Appendix B.
The quality of the curriculum is also an issue. Trained teachers are using the same curriculum that
has been in place since 2004. According to the Ministry of Education (2012), teachers in primary
education are using a “new” curriculum created in 2004. This curriculum is out of date and is
inappropriate for recent economic and social changes (Passos, 2005). This curriculum can no longer be
considered new and should be revised with a larger focus on reading and writing skills and outcomes. In
addition to the low standards of teacher training qualifications for primary school teachers, the number of
trained teachers is extremely low despite a steady increase in numbers.
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Trained teachers in primary education (% of total teachers)
Trained teachers in primary education, male (% of male teachers)
Trained teachers in primary education, female (% of female teachers)
Figure 5: Trained teachers in primary education as a percentage of the total
Source: World Bank, 2013
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 20
An indicator of quality education focuses on the amount of trained teachers as a percentage of
total teachers. Figure 5 above depicts a steady increase in trained teachers (as a % of total teachers) for
primary education. The increase for trained male teachers and trained female teachers is relatively equal,
but there are still fewer female teachers trained than male teachers. However, due to the sudden spike of
trained female teachers in 2006 there might have been a sudden push from MINED to train more female
teachers. Unfortunately, it looks like the push was short lived due to the sudden drop in numbers the
following year.
Figure 5 also looks at the percent of trained teachers for primary school in general. Below in
Table 5, similar data is disaggregated by EP1 and EP2. Section 3.2 regarding access to primary education
shows the increase of EP1s and EP2s with Figure 4. The same figure highlighted the fact that there are far
more EP1s in relation to EP2s. The number of total teachers below in Table 5 reflects that data as there
are far more EP1 teachers than EP2 teachers. Despite the growing number of teachers, the percentage of
those untrained has actually declined. This is evidence that the new teachers entering the workforce have
received some form of training. However, as mentioned earlier, this could be an indication that teacher
training outlets have become overly simplified in order to produce “trained” teachers at a faster pace. So
although there are more technically trained teachers, they might be adequately trained.
Table 5: Number of total teachers for EP1 and EP2 and the percent that are untrained
EP1 EP2
Year Total % untrained Total % untrained
2004 47,573 44 10,815 34
2005 46,821 42 11,279 32
2006 48,023 38 12,747 26
2007 53,964 40 15,350 26
2008 57,502 36 17,823 23
2009 62,174 32 19,688 21
2010 67,121 26 22,084 19
2011 70,448 21 23,149 17
The quality of teachers is very difficult to measure. The only way to measure this is by performing
classroom observations. This is the most effective way to determine that teachers have learned necessary
skills in their training and that they are properly demonstrating them in the classroom. However, if
observations are not conducted, whether it be by peer teachers, school administrators, or a third party,
Source: Ministry of Education, 2012
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 21 quality cannot be sufficiently measured. Additionally, if teachers are not properly trained and not properly
monitored there is a higher possibility of teacher absenteeism, resulting in an absolute lack of education
for students. “A recently published USAID-funded study on school effectiveness found that due to
teacher absenteeism, limited instructional time, and other factors negatively affecting educational quality,
Mozambican schools were limited to, on average, 30 days of actual instructional time per 193-day school
year in 2010” (USAID, 2013).
3.6.2. Lack of teachers
Despite an increase in primary school teachers, as seen above in Table 5, there are still not enough to
account for the continued influx of primary school students. As seen below in Figure 6, the increase in
primary school teachers is virtually
unnoticeable in relation to the
thousands of new students each
year, resulting in poor student-
teacher ratios.
In 2010, the average student-
teacher ratio for EP1 was 63:1 and
35:1 for EP2 resulting in an
overall 49:1 student-teacher ratio
for all primary schools (Ministry
of Education, 2012).
Unfortunately, according to
UNESCO (2011), the student-
teacher ratio worsened the
following year to 55:1. Student-
teacher ratios are extremely
important for student learning as
well as for teachers in order to
monitor progress of their students. For a first grade classroom of 55 students to have only one teacher
there are bound to be students that fall between the cracks, have poor learning outcomes, and eventually
drop-out of school.
