a short history: vacuum in the 17th century … corner_vacuum in the...history corner a short...

40 SVC BULLETIN I SPRING 2017

Vacuum as defined as a space with nothing in it (“perfect vacuum”) was debated by the early Greek philosophers. The saying “Nature abhors a vacuum” (horror vacui) is gener-ally attributed to Aristotle (Athens ~350 BC). Aristotle argued that vacuum was logically impossible. Plato (Aristotle’s teach-er) argued against there being such a thing as a vacuum since “nothing” cannot be said to exist. Hero (Heron) of Alexandria (Roman Egypt) attempted using experimental techniques to create a vacuum (~50 AD) but his attempts failed although he did invent the first steam engine (“Heron’s steam engine”) and “Heron’s fountain,” often used in teaching hydraulics. Hero wrote extensively about siphons in his book Pneumatica and noted that there was a maximum height to which a siphon can “lift” water.

The 17th century was the beginning of the era of scientific experimentation. Of the six major scientific instruments de-veloped in the 17th century (telescope, microscope, pen-dulum clock, thermometer, air pump {vacuum pump}, and barometer) only the telescope and air pump challenged the dogma of the Roman Catholic Church (God would never cre-ate “nothing”). Natural philosophy (science) was based on the teachings of Aristotle, a “plenist” who believed a vacuum cannot exist in nature. The “plenists” were aligned against the “vacuists,” who did believe in the existence of a vacuum[1].

There have been a number of reviews of the history of vac-uumtechnology[2–4]butlittleaboutexperimentsperformedin early vacuum environments[5].

Early Vacuum EquipmentThe early period of vacuum technology may be taken as the 1640s to the 1850s. In the 1850s, invention of the platinum-to-metal seal and improved vacuum pumping technology al-lowed the beginning of widespread studies of glow discharges using “Geissler tubes”[6]. Invention of the incandescent lamp in the 1850s provided the incentive for development of indus-trial scale vacuum technology[7].

Single-stroke Mercury-piston Vacuum PumpIt was the latter part of 1641 that Gasparo Berti demonstrated his water manometer, which consisted of a lead pipe about 10 meters tall with a glass flask cemented to the top of the pipe while the bottom of the pipe was immersed in a barrel of wa-ter{pp.10–18[8]}.Therewasawaterreservoirwithavalvethatwas attached near the base of the flask. Access to the flask was through a sealed port on top of the globe. To operate the manometer, a valve was closed at the bottom of the pipe, the pipe was filled from the reservoir, the valve at the reservoir was closed, and the valve at the bottom was opened. The wa-ter level fell to the height dictated by the difference in pres-sure between that in the flask and the atmospherea. The bot-tom valve was then closed and the water level was measured through the port at the top of the flask.

hisTorYcornerA SHORT HISTORY: VaCuum in the 17th Century and onward THE BEGINNING OF EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES

aBerti’s technique left some air in the flask so that the pressure differential was not really the atmospheric pressure. Later investigators made true “water barometers.” For example, O. von Guericke made a water barometer with a glass pipe and had a mannequin floating on the water with a finger pointing at a scale on the glass tube (c. 1654) {fig. 1, p. 31[4]}.

donald M. Mattox, Management plus Inc., Albuquerque, N.M.

SVC.Bulletin.Spring2017.indd 40 3/20/17 5:10 PM

SVC BULLETIN I SPRING 2017 41

Evangelista Torricelli, an associate of Galileo utilizing mer-cury rather than water in the manometer, demonstrated his famous mercury manometer (~1 meter tall) instrument in 1644 {pp.19-32[8]}. The Torricelli manometer was made by filling a closed-end glass tube with mercury, closing the open end (usually with a finger), and up-ending the tube into a mercury pool—the mercury in the tube fell to a level dictated by the am-bient atmospheric pressure leaving a “Torricelli vacuum” in the tube above the mercury. Torricelli is generally credited with the invention of the barometerb to measure atmospheric pressure. The pressure unit Torr (1 mm Hg) is named after Torricelli.

