A World Without Rhinos Brad Fagan

Rhino Encounter MENDON, Mass. __ A fall breeze whisks through the crisp October air, blowing the leaves of surrounding trees off their branches with each gust. One cannot help but get the feeling Fall is here to stay on this grey, brisk day in central, Massachusetts; especially with the town’s major attraction, The Southwick's Zoo, resembling a ghost town. Only one zoo employee mans the entrance gate, offering a friendly smile and greeting to the few who entered the zoo that day. The Purple Peacock Gift Shop was packed to the brim with colorful stuffed animals, exotic animal T­shirts, and any sort of animal themed knick­knack or trinket one could imagine. After a few minutes of moseying around the gift shop, admiring some of the exotic animal paraphernalia, a door in the back of the gift shop squeaks open and out comes a short, blond­haired women dressed in one of the exotic animal sweatshirts that hangs upon the shelves of the Purple Peacock gift shop. This one in particular bears a large rhino head on the front. The women is Betsey Brewer. At 56, she is one of the executive directors at the Southwick's Zoo and is in charge of managing all of the zoo’s education, conservation, and research programs. She is responsible for tasks such as: keeping records of all the animals in the zoo; managing all of the animals, facilities, and staff; as well as being responsible for the creation of EARTH LTD (Environmental Awareness of Resources and Threatened Habitats), the zoo’s personal non­profit center. Betsey greets me with a warm smile but, full of excitement over my interest in her work, she wastes little time with introductions before leading me out of the vibrant gift shop and onto the zoo grounds. Our first stop, the rhino exhibit. Betsey guides the way to the rhino exhibit through the desolate grounds of the zoo, making it feel like some sort of private tour. On the walk, Betsey began to introduce Thelma and Louise, the two Southern White rhinos owned by the Southwick's Zoo. She told me that Thelma and Louise arrived at the Southwick's Zoo on August 21, 2011 from the Tangenicka Zoo in Wichita, Kansas just months after Southwick's had lost the second half of their last pair of rhinos, Bonnie and Clyde, earlier that year. She continued to tell me that Thelma and Louise are both 7­year­old female Southern White rhinos, so they are unable to support any kind of breeding on the grounds at Southwick's . “Ideally we would get them bred now,” Brewer said, “You wanna have them bred before they are eight or nine.” If female rhinos do not produce any offspring before the age of 10, they generally are infertile for life. We continued to meander through the empty snack shacks and scarcely populated walkways before turning the corner to the rhino exhibit. The large exhibit was encased by a tall rock wall, with two large, tree­like structures scattered amongst the dirt floor of the pen. A small, murky pool full of black, muddy water rests against the back left wall of the exhibit. Both rhinos were mingling around the small body of water; one of the rhinos wallowed in the mud while the other lay idly by. As we approached one of the viewing areas, Brewer called the two rhinos out by

name and like a loyal pet running to its owner, Thelma and Louise popped up and trotted right over to the viewing area where we stood. The stop at the first viewing area was brief as Brewer continued to lead me around the back of the pen down a dirt road covered in large tire tracks and tread marks to the entrance of the Rhino Encounter pen. The Rhino Encounter is a special feature of the Southwick's Zoo that allows visitors to step inside the rhino exhibit where only five large steel pillars separate the rhinos from the people. Without saying a word, Betsey dug into her pockets, pulled out a set of keys and began heading towards the entrance. I followed close behind as the door swung open to Thelma and Louise running around in front of the cage, anxiously awaiting Brewer’s arrival. “They’re super friendly,” Brewer said. “They are actually one of the few animals that aren’t jumpy when they are captive… Humans are their only predators, so once they warm up to you they are very calm and friendly.” Brewer hinted to me that Thelma is usually more receptive to strangers and with her encouragement, I approached the enormous beast. Her massive head hung low to the ground and protruded through the large steel pillars, with her species defining square­lipped mouth and enormous horn just a few feet in front of me. I could smell her musty breath with each grunt or pant that gusted along the pen’s dirt floor. Her grey, rugged looking skin was covered in deep, defined creases, most prominent on her nose and eyes that give the species its prehistoric look. I extended my hand cautiously, through the steel pillars and gently placed it down, right above the horn on top of Thelma’s head. The rugged appearance was deceiving as Thelma’s skin was much softer than expected and due to the absence of creases on this particular part of her head, was also very smooth. It felt like an old leather jacket one would find buried in the attic or basement of their home. But I could feel the durability. It had a toughness to it that made it feel impenetrable, like the rhinos had a natural body armour. Thelma was a gentle giant though, just as Brewer had promised; welcoming my pats on her head just like a friendly dog would. Brewer keeps an outdoor broom in the rhino encounter cage that she uses partly to clean the animals but mostly to scratch their backs and the under part of their stomachs. Thelma and Louise love the attention from Betsey, often times, fighting over which one of them will get scratched. “I call them my rhino dogs,” Brewer said, “my 4,000 pound dogs.” As Brewer scratched the underbelly of Louise with the rough, yellow bristles of the broom Louise’s back left leg gracefully lifted off the ground with her hoof pointed out, like a 4,000 pound ballerina delicately balancing in the air. “That’s how she got the name rhino dog,” Brewer said.

Thelma and Louise are two of the remaining 20,405 White rhinoceroses left in the world. Of the total there are approximately 500 white rhinos held in captivity at zoos or rhino sanctuaries around the world. The rest, roam the savannahs of South and East Africa on government protected or privately owned land, vulnerable to the vicious attacks of militia like groups of poachers, in search of the animals valuable horn. The large number of White rhinos does not properly reflect the state of the species as a whole, with the total rhinoceros species population landing at about 28,000. Low numbers, paired with the seemingly uncontrollable poaching epidemic makes the threat of species extinction as real as it has ever been. According to a report from Save the Rhino International, 1215 rhinos were poached in South Africa in 2014 and as of August 2015, 749 have already been poached. “Rhino poaching has reached a crisis point,” the report reads, “and if the killing continues at this rate, we could see rhino deaths overtaking births in 2016­2018, meaning rhinos could go extinct in the very near future.” Sam Ferreira, South Africa National Parks’ large­animal ecologist, describes how in some populations of rhinos within Africa —more specifically Kruger National Park in South Africa—the natural mortality rate of two percent, paired with the increasing poaching deaths of six percent, now equals the species birth rate of eight percent, meaning the species has reached its tipping point in those areas. The fight for rhino conservation is a battle that has been going on for close to 40 years and a recent spike in incidents of poaching threatens to exterminate the entire species. If a solution to the poaching problem is not found, there is a very strong possibility of living in a world without a flagship species; one of the most iconic and longest living in the world. A world without rhinos. Is That a Dinosaur? The rhinoceros species has walked the Earth for over 50 million years and wears its age proudly, striking arguably the closest resemblance to dinosaurs of any creature walking the Earth today. Rhino species can be traced back to prehistoric times, even before the Ice Age, to a period called the Eocene period. The Eocene, known for being a particularly warm period, lasted from 55 million years ago until 34 million years ago and was populated mainly by an order of mammals called the perissodactyl or odd­toed ungulate. The perissodactyl is classified by the odd number of toes they have on their rear hooves and it is within this order of mammals where the rhinoceros’ first ancestor can be found. Early perissodactyls, like the Amynodont and the Metamynodon, were hornless and more closely resembled modern tapirs or hippos than rhinos. The Hyracodonts were a perissodactyl that evolved into what is the most iconic of the rhinoceros ancestors, the Paraceratherium. The Paraceratherium came about during the Oligocene period and stood over 16 feet tall and weighed up to 20 tons, making it the largest land mammal to ever live. The skull alone of this enormous beast was slightly over 3 feet long.