0
1000000
2000000
3000000
4000000
5000000
6000000
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Primary education, teachers
Primary education, pupils
Figure 6: Primary school teacher to student ratio
Source: World Bank, 2013
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 22 3.7. Low student support
The lack of support from a child’s family or community can negatively affect whether or not the student
attends school. Instead of pursuing an education children are ushered into jobs to help make money for
their families. Children in the labor force is a widespread reality in Mozambique. In 2008, 28% of female
children ages 7-14 were employed and 27% of male children ages 7-14 were employed (World Bank,
2008). These youth are of primary school age, but instead some of them might be working fulltime and
unable to attend school and others might be able to attend part time. Overall, 13% of primary school-age
children are not in school (UNESCO, 2011). A high number of children in the labor force is an indication
of a poor economy and high poverty. Agriculture makes up a quarter of Mozambique’s GDP and employs
80% of the workforce where the majority are subsistence farmers (USAID, 2013). Combating constant
food insecurity, subsistence farmers often enlist the labor of their children to help with the family
business, subsequently endangering the child’s education (USAID, 2013). Without the support of their
families to receive an education children feel obligated to stay at home, work the land and miss an
opportunity for literacy education.
3.8. Lack of educational funding
There is a large percentage of
funding allocated to primary
education, but is it enough? Is it
being properly allocated? As stated
earlier in regards to poor governance
practices, if adequate funds are
appropriated, there are at risk to be
misused (IAACA, 2010). In Figure 7
on the right, data are provided
pertaining the distribution of public
expenditures per education level in
2006. For more information on
financial education indicators see
Table 1.4 and Figure 1.5 in Appendix
C.
56%
29%
14%
1%
pre-primary
primary
secondary
tertiary
unknown
Source: UNESCO, 2011
Figure 7: Distribution of public expenditure per level (%) in 2006
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 23 As seen on the above in Figure 7, there are no funds allocated to pre-primary education. The majority of
money is appointed to primary education, about half of that amount then to secondary school and less yet
for tertiary education. The 1% of unknown allocations is troubling and speaks to the corrupt misuse of
funds that was earlier mentioned. Now compare the 2006 data to the data for 2010 shown to the left in
Figure 8. There are two major
differences between the two
figures.
First, note the inclusion of
pre-primary education within the
primary education piece. Pre-
primary education is lumped
together with primary education in
terms of data as well as in the
PEE. Hopefully, after the Minister
of Education re-introduces pre-
primary education in 2014 there
will be another piece added to the
data pie. The current PEE does not
address pre-primary school as a
separate education system. Even
the goals for “(pre)-primary
school” state that all students will have the opportunity to attend seven years of schooling; these years do
not even include pre-primary. Despite pre-primary school being listed as one of the focuses of PEE, it is
still combined under the primary school umbrella. Of course, the data for the 2012 PEE was collected in
2010, prior to the Minister of Education making the declaration to re-introduce pre-primary education in
2012.
Second, principle educational programs have been added to the estimated education costs, largely
decreasing the percent of funds allocated to secondary education (29% in 2006 and 17.8% in 2010).
However, adding literacy, adult education, technical and profession education to the education costs is
beneficial for the Mozambican education sector and economy. Aligned with President Guebuza’s plan to
create jobs in 2013, providing technical and professional education will help create trained professionals
for new jobs.
In addition to the percentages spent on specific levels within the education sector, Table 6 below
maps out the financial forecasts for Mozambique’s education sector that include internal and external
56.7 1.4
17.8
3.4
13.6
pre-primary & primary
literacy & adult education
secondary
technical & professional
tertiary
Source: Ministry of Education, 2012
Figure 8: Estimated costs (%) by education level and for principle programs in 2010
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 24 sources. Educational resources are projected to continue to increase by an average US$130 million each
year. There is also a trend of Mozambique taking more ownership over the funds by using more of their
internal revenue and decreasing the percent borrowed from external sources. This shows evidence of a
growing economy as more funds become available as well as an initiative on behalf of MINED to take
accountability for their educational progress.
Table 6: Financial forecasts based on budget and execution of education funds 2010-2011
Projections (US$ millions)
Indicator 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Education resources 852.70 1,014.51 1,125.30 1,247.46 1,381.85
Internal source 740.00 840.13 969.18
External source 179.56 174.38 156.12
External as a % of total 20% 17% 14%
Source: Ministry of Education, 2012
The financial support and forecasts for future years are moving in the right direction toward improving
the quality of primary education. Unfortunately, the impact of literacy programs become evident many
years after implementation making it difficult to measure. Fortunately, the Government of Mozambique is
moving steadily in the right direction to improve literacy in the primary education system.