For about 200 years, the Torricelli vacuum, using well-cleaned glass and distilled mer-cury, was considered the best vacuum that could be attained in the laboratory. Emanuel Swedenborg developed the first multi-stroke mercury-piston pump in 1722[9]. The multi-stroke mercury-piston pumps could not attain as good a vacuum as the Torricelli vacuum until after the development of the Geissler/Toepler pump (1862) and the Sprengel pump (1865)[9].

Multi-stroke Mechanical Piston PumpsIn the mid-1640s, Ottonis von Guericke made the first mechanical solid piston/cylinder-type vacuum pump (which he called “air pumps”) patterned after the water pumps that had been used for many years to remove water from mines and to provide water pressure for fire hoses.

The first air pumps of von Guericke were immersed in water to provide “sealing”—this was a common technique for the water pumps of the time {fig. 2[2]}. The first attempt by von Guericke to generate a vacuum was by pumping water from a wooden barrel. Of course, the barrel/chamber leaked badly so von Guericke made a cham-ber out of copper. As the vacuum was generated, the copper chamber collapsed from the atmospheric pressure. Von Guer-icke then made a globe-shaped iron chamber, which he used for his famous Magdeberg hemispheres demonstration for the King of Prussia in 1654[10]. Figure 1 shows a later version of von Guericke’s pump.

Gaspar Schott described Guericke’s pump in his Mechanica Hydraulica-Pneumatica in 1657. This really introduced the piston-type vacuum pump to the scientific world[11]. R. Boyle and his associate/instrument-maker Robert Hooke (1660) in England[12] and then Christiaan Huygens and his associ-ate/instrument maker Denis Papin (1661) in Holland[13] im-proved on von Guericke’s piston design. They both initially used globe-shaped glass vacuum chambers cemented to the piston pump, as did von Guericke.

Boyle gave a detailed description of the construction of the Boyle/Hooke piston air pump (he called it a “sucker”) (Fig. 2). Due to the craftsmanship of Robert Hooke, he did not need to immerse the pump in water as shown in Fig. 2[12]. In 1663, C. Huygens used a flat baseplate to which a bell jar could be bonded {fig. 18, p. 268[1]} as did Boyle in 1665. The first dou-ble-cylinder “continuous” mechanical piston air pump was made by Boyle based on a design by Denis Papin in 1682[2].

A great deal of controversy and technical details were built around the seal between the solid piston and the cylinder and about leaks in general[14]. The mechanical solid piston vac-uum pump comprised the bulk of vacuum pumping technol-ogy for 200 years although work was continuing on mercury piston pumps[9]. By the 1850s, the mechanical solid piston pumps could achieve about 1 Torr (~133 Pa) although there was no good way to measure vacuums that low until the in-vention of the McLeod gauge in 1874.

bThe term “barometer” as applied to a manometer with the open end (mercury cistern) at atmospheric pressure is attributed to Robert Boyle (1663) by Middleton {p. 71[8]}.

Fig. 1—O. von Guericke pump of 1664 from {fig. 21, p. 279[1]}. Courtesy of Cambridge Univer-sity Library.

Fig. 2—Boyle’s first vacuum pump (1660) {p.156[12]}.



Mercurial “High-vacuum” Pumps[9]In 1855, Geissler improved the multi-stroke column-type mer-cury piston pump using a 3-way manual valve. Geissler also invented the Pt-to-glass seal, which allowed glow discharge tubes (Geissler tubes) to be made. By 1862, Toepler reported on an improved Geissler pump (Geissler/Toepler pump) using a mercury “cut-off” valve. In 1865, Sprengel reported using drops of mercury moving through a “fall tube” to generate a high vacuum. The Geissler/Toepler pump for rough pumping along with a bank of Sprengel pumps became the laboratory/industry high vacuum pumping system[15,16].

In the late 1800s, advancements in mercurial pumps were instrumental in producing incandescent lamps as well as the discovery of X-rays (Roentgen, 1895) using a low-pressure Crookes glow discharge.