Nearly all of the prehistoric rhinos from the Oligocene period or before had no horns and it wasn’t until the Miocene period that horns started appearing on prehistoric rhino species. The giant hornless rhinos however, did not last as long as other rhino species for a few reasons; they competed for food with elephants and unlike today, prehistoric rhinos had natural predators. The giant rhinos such as the Paraceratherium fell victim to natural selection and simply could not compete with the elephant for food. These giant rhinos needed to eat hundreds of pounds of food each day and the trunk of the elephant was superior for gathering leaves, putting the rhinoceros at a major disadvantage. Also, predators such as the giant crocodile and an animal called a Hemicyon or “dogbear” posed major threats to the rhinoceros, despite the size difference. The Miocene period began about 23 million years ago and it is here that prehistoric rhinos began to more closely resemble the rhinos that walk the Earth today. With the Ice Age looming in the distance, the Earth’s temperature was cooling and cooling fast, with a 4 degree celsius difference between the Oligocene period and the Miocene period. Evolving with the weather, it was during this period that horns began to appear on the rhinoceros ancestors. One of the early species of the Miocene period was the Chilotherium. This hippo­like rhino was known for spending most of its time in the water and had two small tusks that extended out from the lower jaw of what was a rather large head on the animal. The Diceratherium was another species of rhino that came later in the Micoene period and was known in particular for its two horns that rested beside each other on the front of the rhino’s head. The Elasmotheriines existed at the tail end of the Miocene period and as the Ice Age crept closer and closer over the next few million years, this animal evolved into a species that was graced with what could have been the most epic horn in the rhino family tree. The Elasmotherium came on the scene at the very beginning of the Pleistocene period (1.8 million years ago), or what is widely known as the Ice Age. It stood slightly under 10 feet tall and had a single horn that palaeontologists believe could have been over 3 feet long. Although horns do not fossilize due to the keratin makeup, scientists are able to judge the approximate size of the horn by examining the base­like hollow on the skull of the rhino. As the Ice Age progressed and the Earth’s temperature was rapidly dropping, rhinos evolved; growing thick coats of wool fur and becoming what is the most recognizable ancestor to the rhinoceros today, the Wooly rhino. The Wooly rhino was built just like modern rhino species; a robust, bulky body with legs, short and stocky and two large horns resting on the front of its head, one behind the other, the larger of the two being in front. Although it seems as if the Wooly rhino was well­suited to survive through the Ice Age, that is not necessarily true. Despite the heavy coat of fur on the Wooly rhino, the animal’s stout legs did not suit it well for walking through ice and snow. In fact, the Wooly rhinoceros spent most of its time on the cold, dry climate of “mammoth steppe.” Temperatures towards the end of the Pleistocene era were erratic, changing up to 10 degrees celsius per generation. The sporadic temperatures of the Pleistocene period did not suit the slow breeding process of the rhino or the longevity of the

rhinos food supply very well. In the face of all of these challenges, the Wooly rhino was still able to survive through the Pleistocene period, lasting until about 10,000 years ago. Like the Wooly rhino, many species of rhino could not withstand the harsh climate, and with the addition of human hunting, ended up extinct. Only five species of rhino remain today and the species once widespread throughout Europe, Africa and Asia is confined to just a few areas in the continents of Africa and Asia. Modern­Day Rhinos The White rhino, Black rhino, Sumatran rhino, Javan rhino, and Greater One­Horned rhino are the five rhino species remaining on Earth today. The Javan, Sumatran, and Greater One­Horned rhinos all inhabit the rainforests of Asia, while the White and Black rhinos roam the savannahs of Africa. The Sumatran rhino is by far the smallest of all the rhino species standing between 4 and 4 ½ feet tall and weighing a measly 1,500 pounds. The Sumatran rhino has been on Earth longer than any other living mammal and is covered with a coat of long hair, making it the closest living relative to the Wooly rhino of the Pleistocene period. It is the only Asian rhinoceros with two horns, the front ranging from about 10 to 30 inches and the rear one usually only reaching about 4 inches. The Sumatran rhino is a close competitor to the Javan for the most endangered rhino species, with less than 100 left in the wild, living in small groups scattered throughout the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. The Javan rhino wears a charcoal grey skin color, a single horn about 10 inches in length, and stands about 5 ½ feet to the shoulder. The Javan is very closely related to the Greater One­Horned rhino, and despite reaching up to 13 feet in length and weighing up to 4600 pounds, is the smaller of the two creatures. The Javan rhino is labeled as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) with a population today of just 60. All 60 of the remaining Javan rhinos live in Ujung Kulon National Park on the Indonesian Island of Java leaving only one surviving population left on Earth. This very small, concentrated population of Javan rhinos leaves the subspecies susceptible to low genetic variability, which along with poaching and habitat destruction leaves the Javan rhino very vulnerable to extinction. The Greater One­Horned rhino is the largest of the Asian rhinoceroses standing about 6 feet tall to the shoulder and weighing on average 5,700 pounds, making it second in size only to the African White rhino. The rhinos can grow to be 10 to 12 feet long and its black horn can grow to anywhere between 6 inches and 2 feet. The Greater One­Horned rhino is actually one of the few success stories in the world of rhino conservation, taking a population that was just over 600 in 1975 and growing it to 3,555 by 2015, making it the largest population of asian