4. DONOR INVOLVEMENT ANALYSIS
Evident in the development field, there are numerous bilateral and multilateral donors that give to various
recipients for a variety of reasons. This section looks at Mozambique’s top ten donors of gross ODA as
well as a handful of projects and programs implemented in the education sector by bilateral and
multilateral donors within the last ten years.
4.1. Donors
According to OECD (2013), the United States is the largest provider of ODA to Mozambique. As seen
below in Table 7, the average gross ODA by the United States in 2010-2011 was US$332 million where
nearly 75% (US$247.55 million) was allocated to education, health and population. Unfortunately, OECD
does not provide information for ODA given solely to the education sector. The education sector is
combined with health and population sectors making it difficult to determine amounts allocated directly to
education. The amount of ODA designated by the United States to education, health and population
sectors is more than the total amount of ODA provided by Mozambique’ next largest donor, Portugal.
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 25 Table 7: Mozambique’s top ten donors of gross ODA and allocation to education* (2010-11 average)
Donor Total ODA
(US$ millions)
Amount allocated to
education*
(US$ millions)
Education* ODA as % of
total
United States 332 247.55 74.56
Portugal 170 10.42 6.12
EU Institutions 161 13.78 8.56
United Kingdom 148 20.19 13.64
Canada 106 85.30 80.47
Denmark 101 29.71 28.89
Sweden 97 1.16 1.18
Germany 89 45.06 50.63
Norway 79 5.7 7.22
Netherlands 39 13.13 33.67
Note: Donor disbursements by sector combine education allocations with health and population. Source: OECD, 2013
As seen above, some bilateral donors place more emphasis on funding education than others. The United
States and Canada allocated the greatest portion of their ODA to the education sector (74.56% and
80.47% respectively), when Portugal and Norway designated less than 8% to education (6.12% and
7.22% respectively) and Sweden allocated a mere 1.18%. These differences in ODA allocations depend
on a variety of factors including the emphasis a donor places on education in their own country or how
great the need is in the recipient country.
4.2. Donor-Funded Projects
As one of the poorest nations in the world, Mozambique is often on donor countries’ recipient lists. As
seen above in Table 7, bilateral donors Canada and the United States are biggest supporters of aid to
Mozambique’s education sector giving it the largest portion of their aid. Subsequently, Canada and the
United states are two countries that have offered bilateral project support for education programs focused
on literacy. These projects, and other donor involvement are listed below in Table 8. As shown below, the
most common modality of external assistance for education programs is project support. Overall, as
shown earlier in section 3.8, funds for education are slowly increasing and literacy rates, albeit gradually,
are improving.
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 26 Table 8: Donor involvement matrix for primary education in Mozambique
Donor Name of project/program Duration of project US$ amount Modality of external assistance
CIDA FASE 2009-2015 141 million Project support
UNICEF Child-Friendly Schools 2006-2011 N/A Project support
UNESCO Literacy Initiative for
Empowerment (LIFE)
2005-2015 N/A Project support
USAID Aprender a Ler
(EGRA+QIM)
2012-2016 7 million Project support
USAID Literacy Boost 2008-2010 N/A Project support
USAID Assitance to Basic Education
(ABE-LINK)
2009-2013 N/A Project support
World Bank EFA-FTI 2008-2010 79 million Project support
World Bank &
“cooperation
partners”*
Education Strategic Plan 2012-2016 161 million Program support
World Literacy Fund Livros Abertos 2012-2013 N/A Budget support
Note: The source of information for the Education Strategic Plan funds list donors as “The Mozambican Government’s cooperation partners, including the World Bank, have promised to disburse 161 million dollars…” (All Africa, 2011). Source: All Africa, 2011; FBO, 2012; Furtado, A., 2009; Save the Children, 2011; UNICEF, 2009; CIDA, 2013; World Bank, 2012; World Literacy Fund, 2013. The donor matrix above features only a select handful of some of the more recent and ongoing projects in
Mozambique. In fact, Mozambique has been the recipient of US$57.6 billion in international funding
from 1947-2013 from 50 different funding organizations ranging from project/program support, budget
support and pooled funds, having an impact on 20,028 projects (Aid Data, 2013). Of these projects, 780
were allocated to the education sector (level unspecified). For a more comprehensive donor matrix see
Table 1.7 in Appendix E. Note, due to a large number of projects, data has been cut down to show
projects from 2011 only. The full table, including all 780 education projects, is available upon request.