Early ExperimentsG. Berti tried to perform the bell-in-a-vacuum experiment in his water manometer to show that sound was not propagated in vacuum. The results were inconclusive, probably because he did not have a very good vacuum and due to the way the bell was mounted in the glass flask.

The first successful planned experiment in a vacuum was by Vincenzio Viviani in 1644. Viviani mounted a bell in a “Tor-ricelli vacuum” and showed that the ringing was muted in the vacuum. This convinced most scholars at that time that a vacuum had been created. In 1644, Torricelli stated, “We live submerged at the bottom of an ocean of the element air, that by unquestioned experiments is known to have weight” (excerpted from a letter by Torricelli to Michelangelo Ricci 1644)[17]. This was in contradiction to Galileo’s belief that air had no weight and therefore there was no such thing as “air pressure.” The effect of air pressure had been previously evidenced by the collapse of von Guericke’s copper vacuum chamber by atmospheric pressure in the late 1640s.

Prior to the 1640s, it was assumed that light had a wave nature and required a medium to be propagated. The obser-vation that light traveled through the Torricelli vacuum gave

credence to the old concept of an “aether,” which permeated all space, even a vacuum[18]. Boyle tried to find evidence of an “aether-wind” in a vacuum {fig. 8, p. 183[1]} but could not detect any such effect. The concept of “aether” lasted well into the 19th centuryc. The concept was ultimately refuted by theMichelson–Morleyexperimentson thespeedof lightin 1887.

In 1648, Blaise Pascal, who proposed the experiment (from Paris), and Florin Périer who actually climbed the Puy-de-Dôme mountain (1465 meters high) were the first to show that atmospheric pressure decreased with an increased height above the earth’s surface. Florin Périer found that the mercury column was 85 mm less in height on the top of the mountain (627 mm Hg) than at the monastery at the base of the mountain (711 mm Hg) (~1000 meters altitude difference) {p. 51[8]}.

In 1653, in “Traité de la Pesanteur de la Masse de l’Air,” Pas-cal wrote “…the mass of the air is more pressing at one time than at another, namely when more charged with vapours, or more compressed by the cold.” Von Guericke noted in 1660 that the height of the mercury column varied for different weather conditions and rightly foretold a storm by the drop in pressure[5]. Barometers for weather prediction were made in England on a commercial basis by the end of the 17th century. These observations opened the way to the weather “highs” and “lows” of pressure that we now observe and use for weather forecastingd,e. In the 1640s, Torricelli gave a de-scription of the cause of wind: “...winds are produced by dif-ferences of air temperature, and hence density, between two regions of the earth.”

The Torricelli vacuum was used for many years in vacuum experiments as shown in Fig. 3. In 1786, Benjamin Thompson (later Count Rumford) reported that heat was conducted more readily through air than through a vacuum. Thompson used both a pumped vacuum (1/4 and 1/64 of atmosphere) and a Torricelli vacuum giving a heat “conducting power” of 80¼, 78, and 55, respectively[19]. The Torricelli vacuum was used in experiments at least until 1798 when Count Rumford used a Torricelli vacuum in his heat conduction experiments[20].

hisTorYcorner

cJames Clerk Maxwell subscribed to the aether concept when he argued forcefully for the existence of the “luminiferous aether” in his 1861 elec-tromagnetic theory of light (“…that pervaded all space, even a vacuum, and allowed transmission of “waves”).

dToday most meteorologists use hectopascals (hPa) as the measure of pressure (1 hPa = 100 Pa = 0.75006 Torr).

eThe highest atmospheric pressure ever recorded (adjusted to sea level at ~1 hPa per 7.5 meters) was 1089.4 hPa in Tosontsengel, Mongolia (2004), which is 7% higher than the standard atmosphere. The lowest atmospheric pressure ever recorded was 870 hPa in the eye of Super Typhoon Tip (1979), which is 14% less than the standard atmosphere. It has been estimated that the pressure inside a tornado can be less than 20% of a standard atmosphere (G. Vatistas, et al., J. American Inst. Aeronautics and Astronautics, in press {from wattsupwiththat.com/2017/01/17/}).