rhinoceros by a long shot. All of the remaining Greater One­Horned rhinos inhabit either India or Nepal, mainly concentrated in the Terai Arc landscape of the two countries. The Black rhino is one of the two African rhino species and can be found across the savannahs and woodlands of southern and eastern Africa mainly Kenya, Tanzania, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe. One would expect, given its name, that the Black rhino would be draped in a layer of black skin. However, the Black rhino is actually much lighter, more grayish in color than anything else and lives between 35 and 50 years. Averaging a height of just over 5 feet and a weight that ranges between 1,700 pounds to 3,000 pounds depending on gender, the Black rhino is smaller than its White rhino cousin. In spite of its smaller stature, the horn of the Black rhino is larger than that of the White, with its larger anterior horn (the one in the front) averaging about 20 inches in length. The Black rhino’s small hump on the back of its neck and its prehensile, hook shaped upper lip are the characteristics that distinguish it the most from the White rhino. Both of these features are what enable the Black rhino to be a “browser” or an animal that eats from higher bushes and trees as opposed to grazing grass along the ground. The smaller head of the rhino requires much less muscle in the neck to lift up high and the hook shaped lips help the animal grasp the branches and leaves from the bushes and trees that it feeds from. Despite not being very social creatures in the wild, Black rhinos rely heavily on their senses of smell and hearing to communicate due to their extremely poor eyesight. Rhinos are insanely short­sighted, some only being able to see 15 feet in front of them; but their sense of smell is so keen, they can smell a human standing upwind from as far as a mile away. The sharp sense of smell and dull eyesight explains why rhinos rely heavily on scent markings to communicate amongst themselves on a daily basis. Black rhinos use techniques such as urine spraying, head rubbing, and middens to communicate territorial lines to other rhinos in the area. Urine spraying is used by male rhinos as a way of marking territory, in an effort to keep other male rhinos out of their space, while females use it for a reason that is quite the opposite, to attract males when in oestrus. Rhinos will also often shower the areas they eat and drink at with urine blasts that can reach up to 13 feet, but that is more related to biology than marking territory. Middens is the dinner conversation name scientists gave to the dung piles that rhinos use to mark their territory when in the wild. Male rhinos employ one of two strategies when using their feces to mark territory: they will either return time and time again to the same spot to drop their pile or they will disperse their dung piles throughout the entirety of its territory, effectively creating a two and a half mile middens minefield for intruding male rhinos to navigate through. The last major scent marking technique black rhinos use is head rubbing which is when black rhinos rub the scent gland located on their head on rocks or trees as another way of marking territory. The Black rhino population can be broken down into four sub­species. Southern Central Black rhino, South Western Black rhino, East African Black rhino, and the Western Black rhino, which combined make up the 5,055 Black rhino population in Africa today. Though that is a large

number compared to other rhinoceros species walking the Earth today, the Black rhino is still listed as critically endangered on the IUCN’s Red list. The decline of the Black rhino population began in the 1960s with the help of European settlers and their trophy hunting habits, which drove the species out of Europe. In the 1970s, the Black rhino fell victim to the poaching epidemic and saw its numbers decline rapidly, losing 96 percent of the Black rhino population between 1970 and 1992. The low­point of the Black rhino population came in 1993, when only 2,475 Black rhinos were recorded. Since then, through anti­poaching and conservation efforts, the Black rhino population has been brought back up to around 5,000 and could continue to grow. The White rhinoceros is the second of the two rhino species occupying Africa and reside almost exclusively in South Africa. These rhinos, second only to the elephant for largest land mammal, stand 5 to 6 feet tall and can weigh anywhere between 3,300 and 6,500 pounds depending on the gender, and live between 40­50 years. The White rhino — though closely related to its Black cousins — do not share many of the same traits outside of the muted grey skin tone and poor eyesight. The distinctive characteristics of the White rhino can be attributed to the rhinos stature. The large protruding hump on the rhino’s shoulders is a species defining mark, there to provide support to the oversized head of the rhino that almost always hangs down low, close to the ground, except when the rhino is startled. Two horns, one much larger than the other, rest on the end of the rhinos’ nose and have been measured anywhere between 2 and 5 feet. The other defining physical attribute of the White rhino is its square upper lip. The square upper lip distinctly varies from the more pointed upper lip of the Black rhino, which it uses to grasp food. Because of its larger, heavier head and square upper lip the White rhino is labeled as a “grazer”, feeding mainly on grass and low leaves. The White rhino is much more social than all other rhino species, especially the solitary Black rhino. White rhinos are known to travel in crashes (that’s the name for a group of rhinos) of up to six and even larger groups sometimes form around feeding and drinking areas. The species as a whole is in relatively good shape compared to the other four species of rhino with a total population of 20,405. The species is broken into two subspecies, the Northern White rhino and the Southern White rhino. The biggest contrast between these two animals is not their appearance, but their populations. Only 4 of the 20,405 remaining White rhinos are Northern White rhinos, leaving the Southern White rhino responsible for the entirety of the word’s White rhino population. But this was not always the case. In the latter half of the 19th century, it was a commonly held belief that the Southern White rhino was extinct. It wasn’t until 1895, when a population of just under 100 Southern White rhinos was discovered in Kwazulu­Natal, South Africa that the Southern White rhino population was revitalized. After decades of successful conservation and protection, the Southern White rhino population today is over 20,000, making it the only rhino species whose conservation status is not Endangered, with a status of Near Threatened. The Southern White rhino population today is confined to just four countries with 98 percent of the population residing in either South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe or Kenya.

Northern White rhinos on the other hand are the closest rhino subspecies to extinction in the present day. Going back just 50 years to the 1960s the Northern White rhino population hovered around 2,000 with Northern Whites scattered in parts of Chad, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, and Uganda. But the scourge of poaching during the 1970s and civil war in many of these countries led to the demise of the Northern White rhino population. Unfortunately, there are few White rhinos left in the wild. Almost all of the 20,000 plus Southern White rhinos live in protected areas or game reserves and the four remaining northern white rhinos are all in captivity for protection against poaching. The Dvur Kralove Zoo in the Czech Republic owns all of the living white rhinos on the planet and although Dvur Kralove owns the rhinos, none of them currently live there. Three of the four remaining Northern White rhinos, including the last male, reside at the Ol Pejeta Conservatory located in Central Kenya's Laikipia County. Fatu, Najin, Sudan, and the now deceased Suni came to Ol Pejeta on December 20, 2009 and have been under strict protection since then. Ol Pejeta goes to extreme measures to keep their rhinos safe, dedicating 24­hour armed surveillance, a 700­acre enclosed habitat, and a wholesome diet of fresh vegetables to ensure the rhinos are kept healthy and safe. The rhinos came to Ol Pejeta from the Dvur Kralove Zoo with hopes that the more native and natural habitat would provide more favorable breeding conditions after all breeding attempts at the zoo proved to be fruitless. The other remaining Northern White rhino, Nola, resides in the United States at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. Nola is also owned by the Dvur Kralove zoo, but has been on loan in San Diego since 1989. Despite the extreme caution taken when caring for Northern White rhinos, powers out of human control have recently pushed the species even closer to the brink of extinction. In October of 2014 Ol Pejeta lost Suni, one of two remaining male Northern Whites in the world, to natural causes and just this past summer in July of 2015, Nabire`, the only Northern White rhino that remained on site at the Dvur Kralove Zoo, passed away due to a large pathological cyst that ruptured the inside of her body. The death of these two rhinos over the past two years brings the species to the closest it has ever been to extinction with only four Northern White rhinos left on the planet today. The Legend of the Horn Though hard to believe given the status of today’s rhino population, rhinos were once a prominent species throughout Africa, Asia, and even parts of Europe. In the year 1800, there were about 1 million rhinoceroses walking the Earth. Today, there are only 28,000 left in the wild. Rhinoceroses have been hunted by man for over four centuries and what started simply as men hunting this enormous beast as a source of food has evolved into a ruthless black market industry predicated on the valuable keratin horns of the rhino.