5. UNDERSERVERED AREAS OF EDUCATIONAL REVIEW
Eight major issues and key challenges with literacy education were outlined about in section 3, and many
are already being addressed (albeit slowly) by the Government of Mozambique. However, two issues in
the primary education system that are less emphasized in the PEE and PQG are 1) student retention and 2)
quality reading instruction.
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 27 The issue of student retention is far more complex than sheer access to education. As seen earlier,
just because enrollment rates have reached 90% does not mean that 90% of children are receiving an
education. There need to be changes with making classrooms safe and inviting learning environments;
and student-teacher ratios should be closer to 15:1 instead of 55:1. Students, especially in early primary
school years, need one-on-one attention and guidance to achieve the best learning outcomes.
Unfortunately, there are not enough teachers, so that brings in yet another dilemma involving the
distribution of teachers. There are fewer trained teachers available in rural areas where learning outcomes
are the lowest. One reason for this is that new teachers are less inclined to leave urban cities to live in
rural villages. Finally, one of the biggest (and most difficult to measure and address) variables of student
retention is community and family support. Because the increased access to primary education is
relatively new many parents are uneducated. Especially in small villages in rural Mozambique, it is
difficult for many people to see opportunities outside of their small farms and villages. With the creation
of new jobs, come more economic opportunities that will eventually trickle down to the most
impoverished levels to inspire families to send their children to succeed in school. Obtaining improved
student retention is not a linear process, but extremely multifaceted, with many contributing factors that
can help or hinder the chances of a student completing primary school.
The second underserved area of primary education is the provision of quality literacy instruction.
One intervention in particular that speaks to this issue is the USAID funded Aprender a Ler (or Learning
to Read) initiative. The overall objective of Aprender a Ler is to increase the quality and quantity of
reading instruction in grades 2 and 3 through early grade reading assessments (EGRA) and quality
instruction management (QIM). A series of intermediate results (IRs) and sub-IRs have already been
established (outlined below), each with a list of main activities, illustrative results, illustrative indicators
and targets and deliverables (USAID, 2012).
IR 1: QUALITY of reading instruction in grades 2-3 in target schools improved.
Sub IR 1.1: Improved in-service teacher training and coaching in reading instruction.
Sub IR 1.2: Availability of learning materials to students in teachers in grades 2-3
increased.
IR 2: QUANTITY of reading instruction in grades 2-3 in target schools increased.
Sub IR 2.1: Strengthened school and classroom management.
Alongside MINED and other implementing organizations, USAID is providing project support to build a
foundation of literacy and education for youth, focusing on students in grades 2-3 as aligned with their
USAID/Mozambique Country Assistance Strategy. Many stakeholders are also involved in the project,
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 28 including teachers, school administrators (and higher MINED officials), as well as students and their
families. This initiative works toward improving two more of the earlier addressed challenges: good
governance and teacher quality.
USAID’s Aprender a Ler is not the first implementation of EGRA strategies in developing
education sectors. USAID’s Education Strategy (2011) states that, “early grade reading competency is
critical for continued retention and success in future grades…Children who do not attain reading skills at
the primary level are on a lifetime trajectory of limited educational progress and therefore limited
economic and developmental opportunity” (p. 9). In a partnership with the RTI and other implementing
organizations, USAID has provided support for numerous EGRA initiatives including, but not limited to
the following:
1. EGRA Project (2007-2010) in Nicaragua;
2. Girls’ Improved Learning Outcomes (GILO) (2009-2012) in Egypt;
3. EGRA Plus (2008-2010) in Liberia;
4. EGRA 2010 in Ethiopia; and
5. Teacher Professional Development Systems (2009-2013) in Malawi.
It appears as though this growing trend of early grade reading assessments is molding EGRAs into a “best
practice” for current USAID literacy interventions. Because these projects are still relatively new, data
and monitoring outcomes are not yet available. Despite being a “best practice” for USAID and the
cooperating partners, each implementation of EGRA is molded to specifically fit the context of the each
recipient country. In Egypt, the focus is on girls with regards to improving syllable reading, word reading
and oral reading fluency (Global Partnership, 2011); in Ethiopia, eight different languages were assessed,
and interventions encouraged reading, review of in-service teacher development, and creation of literacy
benchmarks (USAID, 2010); and in Malawi the plan was to focus on teachers, basic reading and math
skills, and updating old textbooks (RTI, 2013). According to RTI (2011) the EGRA tools have been
adapted as national reading diagnostics in Nicaragua and Senegal, to gauge program effectiveness in
South Africa and Mali, for continuous assessment in Liberia, and to investigate language-of-instruction
policy in East Africa. As the case with using any “best practice” or policy borrowing and lending,
limitations exist and each policy must adapt to the given context to achieve maximum results, in this case
– improved learning outcomes for primary school students in Mozambique.
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 29 6.0 IS PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION NECESSARY?
Initially, the extent of my knowledge of literacy instruction was based on what I had learned as a
Jumpstart Corps Member. I was taught the basic language and literacy domains and their
corresponding skills. What Methods and Materials for Literacy Instruction taught me were the
specific tools in which to teach these literacy skills. Although Jumpstart works in introducing
literacy skills in preschools, I have begun to question whether or not this is even necessary at
such a young age.
Based on my assessment and observations of my focal student, I will call her Ariel, and
her level of advanced comprehension I have started to rethink my previous assumptions. Ariel is
four years old and attends Columbia Greenhouse Nursery School, located at 424 W 166th St in
Manhattan, New York. This school is one of America’s oldest nursery schools working as an
independent, non-profit, nonsectarian early childhood school.
Classes are focused on child centered play based on Reggio practices. Reggio methods do
not include direct literacy instruction (i.e. studying the alphabet). The literacy component
consists of reading, conversations, story-telling and dictation. Students are exposed to an
environment where they can interact with literacy without having a “word of the day” or “letter
of the day” to study and practice. “Many children in contemporary centers and schools are
pushed to become school learners instead of players, artists, talkers, loners, or friends with a
diversity of backgrounds and interests” (Genishi & Dyson, 2009, p. 7), but there is less pressure
on step by step methods at Columbia Greenhouse. Children are not narrowly defined as
“readers” but as individual persons with unique interests and speeds of learning (Genishi &
Dyson, 2009). At Columbia Greenhouse, I observed lessons in a 3/4s classroom of 14 students
taught by Paula Doerfel and her two assistant teachers, Kathleen and Erica.
The literacy process begins immediately and “learning proceeds from the known to the
new” (Taberski, 2000, p. 3). This premise is what fuels Jumpstart to emphasize vocabulary,
comprehension, alphabet knowledge, meaning and use of print, phonemic awareness, and means
and use of print. However, the program is used for low-income schools where students might not
have access to literacy outside of the school environment. “Children use their own experiences
and background knowledge to figure out words and comprehend text” (Taberski, 2000, p. 3). My
experience with four year-olds through Jumpstart was different than those at the more affluent
Columbia Greenhouse Nursery School. I have always believed that children worldwide should
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 30 have equal access to a quality education despite their socio-economic backgrounds, but should
the content differ?
One of the biggest themes in learning about literacy instruction has been that every
student is different. Each individual draws on their own experiences and learns at their own pace.
And therefore, “[w]hat you learn is associated with how you learn” (Fitzgerald, 1999, p. 103). I
strongly agree that there are various skill levels and reading abilities of students in a given
classroom. This is essential when designing literacy materials for different audiences of various
cultures and backgrounds to maximize the learner’s comprehension. Children learn from a
multitude of sources whether it be from teachers, parents, peers, TV, other adults, etc (Dyson,
1990 & Fitzgerald, 1999). If, for example, a student does not have access to literacy practices in
their home, as most often the case in Mozambique, perhaps tools should be developed to
incorporate more literacy instruction within their classroom. Is direct alphabet instruction and
phonemic awareness taught for lower income preschools relative to more affluent preschools?
In the case of my focal student, Ariel, she was immersed in literacy inside and outside the
classroom. She is a trilingual student with open access to the library and her mother reads to her
regularly. From her family she has been taught the importance of print and is excited about
books. She excels in school despite not having direct alphabet or phonics instruction. However,
what does this say for students that are not exposed to literacy outside of school. Would they be
able to perform at the same level Ariel without the supplemental support of their families and
communities?