Torricelli is generally credited with the invention of the barometer to measure atmospheric pres-sure. The pressure unit Torr (1 mm Hg) is named after Torricelli. For about 200 years, the Torricelli vacuum, using well-cleaned glass and distilled mercury, was considered the best vacuum that could be attained in the laboratory.



Boyle performed a number of experiments (43) in the vac-uum system as reported in 1660[12,17] including placing a Torricelli-type manometer in the glass belljar (Experiments 17–19).Themanometertubewastootallforthechamberso the tube extended out of the access port on top and was sealed with cement. The chamber was evacuated to ~¼ inch of mer-cury (6 Torr (800 Pa)). This was the first “vacuum system” with the experimental chamber separate from the vacuum pump-ing and with a vacuum gauge to measure the pressure in the chamber (“vacuum in a vacuum” experiment). See Fig. 4.

Several of Boyle’s experiments were on the effect of vacuum on living things (butterflies, mice, birds, snails, etc.) (Experi-ments 40 & 41). These were the first vacuum experiments on the effects of rarefied air on living things and essentially a study on high altitude physiological reactions[17,23]. In some cases, the subjects passed out but recovered; in other cases

they diedf. Snails didn’t seem to be affected by prolonged ex-posure in vacuum.

Boyle noted that there was a relationship between the pres-sure (P) and volume (V) (“spring of air”), which led to Boyle’s Law (i.e., PV = constant) that was published in 1662[24]. In 1679, the French physicist Edme Mariotte published the same relationship in De la nature de l’air independent of Boyle. Thus, this law is sometimes referred to as Mariotte’s Law or theBoyle–MariotteLaw.

Anne-Jean Robert and Nicolas-Louis Robert were the engi-neers who built the world’s first hydrogen balloon for Professor

fIn 1862, James Glaisher and Henry Coxwell reach an altitude of >29,000 feet and possibly 35,000 feet (stratosphere) in an open-basket balloon. Glaisher passed out and they both nearly died; http://scied.ucar.edu/docs/unconscious-stratosphere.

Fig. 3—Experiments using the Torricelli vacuum from Saggi di Naturali Esperienzi, Academia del Cimento (1667)[21] from {p. 78[2]}. 1a) Concentrated sunlight used to heat a ball of bitumen tar in a Torricellian vacuum that caused it to “smoke” and the smoke fell to the bottom of the chamber; 1b) inflation of a lamb’s bladder containing a trace of air.

Fig. 4—Boyle’s vacuum base plate with a glass bell jar and an Hg manometer (1665) from {p. 32[4] & p. 72[22]}.



Jacques Charles, which flew from central Paris on August 27, 1783. They went on to build the world’s first manned hydrogen balloon. On December 1, 1783, Robert accompanied Charles on a 2-hour, 5-minute flight. Their barometer and thermom-eter made it the first balloon flight to provide meteorological measurements of the atmosphere above the earth’s surface.

Von Guericke measured the weight of a container in vacuum with and without air in the container and found the weight change to be about 40 grams {p. 37[5]}g. Huygens also per-formed a similar experiment using air, vacuum, and water (1662) as did Schott (1664).

For much of early history, philosophers and scientists as-sumed Aristotle was correct in theorizing the heavier an object is, the faster it will fall. In 1705, Hauksbee showed that all objects fall at the same rate if you eliminate air resistance[25]. Boyle had also demonstrated the effect earlier.

In another experiment, Boyle demonstrated that there was a maximum height to which water could be raised by vacuum pumping. By standing on a roof 30 feet (9.14 m) above a res-ervoir of water and sucking up the water through a pipe with a vacuum pump, Boyle showed that there was a maximum height beyond which water could not be drawn up. Of course, this effect had been noted much earlier in studies on the use of siphons.

In 1705, Hauksbee showed that the capillary action of draw-ing a column of water up a narrow glass tube was the same in vacuum as in air[26].