Dating back as far as 80,000 years, there is archaeological evidence of hunters from central Germany hunting the rhino for their meat. The British and Dutch settlers that landed in South Africa in the 19th century also enjoyed the delicacy of rhino meat and hunted it frequently for that reason. And these were not wasteful people. After eating what they could of the rhino, the British and Dutch settlers would use the remaining parts of the rhino to make medicine and ornaments to honor the person who killed the animal. With rhinoceroses weighing upwards of two tons (4,000 pounds), killing one of these animals was considered one of the most prestigious hunting feats of the time. The honor that came with killing a rhinoceros largely contributed to giving the rhino horn it’s celebrity. As the years went on, rhino horn became embedded into Eastern culture as a status symbol. A popular status symbol to arise that required keratin rhino horn was the Yemini dagger. The Yemeni dagger, also known as a Jambiya, is given to boys in Yemen at the age of 12 as a sign of manhood. The dagger consists of a short curved blade with a medial ridge running down the center, but the blade is not what makes this knife so special. The handles of traditional Yemeni daggers are made of pure rhino horn; and although the scarcity of rhino horn today has led to other materials being used, the elite social class will still own Yemeni daggers with handles made of rhino horn. These daggers carry the same influence as a designer watch would in Western culture, distinguishing the upper echelon of society from the lower class. Rhino horn has historically been viewed as a mysterious and highly sought after material with exceptional powers. In Greek Mythology the rhino horn was thought to have the ability to purify water, and the Persians in the fifth century BC believed that rhino horn could detect poison and would carve elegant bowls and drinking glasses from the material to detect it. This belief was also popular in China during the Ming and Qing dynasties between 100 BC and 200 AD. The Chinese during this time would carve plates, bowls, and cups out of rhino horn; with cups certainly being the most popular due to the prominence of alkaline poisoning at the time. This belief remained popular all the way up to the 18th and 19th century when European royalty would also use the rhino horn to detect potential threats of poison. Many Eastern countries also use rhino horn heavily in traditional medicines. From Malaysia and South Korea to India and China the use of rhino horn was rampant in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), believed to cure a variety of ailments ranging from something as simple as a headache to freeing someone from devil possession. Li Shizen is the most well­known 16th century pharmacist in China and was responsible for one of the most comprehensive pharmacopoeia in the history of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Shizen wrote “Pen Ts ‘ao Kang Mu” or “The Great Herbal” over a 27­year period during the 16th century rule of the Ming dynasty. This period, which lasted from about 1368­1644, was known as the peak of Traditional Chinese Medicine. The book listed over 1800 plants, animal substances, and minerals and described in detail the medicinal value of each one. The translated section on rhino horns reads, “It should not be taken by pregnant women; it will kill the foetus. As an antidote to poison. To cure devil possession and keep away all evil spirits and miasmas. For gelsemium and snake

poisoning. To remove hallucinations and bewitching nightmares. Continuous administration lightens the body and makes one very robust. For typhoid, headache, and feverish colds. For carbuncles and boils full of pus. For intermittent fevers with delirium. To expel fear and anxiety, to calm the liver and clear the vision. It is a sedative to the viscera, a tonic antipyretic. It dissolves phlegm. It is an antidote to the evil miasma of hill streams. For infantile convulsions and dysentery. Ashed and taken with water to treat violent vomiting, food poisoning, and overdosage of poisonous drugs. For arthritis, melancholia, loss of voice. Ground up into a paste with water it is given for hematemesis (throat hemorrhage), Epistaxis (nosebleeds), rectal bleeding, heavy smallpox, etc.” Rhino horn was used for such a wide variety of ailments and sicknesses that it is no surprise that the horn became a staple in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Today, doctors and scientists in the medical field chuckle at the prospect of rhino horn curing many of the conditions it claimed to cure in the 16th century. But, since the use of rhino horn has been embedded into Eastern culture for thousands of years, the tradition of using rhino horn as a cure for sickness still continues in many Eastern countries today. Traditional Chinese Medicine has evolved over the years, moving towards a more scientific approach while retaining many of the aspects of Chinese culture and tradition. In 1911, the former Republican China discouraged the use of Traditional Chinese Medicine and attempted to institute a medical system based on biomedicine. It was not until 1949, when the People’s Republic of China established Traditional Chinese Medicine as the national system of medicine, that TCM was integrated back into China as an effort to reassert Chinese traditions and values into the culture. Traditional Chinese Medicine is no longer based solely on oral tradition, but a mixture of both Western style biomedicine and traditional Chinese practices, finding scientific basis for Traditional Chinese Medicine. As of 1993, China no longer approved the use of rhino horn in any practice of Traditional Chinese Medicine and removed it from the Chinese pharmacopoeia. Rhino Horn Hysteria Whether it be for healing purposes or to boast one’s societal status, rhino horn has been a highly sought after commodity for thousands of years. In the early stages of Eastern rhino horn obsession, there was no problem acquiring horn. Rhinos were rampant and as long as the price was right anyone could get their hands on rhino horn if they so desired. There were so many rhinos at the time that the idea of them no longer existing was never even a thought in anyone’s head. It wasn’t until the 1970s that the poaching of rhino’s became a problem. Fueled by the explosion of the oil industry throughout the Middle East, Yemen saw a significant rise in its middle class, increasing the buying power of the average citizen. This led to a surge in the demand for Jambiya daggers, the popular status symbol in Yemen and Oman, on which the handle of the dagger is made of pure rhino horn. The rise of the middle class in Yemen, along with the steady demand for rhino horn for medicinal purposes in China and other Asian