As seen throughout this paper, I have conducted in-depth research on low learning
outcomes in primary schools in Mozambique. There remain high drop-out rates, low completion
rates, and poor reading scores within the primary education subsector throughout the country.
Mozambique currently ranks among the lowest countries in the world on the Human
Development Index and suffers from chronic poverty. Many students in the country are without
access to books and learning resources. I have argued in the past that these primary school
students would greatly benefit from a pre-primary school education to better prepare them for
primary school, something that does not currently exist. School readiness would include alphabet
and phonics instruction, but also critical thinking and problem solving components.
It is difficult to prescribe necessary practices for preschool based on my findings of one
student, but it has made me more aware of what is actually learned in preschools. The more
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 31 students are exposed to reading and writing, the higher the chance they will become literate
individuals. However, in regards to needing direct alphabet and phonics instruction, it is unclear.
Just like each student, each preschool is different and in turn the curriculum should be designed
to best fit their students. This is information that I can take with me in my future endeavors if
faced with the opportunity to help develop curriculum for a pre-primary education system in
developing countries.
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 32 REFERENCES
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A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 36
APPENDIX A
Human Development Indicators
Table 1.1: Mozambique Human Development Indicators
Human Development Index Ranking 185
Health Life expectancy at birth (years) 50.7
Education Mean years of schooling (of adults) (years) 1.2
Income GNI per capita in PPP terms (constant 2005 international $) (Constant
2005 international $) 906
Inequality Inequality-adjusted HDI value 0.220
Poverty MPI: Multidimensional poverty index (%) 0.512
Gender GII: Gender Inequality Index, value 0.582
Sustainability Carbon dioxide emissions per capita (tonnes) 0.1
Demography Population, total both sexes (thousands) 24,474.2
Composite indices Non-income HDI value 0.327
Innovation and technology Fixed and mobile telephones subscribers per 100 people (per 100
people) 31.3
Trade, economy and income Income index 0.325
Source: UNDP, 2013b
Source: UNDP, 2013b
Figure 1.1: Human Development Index: Trends 1980-present
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 37 Figure 1.2: Human Development Index: Health, Education and Income
Source: UNDP, 2013b
Table 1.2: Gender-related development index
Gender-related
development
index (GDI)
Life expectancy
at birth
(years)
2005
Adult literacy
rate
(% aged 15 and
older)
1995-2005
Combined gross
enrolment ratio
for primary,
secondary and
tertiary education
(%)
2005
Estimated earned
income
(PPP US$)
2005
HDI
rank
minus
GDI
rank HDI
rank Rank Value Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male
172 Mozambique 150 0.373 43.6 52.0 25.0 54.8 48 58 1,115 1,378 2
Source: UNDP, 2008
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 38
APPENDIX B
The Mozambican school system
Figure 1.3: School system from preschool to higher education
Source: Passos, 2009, p. 17
Figure 1.4: Levels of management and responsibility in the Ministry of Education and Culture
`
Source (adapted): Passos, 2009, p. 21
Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC)
National Directorates
Provincial Directorates
District Directorates
Schools
Minister, Vice Ministers and Permanent Secretary
National Director
Provincial Director
District Director
School Director
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 39 Table 1.3: ISCED levels compared to Mozambican school system
Age
ISCED Level
Mozambican Education System
1
0 – Early childhood education
Créche (day care center) 2
3
4
5 Kindergarten
6
7
1 – Primary education
Lower primary
Elementary vocational
training
8
9
10
Upper primary 11
12
13
14
2 – Lower secondary education Lower secondary
education Teacher training Basic vocational training 15
16
17 3 – Upper secondary education
Upper secondary/pre-
university Teacher training Vocational training
18
N/A 4 – Post-secondary non-tertiary education N/A
N/A 5 – Short-cycle tertiary education N/A
N/A 6 – Bachelor’s or equivalent level Higher education/Teacher training
N/A 7 – Master’s or equivalent level N/A
N/A 8 – Doctoral or equivalent level N/A
Source (adapted): Passos, 2009, p. 17
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 40
APPENDIX C
Financial Education Indicators
Table 1.4: Financial education indicators
Education Indicators 2004 2005 2006 2007
Education share of recurrent budget (%) 26 --- 26 --- Public education expenditure as a % of GDP 4.5 5.2 5.0 6.0 Share of primary education in recurrent education budget (%) 70 --- 56 51 ---: Data not available Source: EPDC, 2012 Figure 1.5: Mozambique adjusted savings: education expenditure (current US$ in millions) 1989-2011
Source: World Bank, 2013
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
1989
19
92
1995
19
98
2001
20
04
2007
20
10
Adjusted savings: education expenditure (current US$ in millions)