Gay-Lussac’s Law (also known as Charles Law) (V/T = con-stant, where V is volume and T is temperature) was enunci-ated in 1802[27]h but had been experimentally observed by Guillaume Amontons in 1699[28].

“Anomalous Suspension” ExperimentIn 1662, C. Huygens placed a 4-foot water manometer tube in a vacuum chamber and evacuated the chamber. He reported that the column remained suspended. This was in contrast with the work of Boyle/Hooke. Huygens’ “anomalous suspen-sion” observation fueled the controversy between Boyle and Thomas Hobbes over the nature of “vacuum” and whether “artificial” experimentation was valid[1].

The difference in results may be attributed to outgassing of the water and the inability of the vacuum pump to achieve a good vacuum with water in the chamber[29]. In the case of the Boyle/Hooke experiment, the water was not outgassed but released dissolved air when the pressure was lowered. This created a pressure in the space above the water column that pushed the water down. In Huygens’ experiment, he out-

gassed the water beforehand and there was limited outgas-sing during pumping. The conclusion by M. Nauenberg[29] is that neither pump could achieve a low enough pressure, when pumping with water in the chamber, to cause the water column to drop below 4 feet (i.e., <100 Torr (<13300 Pa)).

Boyle’s experiments (1660) led to a confrontation with Hobbes who was a noted thinker at that time and a critic of experimentation in natural philosophy[1]. To Hobbes, natural philosophy should be based only on observations of things that occurred in nature, not experiments. That was the pre-dominant view of scientific thinking at that time. Both Boyle and Hobbes were looking for ways to establish scientific facts without political or secular influence (Galileo was convicted for heresy by the Roman papacy in 1633)i. In his 1600 book, Boyle goes to great length to detail the experimental proce-dures so that others could reproduce them, although the cus-tom of the time was to perform experiments with a number of witnesses present to verify the findings.

Hobbes attacked Boyle’s experiments as being unreliable due to both the vacuum pumping equipment and the intellec-tual integrity of the knowledge it yielded. Other primary crit-ics of the “vacuist” included the Cambridge “Platonist,” Henry Moore and the Jesuit, Franciscus Linus (who said that if there were a vacuum you wouldn’t be able to see through it)[1].

Glow Discharges In 1675, J. Picard noted a glow (“barometric glow,” “Picard’s Glow”) in the Torricelli vacuum above the mercury column in an agitated mercury barometer[30]. When pure mercury in a clean glass barometric tube is shaken, a band of glow exists on the glass at the meniscus of the mercury as the mercury moves downward. The cause is static charge buildup and dis-charge. If the glass is not clean, it was found to be impossible to initiate the glow.

In 1705, Francis Hauksbee used “frictional electricity” on the outside of an evacuated globe to generate a glow discharge in a vacuum that was intense enough “to read by”[31,32]. This was the first glow (gas) discharge tube[30]. Later, Hauksbee demonstrated a machine that produced frictional electricity in the vacuum[33]. Serious glow discharge studies began after 1850 when the hermetic Pt-glass seal was invented and better vacuum pumps had been developed[6].

Scientists used “frictional electricity” to study the chemistry in electric sparks and plasmas before 1800. After the invention of the voltaic battery in 1800 by A. Volta, the study of the chem-istry in electric arcs rapidly developed even though arc plasmas had been generated by batteries made from Leyden jars much earlier[34,35]. Using high voltages, plasmas could be generated at atmospheric pressure (e.g., dielectric barrier discharges[36]) and in below-atmospheric (“vacuum”) pressures.

hisTorYcorner

gOne cubic meter of air weighs about one kg. So this would be equivalent to about a 30 liter chamber—which is reasonable for von Guericke to have used (see Fig. 1).

hJacques Charles had made the same observation some years earlier but had not published it, so Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac gave him credit by naming the law after him.

iThe Roman papacy considered the concept of vacuum anathema and most early work on vacuum was done outside the Roman Pope’s domain (i.e., in the Reform countries and France where the French Pope had a different attitude).