countries created a threat to the livelihood of the rhinoceros species. In 1973, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was written and agreed upon by 80 countries in Washington D.C. and two years later, on July 1, 1975 CITES was put into effect. CITES is an international agreement stating that participating countries, “Recognizing that wild fauna and flora in their many beautiful and varied forms are an irreplaceable part of the natural systems of the Earth which must be protected for this and the generations to come; Conscious of the ever­growing value of wild fauna and flora from aesthetic, scientific, cultural, recreational and economic points of view; Recognizing that peoples and States are and should be the best protectors of their own wild fauna and flora; Recognizing, in addition, that international co­operation is essential for the protection of certain species of wild fauna and flora against over­exploitation through international trade; Convinced of the urgency of taking appropriate measures to this end.” CITES created three appendices which decided the trade regulations of specific plants and animals based on their status as a species. Appendix I includes species currently threatened by extinction by wildlife trade. Appendix II includes species that were not immediately threatened by extinction but could become threatened if trade is not regulated and Appendix III includes all species that a country wants to regulate to prevent it from being exploited. Animals listed on Appendix I are prohibited from being traded internationally for commercial purposes. The only way an animal listed on Appendix I can be exported from its home country is with proper permits for non­commercial purposes, such as scientific research or a trophy hunt. In 1977, CITES placed both the Black and White rhinoceros on Appendix I. Despite hopes that an international trade ban on rhino horn would lead to significant decreases in the killing of rhinos, quite the opposite happened. During the period from 1970­1993, 96 percent of the Black rhino population in Africa was lost to poaching, including a major drop from 12,750 rhinos in 1981 to only 2,550 in 1993. The international ban on the trade of rhino horn never eliminated the market for rhino horn, it simply pushed it underground, creating an unregulated black market, driving the price and value of rhino horn up. After not seeing many positive results, in 1987, CITES expanded the ban on rhino horn trade, prohibiting both national and international trade. One might question how the incidents of rhino poaching could go up after the institution of a ban on the trade of the rhino’s horn. Well, CITES is an international agreement that countries volunteer to adhere by; so, no country was forced to sign or abide by the laws agreed on by CITES. In fact, the biggest culprits of the illegal horn trade, such as China (1981), Vietnam (1994), and Yemen (1997), did not sign onto CITES for years after its inception. The biggest challenge that CITES faces however is not getting countries to sign the agreement, it is getting them to actually abide by the laws. CITES is not the environmental police, it is an consensus among countries that abiding by the agreed upon laws is beneficial to the world’s population. No one is monitoring the rhino horn

market within a country besides their own government. Also, those countries not signed onto the CITES agreement, do not have to abide by any of the laws, providing an alternative for rhino horn traders and poachers. So, even though China signed onto CITES in 1981, it is unclear if it ever truly stopped trading rhino horn and is still widely known as one of the prominent end use markets for rhino horn today. They hypothetically could have begun importing from Africa into a neighboring country that is not apart of CITES (Korea for example) and easily continue to supply the black market in China. It wasn’t until the early 1990s that the rampant poaching of the rhino species began to slow down, before coming to a halt during the latter part of the decade. In 1993, China banned the use of rhino horn in TCM and officially removed rhino horn from its pharmacopeia. Around the same time, China also began to more strictly enforce the domestic ban of rhino horn after the United States applied some political pressure via the Pelly Amendment. The Pelly Amendment is an amendment to the U.S. Fisherman’s Act of 1967 that allows the U.S. president to embargo trade to any country found to be undermining or violating an international program that is in effect to protect endangered or threatened wildlife. In 1992, the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) decided to take more aggressive action to enforce the ban on the trade of horn. In an undercover operation, the EIA went into Taiwan (not in the CITES agreement), who was identified as one of the four biggest offenders of illegal rhino horn trade along with China, South Korea, and Yemen by the World Wildlife Foundation at the time. During the investigation, the EIA revealed six tons of rhino horn being stockpiled by an organized crime syndicate in an attempt to corner the market and control the price of rhino horn. After the discovery, the EIA ran a public campaign highlighting the brutal and gruesome treatment of rhinos when they are poached and just three days later, all rhino horn trade was banned by the president of Taiwan. The EIA dug deeper in their investigation, tracing shipments of the large stockpile held in Taiwan to countries all over Asia, including China. The EIA traced a large one ton shipment from Taiwan to a state­owned pharmaceutical company in southern China. This pharmaceutical company had a stockpile of rhino horn that outnumbered the amount of live rhino horn left in the entire country of Zimbabwe at the time. The EIA’s undercover team, set­up a meeting with the Chinese pharmaceutical company and caught them on tape making a deal to sell the rhino horn to the undercover EIA agents, even stating: “We can get the military police to accompany the delivery of rhino horn to Hong Kong.” The EIA brought the tape back to the World Wildlife Foundation (who was involved in the investigation) and released the video to the media. Shortly after the video was released the Chinese State Council announced a countrywide ban on the sale of rhino horn. In 1994, the Chinese government had seized the one ton stockpile of rhino horn being held by the

pharmaceutical company and burned nearly a quarter of it, airing it on national television as a statement against the illegal trade of rhino horn. Since 1994 the Chinese government has enforced the laws on domestic rhino horn trade much more strictly, forcing the still existent market completely underground. Rhino Safe Haven After the United States strong armed China and other Eastern rhino horn conglomerates into enforcing the ban on trade, and a civil war in Yemen destroyed its economy, there was a significant decrease in rhino poaching. In 1994, 27 rhinos were poached throughout the entire year in South Africa. That would be the highest numbers of rhinos poached in one year from South Africa for more than a decade until 2006 when 36 rhinos were killed. The decline in poaching during the 1990s drove the black market value of rhino horn down. A Northern White rhino horn on average weighs between 2 and 5 kilograms; in the 1990s this would mean that poachers could fetch a couple thousands dollars for a rhinoceros. Most experts speculate that the price was driven down because of the large stockpiles built up by organized crime from the poaching epidemic that occurred throughout the late 1970s and 1980s. These stockpiles were able to supply the entire market for years and like any market, a low demand means a low price. The price was no longer worth the risk the poachers had to take to kill the rhinos. Also disincentivizing the rhino poachers was the fact that almost all of the remaining rhinos on the planet were under much stricter protection than they were in years previous. All of these factors shifted the cost benefit relationship for poachers, with the risks of getting caught poaching a rhino no longer outweighing the benefits of selling a rhino horn on the black market. This lull in rhino poaching led many people around the world — including many animal rights activist groups and CITES — to believe that the ban on rhino horn trade had been a success. Although poaching was still going on, the number of incidents was negligible and rhino numbers actually began to increase in many parts of Africa, particularly South Africa. From 1996 to 2010 the total White rhino population in Africa increased each year from just under 8,000 in 1996 to around 19,000 in 2010. During that same time period, the Black rhino population also saw a steady increase from having a population of less than 2500 in 1996 to having around 5,000 rhinos in 2010. And the increasing trends continued past 2010 with the most recent rhino population numbers standing at 20,405 for White rhinos and 5,055 for Black rhinos. Countries across Africa made strides in their conservation efforts, employing ecotourism and trophy hunting as a means to provide funds to protect their precious animals from poaching. This, paired with the decreased demand for rhino horn and stricter enforcements of laws is what led to the steady rebuilding of the rhino species in Africa. When most people see such an unwavering increase in the population of a species that had been at such critically low levels just 15 years prior, it is viewed as nothing but a success. This however, is not exactly the case with rhinos. A Shift in the Trends