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 41
APPENDIX D
SACMEQ Indicators
Table 1.5: Percentage of Grade 6 pupils at each reading level
Level 1 Pre Reading 2.3%
Level 2 Emergent Reading 3.9%
Level 3 Basic Reading 11.2%
Level 4 Reading for Meaning 28.8%
Level 5 Interpretive Reading 32.7%
Level 6 Inferential Reading 16.1%
Level 7 Analytical Reading 5.0%
Level 8 Critical Reading 0.1%
Source: SACMEQ II, 2000
Table 1.6: SACMEQ II indicators for Mozambique
PUPIL PERFORMANCE ON ALL ITEMS
SACMEQ II READING MATHEMATICS
REGION MEAN SE MEAN SE
CABO DELGADO 459.9 8.18 497.9 6.29
GAZA 504.0 12.02 525.7 7.66
INHAMBANE 507.8 7.40 540.9 11.85
MAPUTO CITY 549.1 5.46 546.5 3.64
MANICA 511.5 7.00 543.4 6.30
MAPUTO PROVINCE 529.6 7.66 534.7 7.05
NAMPULA 533.8 5.78 539.2 4.85
NIASSA 453.8 6.12 488.2 3.95
SOFALA 512.9 5.28 522.5 4.83
TETE 488.1 6.77 510.7 4.86
ZAMBESIA 513.8 5.97 516.7 5.92
MOZAMBIQUE 516.7 2.29 530.0 2.08
SUB-GROUPS READING MATHEMATICS
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 42
MEAN SE MEAN SE
GENDER
BOYS 518.4 2.59 537.0 2.09
GIRLS 514.1 2.60 519.5 2.80
SOCIO- ECONOMIC LEVEL
LOW SES 510.5 2.77 527.5 2.25
HIGH SES 523.0 2.68 532.6 2.66
SCHOOL LOCATION
ISOLATED/RURAL 502.3 5.93 524.0 6.32
SMALL TOWN 510.5 3.73 527.5 2.70
LARGE CITY 533.3 4.22 536.7 3.26
MOZAMBIQUE 516.7 2.29 530.0 2.08 Source: SACMEQ, 2000
Table 1.7: SACMEQ II indicators for Mozambique
Pupil performance
Region Reading Mathematics
Mean SE Mean SE
Cabo Delgado 447.8 6.27 459.7 4.78
Gaza 487.1 9.93 503.9 13.25
Inhambane 498.3 9.76 505.7 5.61
Maputo City 540.2 13.08 512.2 7.15
Manica 465.8 7.54 482.9 8.76
Maputo Province 511.1 7.9 508.8 5.4
Nampula 461 7.76 472.1 5.96
Niassa 440.7 3.96 444.7 2.66
Sofala 454.2 7.67 471.5 6.38
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 43
Tete 426.9 5.5 454.6 5.92
Zambesia 469.6 7.62 477.9 6.83
MOZAMBIQUE 476 2.82 483.8 2.29
Pupil performance
Reading Mathematics
Sub-groups Mean SE Mean SE
Pupil gender
Boys 478.4 2.85 488.2 2.36
Girls 473.2 3.48 478.6 3.22
School location
Rural 457.7 3.63 477.6 4.39
Urban 486.7 3.67 487.5 2.59
Socioeconomic level
Low SES (Bottom 25%) 452.1 3.61 470.8 4.17
High SES (Top 25%) 522.8 4.81 510.8 3.31
Source: SACMEQ, 2013
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 44
APPENDIX E
Comprehensive Donor Matrix
Table 1.8: Comprehensive donor matrix for general education projects
Year Organization Commitments US$ Project Title
2011 Belgium 1,390,434 PHASE Mozambique - EFTP
2011 Ireland 231,855 Niassa Program Expenditure
2011 Italy 156,215 FASE
2011 Finland 813,174 Improving teaching quality in Manica Province
2011 Austria 363 Small-scale commitments aggregated by sector and recipient
2011 Canada 227,480 Partnership for Advancing Human Development
2011 Finland 29,939 Nampula Teacher Training College
2011 Finland 19,466,073 Support to Education Sector
2011 Austria 28,541 IT-training at schools in three districts in South Sofala.
2011 Austria 295,769 Inclusive education for children with special needs
2011 Portugal 703,560 Support to technical vocational education
2011 Germany 7,635 Education policy and administrative management
2011 Spain 4,867 Future elementary school teachers training support
2011 Japan 118,259 The Project for Chibabel Primary School Construction
2011 France 351,585 Actions dans le domaine du Français
2011 Ireland 3,775 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Ireland 2,316 Education facilities and training
2011 Ireland 4,238 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Ireland 3,621 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Ireland 3,775 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Spain 68,826 Vocational training for post-secondary