Vacuum Arc MeltingIn 1839, Robert Hare described the first arc furnace that was used for arc melting of materials in vacuum and controlled at-mospheres[37]. The melting of calcium in vacuum would have resulted in the deposition of a calcium film on the chamber walls. Figure 5 shows Robert Hare’s “deflagrator”[38].

ConclusionUntil about 1850, experiments in vacuum were confined to laboratories and curious scientists. After 1850, the need for in-dustry to produce incandescent lamps was an important driv-ing force in advancing vacuum technology. The development of lower vacuums allowed the field of gaseous electronics to flourish. This led to development of vacuum coating process-es in the later 1800s.

References1. Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan Air-Pump; Hobbes,

Boyle, and the Experimental Life (with a new introduction by the au-thors), Princeton University Press, 1985.

2. A.N. da C. Andrade, The History of the Vacuum Pump, Adv. Vac. Sci. Tech-nol., 1,pp.14–20,1960;alsoinHistory of Vacuum Science and Technol-ogy, edit. by T.E. Madey and W.C. Brown, pp. 77-83, AVS/AIP, 1984.

3. T.E. Madey, Early Applications of Vacuum, from Aristotle to Langmuir, J. Vac. Sci. Technol.,A2,pp.100–117,1984;also inHistory of Vacuum Science and Technology,edit.byT.E.MadeyandW.C.Brown,pp.9–17AVS/AIP, 1984.

Fig. 5—Robert Hare’s 1839 “deflagrator”—the first controlled atmosphere arc melting furnace[37].

Equipment and Materials for Thin Film Deposition

Bonding Services

Evaporation Materials

Planar Sputtering Targets

Cylindrical Sputtering Targets

Plasma Treatment

Swing Cathode™

e-Cathode™

End Blocks

Magnetics

Process Materials Inc

TM

SPUTTERINGC O M P O N E N T S

processmaterials.com

sputteringcomponents.com



12. Robert Boyle, New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall (sic), Touching the Spring of Air, and its Effects (Made, for the most Part in a New Pneu-matical Engine) Written by Way of Letter To the Right Honorable Charles Lord Viscount of Dungarvan, Eldest Son to the Earl of Corke, University of Oxford (1660); also The Works of Robert Boyle, Part 1, Vol. 1 (General Introduction;TexturalNote;Publicationsto1660),pp.143–301,edit.by Michael Hunter and Edward B. Davis, Pickering & Chatto, 1999.

13.DisseminatingthePump:HollandandParis,pp.265–276in[1].14.ReplicationandItsTroubles:Air-pumpsinthe1660s,Ch.VI.pp.225–

282 in [1].15. Thomas A. Edison, U.S. Patent 248425, Apparatus for Producing High

Vacuums, (filed 29 Mar. 1880; published 18 Oct. 1881) (assigned to The Edison Electric Light Co.).

16. R.K. DeKosky, William Crookes and the Quest for Absolute Vacuum in the 1870s, Ann. Sci. 40, 1, 1983; also History of Vacuum Science and Technology, edit.byT.E.MadeyandW.C.Brown,pp.84–101,AVS/AIP,1984.

17. John B. West, Robert Boyle’s Landmark Book of 1600 with the First Ex-periments on Rarified Air, J. Appl. Physiol.,98,pp.31–39,January2005.

18. A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, Edmund Taylor Whit-taker, Longman, Green and Co., 1910.

19. Benjamin Thompson, New Experiments on Heat, Phil Trans. Royal Soc. (London),76,pp.273–304,1786.

20. Count Rumford, Essays, Vol. II, p. 393, 1798. 21. Saggi di Naturali Esperienze fatte nell’Accademia del Cimento (Essays

on Natural Experiments) Translated into English by Richard Waller (Essays of Natural Experiments: Made in the Academie del Cimento, Under the protection of the most Serene Prince Leopold of Tuscany) (1684), Academia del Cimento, 1667; http://www.imss.fi.it/biblio/es-aggi.html (Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence, Italy).