Alongside the steady annual increase in rhino populations throughout Africa from the mid 1990s through the present day came another all too familiar increasing trend. Starting in 2007 poaching numbers began to increase year over year and have not stopped since. In what seems like a reawakening of the 1970’s poaching epidemic, the world has entered its second large scale poaching scourge in the past 50 years and this time around the threat of extinction for the entire species is more real than ever. In 2007 there were 62 instances of poaching reported in Africa. In 2008, numbers soared, with the number of reported poaching instances landing at 262. The numbers continued to grow exponentially with 426 reported cases in 2010, 520 reported cases in 2011 and 745 reported cases in 2012. The numbers have continued to increase at a disturbing rate with some of the most recent statistics indicating that there were 1,215 rhinos poached during 2014 in South Africa alone and in 2015 there were 383 rhinos poached in the just the first four months of the year. Poaching numbers like these have never been seen before. They have reached levels that far surpass even the number of rhinos poached per year during the epidemic during the 1970s, leading many people to ask, what caused this rapid increase? No one has been able to pinpoint one specific reason for the influx in rhino poaching incidents in 2008 but the increase of demand for rhino horn in Vietnam is certainly one of the leading factors. The current market for rhino horn is astounding with the price for one kilogram of rhino horn selling for up to $100,000 in some cases. A typical rhino horn is 1 to 3 kilograms in weight, meaning the sale of a single horn in Vietnam could earn someone a $300,000 profit. At first, this increased activity in Vietnam was believed to be China simply moving their importing destination after political pressure was applied, but the real cause seems to be a rumor. Yes, you read that right, a rumor. In 2009, TRAFFIC (a wildlife trade monitoring network) researchers in Hanoi City were told stories by local medical practitioners that the “Assistant Minister” was miraculously cured of his cancer by medicating with rhino horn. Coinciding with this rumor is the increase in recent years of cases of cancer in Vietnam, which accounts for around 82,000 deaths a year within the country. And it is not just the average citizen buying into this. Respected doctors throughout Vietnam prescribe rhino horn as part of their recommended cancer treatment despite Vietnamese law, outlawing the use or sale of rhino horn domestically or internationally. Tom Milliken, director of TRAFFIC, calls the myth of rhino horn curing cancer, “ a cynical marketing ploy to increase profitability of the illicit trade by targeting desperate and often dying people.” Even with scientific evidence proving rhino horn has no medical benefits for curing cancer, rhino horn is still very popular in Vietnamese culture. Members of high society often give rhino horn as a gift to important business clients or people of political influence and the younger generation of Vietnamese regularly use rhino horn as a hangover cure on the weekends. The popular Western myth that rhino horn is used as an aphrodisiac is actually beginning to gain traction in

Vietnam with a TRAFFIC study finding that it is used in a medicine called “tuu giac” which translates to “rhino wine” and supposedly increases the sexual prowess of men. Because all of the trade of rhino horn is done on the black market, there is no reliable data of just how much rhino horn was imported and sold in the Vietnamese market, but whatever the number is, it was enough to drive the poaching numbers up for each of the last 7 years. If these numbers are any sort of indicator of the success of the trade ban on rhino horn, than the ban can viewed as nothing but a complete failure. Rhino numbers may still be up at the current moment, but if the poaching rates continue to increase at the rate they currently are, and there is no policy change, the decline of the rhino species into extinction could begin very shortly. The Root of the Problem The root of the poaching problem in Africa can be traced back to what seems to be the root of almost all of the problems in the world, money. The cost of providing the proper protection and care for rhinoceroses is enormous. Between paying for a nutritious diet, a high tech fence to protect it from poachers and paying a full time staff to monitor and guard the animals the amount it costs to protect even a small population of rhinoceroses piles up fast. All funding for wildlife conservation comes from grants given by both governmental and nonprofit organizations or through donations from wealthy private donors. Organizations like The International Rhino Foundation, The World Wide Fund for Nature, The U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, and Save the Rhino International provide funding to parks and organizations working in Africa to protect rhinos. Save the Rhino International is a global nonprofit that annually provides funding to parks and programs throughout range states in Africa. In 2014, they provided about €850,000 ($912,000) in conservation funding to 17 field programs, with 66 percent going strictly to anti­poaching and monitoring and another 14 percent going towards behavior change campaigns throughout Eastern Asia, particularly Vietnam. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services is a United States government agency that in 2014 contributed $1,390,407 to African rhino projects from their ‘Rhino and Tiger Conservation Fund’ which was matched by $3,713,968 in leveraged funds from other organizations. This total of about $5 million funded 16 African rhino projects in six range states. This money mainly was directed towards field activity with about $1 million each going to South Africa and Namibia to fund monitoring expenses, equipment and security updates, as well as new training facilities for patrols and rangers. Dr. Richard Emslie is the Scientific Officer of the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) African Rhino Specialist Group and has been studying and working in the world of rhino conservation since 1980. Richard has attended six CITES conferences as part of the IUCN delegation and has been a major contributor to the African Rhino Specialist Group reports