2011 Spain 44,772 Teachers training in languages teaching
2011 Canada 682,439 Partnership for Advancing Human Development
2011 Japan 103,279 The Project for Construction of Lili Primary School
2011 United Arab Emirates 285,992 Schools annual budget
2011 Portugal 5,807,842 Portuguese School in Maputo
2011 Ireland 3,621 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Ireland 3,621 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Ireland 3,621 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Ireland 4,442,436 FASE Activity Support
2011 Spain 40,323 Action for technological food center
2011 Japan 104,867 The Project for Expansion of Estrela do Mar Vocational School
2011 Ireland 3,775 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Germany 135,976 Capacity Building for Strengthening of Good Financial Governance
2011 Germany 126,625 Education policy and administrative management
2011 Spain 9,152 Improving the educational situation of Meconta
2011 Spain 2,782 Future elementary school teachers training support
2011 Denmark 1,888,665 No Title
2011 Spain 86,763 Strengthening maths and statistics
A SHIFT IN POLICY FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE 45
2011 Italy 605 Support to vocational training and job creation
2011 WORLD BANK 1,420,000 MZ-Education Sector Support Program
2011 Japan 59,972 The project for Construction of Vunduzi Primary School
2011 Ireland 3,621 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Ireland 3,621 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Spain 52,614 Improvement of the education quality with creation of multipurpose room.
2011 Spain 51,523 Digital library project for the distance education center
2011 United Nations 1,000,000 Support to school readiness
2011 Finland 37,055 Mozambique Deaf Education Development Project, Phase II
2011 Germany 1,234 Education policy and administrative management
2011 United Nations 12,511 Support to PRS/MTEF and Education sector plans
2011 Ireland 3,621 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Ireland 2,486 Education facilities and training fellowship
2011 Italy 239,155 Reception and training of at-risk girls
2011 Spain 3,337 Graduate grants support
2011 France 115,139 Expertise technique dans le domaine de l'éducation
2011 Ireland 3,621 Education policy and administrative management salaries
2011 Italy 5,348 Italian-Mozambican University Cooperation
2011 United Nations 482,813 Staff costs (includes specialists, managers, TAs and consultancies)
2011 Italy 5,348 Italian-Mozambican University Cooperation
2011 Portugal 13,904 Design and Technical Training and Human Capacity Building
2011 Canada 113,740 Partnership for Advancing Human Development
2011 World Bank 26,270,000 MZ-Education Sector Support Program
2011 Germany 20,468 Education policy and administrative management
2011 Ireland 26,463 Assist Mozambican DoE establish high quality education facilities and training
2011 United Kingdom 135,551 Global Engaging Teaching
2011 Spain 13,904 Improving the security conditions in the Primary education School
2011 Spain 2,780,868 Sectorial budgetary support
2011 Italy 1,390,434 FASE support
2011 Ireland 785,595 Education policy and administrative management support
2011 United Kingdom 322,372 Global International Inspiration
2011 Germany 653,504 Program for Basic and Technical Education and Vocational Training
2011 Norway 514,220 Education - Mozambique
2011 Canada 492,872 Partnership for Advancing Human Development
2011 Japan 105,856 The Project for Renovation of Vinte Cinco de Junho Primary School
Source: Aid Data, 2013