22. Robert Boyle, The Second Continuation of Physico-mechanical Ex-periments, in The Works of Robert Boyle,Vol. IV,pp.510–513,Plate2(iconismus) Fig. 1, p. 511 (London 1772) reproduced in part in History of Vacuum Science and Technology,pp.71–75,edit.byT.E.MadeyandW. C. Brown, AVS/AIP, 1984.

23. Paul Bert, La Pression Barométrique. Recherches de physiologie expéri-mentale Maisson, (1878); English translation by M.A. Hitchcock and F.A. Hitchcock, College Book, 1943.

24. Robert Boyle, A Defence of the Doctrine Touching the Spring and Weight of the Air, Propos’d by Mr. R. Boyle in his New Phyfico-Mechanical Experi-ments – Against the Objections of Franciscus Linus: by the Author of the Experiments,R.Boyle,Ch.V,pp.57–68,1662;alsoThe Works of Robert Boyle, Part I, Vol. 3, edit. by M. Hunter and E.B. Davis, Routledge, 1999.

25. F. Hauksbee, Bodies Falling in Vacuo, Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. (London), XXIV, p. 1946, 1705.

26. F. Hauksbee, An Account Made at Gresham-College, Shewing That the Seemingly Spontaneous Ascention (sic) of Water in Small Tubes Open at Both Ends is the Same in Vacuo as in the Open Air, Phil. Trans., 25, pp.1706–1707,1706.

27. Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac, Recherches sur la Dilatation des Gaz et des Vapeurs, Annales de chimie,XLIII(43)pp.137–175,lues à l’Institut National, le 11 pluvióse an 10, 1802.

28. G. Amontons, Moyen de Substituer Commodement l’action du Feu, a la Force des Hommes et des Cheveaux pour Mouvoir les Machines (Method of Substituting the Force of Fire for Horse and Man Power to Move Machines), Mémoires de l’Académie royale des sciences, in: Histoire de l’Académie Royale des sciences,pp.112–126,June1699.

29. M. Nauenberg, Solution of the Long-standing Puzzle of Huygens’ “Anomalous Suspension,” Arch. Hist. Exact Sci.,69(3)327–341,2015.

30. Jean Picard, Experience Fait à l’Observatoire sur la Barometre Simple Touchant un Nouveau Phenomene qu’on y a Découvert [Experiment

hisTorYcorner

((415) 619-9788 / www.protechmaterials.com

Serving the flat panel, webcoating, glass, optical, hardcoating and solar industries since 1997

Supporting volume production and new product development

Sputtering targets, planar and rotatable

Backing plates and tubes and bonding service

High purity evaporation materials

NEW-Magnetic Materials/Assemblies: SmCo, NdFeB, AlNiCo

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

4. P.A. Redhead, The Measurement of Vacuum Pressures, J. Vac. Science Technol. A2(2), pp. 132-138,1984; also History of Vacuum Science and Technology,edit.byT.E.MadeyandW.C.Brown,pp.31–37,AVS/AIP,1984.

5. M.J. Sparnaay, Adventures in Vacuums, North-Holland, NL, 1992.6. Sanborn C. Brown, Two Hundred Years B.C. (before the conference)

in Gaseous Electronics Some Applications, (five papers from the 25th GaseousElectronicsConference–1972)edit.byJ.Wm.McGownandP.K.John,pp.9–16,North-Holland,1974.

7. J.W. Howell and H. Schroeder, The History of the Incandescent Lamp, Magua Co., Schenectady, N.Y.,1927; http://www.archive.org/stream/historyofincande00howe/historyofincande00howe_djvu.txt.

8. W.E.K. Middleton, The History of the Barometer, Johns Hopkins Univer-sity Press, 1964.

9. Donald M. Mattox, The Role of Mercury in Vacuum and PVD Technolo-gy,pp.44–47,SVCBulletin, Society of Vacuum Coaters, Summer 2016.

10. Ottonis von Guericke, Experimenta Nova (ut Volantur) Magdeburgica de Vacuo Spatio, (New Experiment Powered by Vacuum Space), Am-stelodami (1672) (translated by Roger Sherman); also Otto von Guer-icke’s Account of the Magdeburg Hemispheres Experiment, p. 67 in History of Vacuum Science and Technology, edit. by T.E. Madey and W.C. Brown, AVS/AIP, 1984.