presented at CITES conferences in recent years. Emslie understands the heavy expense burden to conserve animals like rhinos and the role a stable economy plays in the efforts. “Over the past decade or so, the cost of protecting rhinos has doubled, but revenue from both the private and public sectors to fund the protection of rhinos has not doubled,” Emslie said. Despite the millions of dollars of funding that comes from organizations all over the world, it is simply not enough to cover the ever growing cost to properly protect the African rhino species. African Parks is a nonprofit organization that is responsible for the long term management of 10 National Parks in seven countries throughout Africa. In 2014, they spent $16.5 million maintaining their parks, $3.8 million of which was spent solely on anti­poaching efforts and another $2.1 million spent on vehicles, mainly used by anti­poaching patrols and for safe transport of animals. Although African Parks has some revenue streams from ecotourism within a few of their parks, most of the funding comes from donations and grants. The total revenue generated by the parks in 2014 was $1,952,000 which doesn’t even cover the anti­poaching costs of the park, never mind paying salaries of employees and day to day operations. Because of the trade restrictions on rhino horn, almost all conservation organizations that house rhinos, like African Parks, are forced to rely on outside funding to protect their animals from poaching. And those private landowners with rhino populations on their land get almost no help at all protecting from poachers. Although most organizations are able to obtain grants and funding annually, at the current rate of poaching, funding may become scarce in a short amount of time. Even today, a large donor like Save the Rhino International’s website reads, “Field programmes can apply to SRI for funds, but in reality, unless you are already one of the programmes we support, it is highly unlikely that we will be able to add any new ones,” highlighting the struggles of simply maintaining the costs of their current projects. More funding and more protection has been the answer to the African rhino poaching problem for decades, but how much longer can conservation organizations stick to this model? “Vast amounts of money and additional resources have been thrown at the problem,” said Emslie, “but this current model is not sustainable and the effects are not there.” More than just a Zoo Under the current circumstances, there is almost no way for the owners of a rhinoceros, whether public or private, to profit, or benefit financially in any way from the animal. Because of the CITES ban on the international and domestic trade of rhino horn, the only way any owner of a rhinoceros can legally make any profit is through the sale of a live rhino to a pre­approved home, or through the sale of trophy hunting permits, limited in their own right. It wasn’t until 1994 that CITES downgraded White rhinos in South Africa and Swaziland from Appendix I to

Appendix II, allowing for the export of trophy horns taken during a non­commercial hunt. Today, only South Africa and Namibia issue trophy hunting permits for Black rhinos, with each country allowing for five permits to be sold each year. White rhino trophy hunting is much less regulated because of its much larger population and is often dealt with on an individual level between owner and buyer. Rhino owners and conservatories spend millions of dollars each year to protect their animals and have received nothing in return but a pat on the back for their efforts. They sit back and watch as organized crime syndicates, creep onto their land, poach a rhino horn and turn around to sell it on the black market for a profit far larger than any rightful owner could make on the current legal market. “The cost­benefit ratio for conserving has shifted,” Emslie said, “it is much more profitable to poach than it is to conserve today.” The price fetched for a kilogram of rhino horn can be anywhere from $65,000 to $100,000 in the current Asian market, an amount that far surpasses the price paid for legal trophy hunting permits that vary based on the animal. “If they decide to take the risk and poach a rhino, they can have an extremely large income.” Emslie said, “More wealth than they could ever imagine.” Inhabitants of Africa do not have the same economic opportunities as many people in the world. With many poachers coming from very poor, rural areas of Zimbabwe that provide little to no economic opportunities, the draw to the exorbitant amount of money in the rhino horn trade is huge. In one poaching excursion, poachers could make the equivalent to a year worth of salary for some of the employees that work on those very same conservatories or ranches. Living in a third world country makes every day a struggle to survive for some people and that is an easy thing to forget for those who are so removed from the problems. Most people in the world view Africa as one of the world’s last natural landscapes, full of exotic wild animals roaming the vast savannahs and jungles freely, forgetting the slew of economic and infrastructural problems that are rampant in many African governments. “Many westerners want to keep Africa a zoo, so rich people can come vacation here,” Emslie said, “but what they often forget is that real people still live near African reservations.” Most people in Western cultures do not have to live not knowing when there next meal would be, or with the threat of contracting HIV, but to folks in Africa those threats are real. Poachers do not look at the bigger picture of how their killing of rhinos could lead to the loss of an entire species because their only concern is surviving. Protecting a flagship species such as the rhino is as an important cause to fight for as any for people living outside of Africa, but inside the country, problems directly affecting human well­being take precedent.

“Africa has so many other problems to pay for, they can’t focus on rhinos,” Emslie said, “The real question is, how do you make conservation in Africa a priority?”. Rhino Economics pt. 1: The South African Model If the root of the rhino problem is money, then the solution lies in economics. There has been a steady demand for rhino horn for hundreds of years throughout Asia and other parts of the world, but instead of trying to regulate the demand, laws were put into place to try to eliminate the supply, and therefore eliminate the demand. This plan however, has seemed to backfire. Michael ‘t Sas Rolfes is a conservation economist that has been working with wildlife ecology for 30 years and also has a degree in business economics. In 1989, Sas Rolfes began studying the economics of rhino conservation and has since published many pieces of literature on the topic and created his own website, rhinoeconomics.com. Sas Rolfes believes in the establishment of a legal trade in rhino horn and that, “The rhino horn trade ban is quite possibly the greatest remaining threat to the rhino.” Sas Rolfes agrees with Emslie’s ideas that making conservation a priority in Africa is the key to the solution and he believes the biggest obstacle in making conservation a priority is, given the current circumstances, it is almost impossible for anyone owning a rhino to benefit in any way from protecting it. While many countries in Central Africa, such as Kenya, have watched their once widespread populations of wild rhino disappear in front of their eyes due to poaching, South Africa is one of the few countries who has seen major success in its conservation efforts. Over the past 50 years South Africa has been the model for success in conservation, leading the resurgence of the White rhino population and currently housing over 82 percent of the world’s total rhino population. Sas Rolfes attributes South Africa’s conservation success to its formation of a wildlife economy that relies on three major components: “ 1. Recognizing and actively developing legal markets for things that people value about rhinos, such as tourist viewing and trophy hunting

2. Allowing private landowners to legally own rhinos, thereby giving them strong direct incentives to manage them responsibly

3. Enabling all landowners (private, communal or public) to retain the money they earn from selling live rhinos and rhino products, thus making rhinos a lucrative long­term investment.”

South Africa’s laws provide monetary incentives to the owners of rhinos by allowing them to legally own and profit from their rhino. South Africa has laid down the blueprint for successful conservation without the establishment of a legal trade market, by taking advantage of the eco tourism opportunities that are currently available. White rhinoceros numbers dwindled as low as

50 to 100 at the turn of the century when South Africa decided to embark on a conservation journey to revitalize the White rhino population.

They relocated breeding rhinos from Hluhluwe Umfolozi Park (where the entire remaining population was located at the time) to other state owned parks as well as private game ranches and zoos. After seeing a steady increase in the White rhino population, with numbers exceeding 800 by 1960, South Africa issued its first trophy hunting permit in 1968. Natal Parks would provide live White rhinos to private game ranchers on a first come first serve basis, then the private landowners would sell the rhino as a trophy to the highest bidder, reaping financial benefits from the rhino.

This trend continued through the 1980’s until South Africa realized that under the current incentive structure, they were not encouraging the breeding or protection of rhinos, just the hunting of them. In 1982 the list price for a live White rhino was 1,000 Rand, during that same year, the average price of a trophy hunting permit was 6,000 Rand; meaning a private rancher could make a 600 percent profit by essentially flipping the rhino.