11. Gaspar Schott, Mechanica Hydraulico-pneuimatica, Wurzburg, Bavaria, 1657.



Made at the [Astronomical] Observatory [in Paris] on a Simple Ba-rometer Concerning a New Phenomenon that was Discovered There], Le Journal des Sçavans [later: Journal des Savants], page 112 (Paris edition) or page 126 (Amsterdam edition), 25 May 1676.

31. Francis Hauksbee, An Account of an Experiment Made before the Royal Society at Gresham College, Together with a Repetition of the Same, Touching the Production of a Considerable Light upon a Slight Attrition of the Hands on a Glass Globe Exhausted of Its Air: With Other Remarkable Occurrences, Phil.. Trans., 25,pp.2277–82,1706–7.

32. Francis Hauksbee and Stephen Gray, Part Three, Chapter VIII, pp. 229-237, in Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Mod-ern Physics, J.L. Heilbron, Univ. California Press, 1979.

33. Francis Hauksbee the Elder, Physico-Mechanical Experiments on Vari-ous Subjects: Containing an Account of several Surprizing Phenomena touching Light and Electricity, Producible on the Attrition of Bodies, R. Brugis (London), 1709.

34. André Anders, Tracking Down the Origin of Arc Plasma Science: 1. Early Pulsed and Oscillating Discharges, IEEE Trans. Plasma Science, 31(5)pp.1052–1059,2003.

35. André Anders, Tracking Down the Origin of Arc Plasma; 2. Early Con-tinuous Discharges, IEEE Trans. Plasma Science,31(5)pp.1060–1069,2003.

36. U. Kogelschatz, Dielectric-barrier Discharges: Their History, Discharge Physics, and Industrial Application, Plasma Chem. Plasma Processing, 23(1) p. 1, 2003.

37. Robert Hare, Description of an Apparatus for Deflagrating Carburets, Phosphurets, or Cyanides in Vacuo or in an Atmosphere of Hydrogen, with an Account of Other Results Obtained by These and Other Means, Especially the Isolation of Calcium, Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., Vol. 7, article5inNewSeriespp.53–57,1841.

38. R.A. Beall et al., Cold-mold Arc Melting and Casting, U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin, No. 646, 1968.

About the Author: Donald M. MattoxDon Mattox served as a meteorologist and Air Weather Officer in the U.S. Air Force (USAF) during and after the Korean War. After being discharged from the USAF, he obtained an M.S. degree on the G.I. Bill, and went to work for Sandia National Laboratories in 1961.

Don retired in 1989 after 28 years as a member of Technical Staff and then as a Technical Supervisor. Don was President of the American Vacuum Society (AVS) in 1985. In 1988, the 9th International Congress on Vacuum Metallurgy presented him with an award for “outstanding contributions to metal-lurgicalcoatingtechnologyfortheperiod1961–1988”andin1995 he was the recipient of the AVS Albert Nerken Award for his work on the ion plating process. In 2007, Don received the Nathaniel Sugerman Award from the Society of Vacuum Coat-ers (SVC). Don served as the Technical Director of SVC from 1989to2006andTechnicalEditorfrom1989–2016.Formoreinformation, contact Don Mattox at [email protected].

SvC

World Leader in Magnetron Sputtering Technology

www.angstromsciences.com 40 South Linden Street Duquesne, PA 15110 • USA Phone: +1.412.469.8466 Fax: +1.412.469.8511

O U R O P T I M I Z E D T E C H N O L O G Y Y I E L D S

S U P E R I O R P E R F O R M A N C E R E S U L T I N G I N :

• H i g h Ta rg e t U t i l i z a t i o n

• H i g h F i l m U n i f o r m i t y

• H i g h D e p o s i t i o n R a t e s


a short history: vacuum in the 17th century … corner_vacuum in the...history corner a short...

Documents