Until 1991, wildlife was considered under law “res nullius” or “unowned property,” this meant that a person could only profit from an animal if it was captured, domesticated, or killed. Therefore, a private ranch owner could not benefit at all from keeping or breeding rhinos, they would only expose themselves to the risk of poachers or neighbors killing their rhinos and losing the investment they made on the rhino.

Through the 1990s, the price for a live rhino continued to increase, but the gap between the price of a live rhino and the price of a trophy permit shrunk dramatically from 600 percent to about 60 percent. In 1991, the Theft of Game Act was put into effect, allowing ownership to be defined by markings on the animal such as ear tags or a brand. These changes incentivized the private ranchers to breed the rhinos and marked the beginning of the steady increase in the White rhino population that continues today.

“South Africa has had success for decades because of private ownership and community conservatories,” Emslie says. “Hunting can play a role in starting things off.”

Since hunting began in 1968, the population of White rhinos has grown from 1,800 to over 20,000. Trophy hunting today provides $575,000 to $600,000 in basic hunting fees each year to South Africa, making it the most lucrative branch of ecotourism at their disposal. Money earned from the sale of live rhinos, as well as the sale of trophy permits, goes directly back to the parks or ranches, allowing them to reinvest in their own operation, often times using the money to protect their animals from poachers.

“The hunting of two old, male white rhinos, who had already bred, paid for 40 percent of a high tech fence at one specific African park that has the ability to show breaches within a 20 meter range” Emslie said.

Despite the positive impact of trophy hunting on the rhino conservation effort, it is still met with harsh criticism from animal activist groups around the world.

“There is lot of misunderstanding of what kind of animals are hunted,” Emslie said, “Hunting is used as a wildlife management tool and in some cases can lead to more rhinos.”

In the case of most trophy hunts, the animals being killed are older males that have been pushed out of their territory by younger males or problem rhinos that are known for aggressive or disruptive behavior.

“The animal rights point of view doesn’t like it (trophy hunting),” Emslie said, “Obviously no one wants to see animals suffer but we can’t focus on the individual, we have to focus on the species as a whole.”

Private ownership also still plays a vital role in South Africa’s conservation efforts with private game rancher, John Hume, owning more than 25 percent of the countries privately owned rhinos and about 5 percent of the country’s total rhino population with 1,200 rhinos on his farm in the Lowveld region of South Africa.

Spreading the population throughout as many private ranches and conservatories as possible, makes the population more sustainable by preventing dense populations from forming which are easy targets for poachers.

Private game ranch owners, such as Hume, are able to reap some benefits from owning rhinos but the increased poaching since 2008 makes the investment a much more risky one; and the risks are beginning to outweigh rewards. Many private game owners are beginning to cut their losses and sell off the entirety of their farms before they are all poached away. Most private game owners in South Africa now support a full legal trade in rhino horn with hopes to once again balance the cost­benefit analysis of investing in rhinos and potentially save the species.

South Africa is currently in the process of deciding whether or not it will make a proposal for a legal trade in rhino horn at the next CITES conferences in the Fall of 2016. A legal market for a wildlife product like rhino horn is something that has never been done before. The past one­off sales of elephant ivory have had disastrous results, but the establishment of a viable market for the future is much different from a one­off sale. The viability of a legal trade has yet to be confirmed but the legalization of rhino horn in South Africa, for better or worse, will be a species defining decision.

Rhino Economics pt. 2: The Legal Trade

Although South Africa has seen some success in its conservation efforts, it is threatened by the refusal of the world to recognize the legitimate demand for rhino horn. The demand for rhino horn in Eastern Asia has been unbridled for hundreds of years. The use of rhino horn is prominent in many traditional medicines and remedies and still today is used as a status symbol in many countries. Rhino horn is engrained into the Eastern Asian culture and therefore, the

market for rhino horn will never desist, whether it is legal or illegal. The only thing the trade ban did for the rhino horn market, was push it entirely underground and free it from any regulations.

Like prohibition of alcohol in the United States during the 1920s, with the movement of the market underground, the price of rhino horn skyrocketed and involvement of organized crime ensued shortly after. The average price of a rhino horn during the 1990s was about $250 to 500 per kilogram, today 1 kilogram of rhino horn could sell for up to $100,000 in the current market in Vietnam.

The demand for rhino horn is very much so present today, yet the world still refuses to recognize it as a legitimate demand. Many western powers believe that disproving any medicinal benefits to rhino horn and banning the use of it will make the demand go away, but the ban has been in effect for ever 35 years and the market has never been completely eliminated.

Sas Rolfes argues that if the ban was lifted, it would not harm the current rhinoceros populations and in fact, would benefit conservationists and lead to increased rhino populations globally. The basis for his argument rests on three pillars:

“1. The removal of the trade from the black market will make the market easier to monitor and allow conservationists, governments and rhino owners to more quickly react to the market.

2. The establishment of a legal market will draw the consumer with cheaper prices and remove a lot of the monetary incentive of poaching.

3. The money generated through a legal trade market will provide ongoing and sufficient funding for conservation in the future.”

Despite his optimism, Sas Rolfes understands the risks of a potential legal market for rhino horn. The fear of the market expanding with the price drop or the more ethical concerns of the conditions under which rhinos would be farmed are the two most compelling arguments against the legal trade.

The expansion of the market from the implementation of a legal trade however, is of no concern at all the Sas Rolfes. He believes that the current stockpile of rhino horn held by conservatories and private owners will be enough to satisfy the current market at its open. Although numbers are not always reliable due to the underground nature of the market, Sas Rolfes estimated that in 2011, 2 ½ tons of rhino horn entered the market at a total value of $162.5 million. South Africa’s government currently holds a 21 ton stockpile of rhino horn that could be worth up to $1.36 billion based on the current market in Vietnam; and this number does not even include the amount of horn amassed by private rhino owners throughout the country, many of whom dehorn their rhinos to protect them from poachers.

Even without the South African government sitting on a massive stockpile of rhino horn capable of satisfying the current market for years, Sas Rolfes believes that low rhino population numbers should be of no concern when considering the option of a legal trade.

“The argument just does not make sense!” says Sas Rolfes, “You could have 50 rhinos left and still supply a legal market … all you need to do is harvest the rhinos, auction them off to the highest bidder, and use the money to build a fortress to protect the rest of your rhinos. As long as the money is going back to conservation, it’s a closed loop system.”

Sas Rolfes sees the legal rhino horn trade as an opportunity to create a steady revenue stream to conservationists that allows for further protection and the expansion of the rhino species as a whole through rhino farming.

The idea of harvesting rhino horn, however, certainly comes with a stigma. Everyone’s mind immediately jumps to the unspeakable conditions that other farmed animals, such as cows and chickens, are forced to live under in many parts of the world. What many people do not realize is that rhino horns can be harvested without killing or even really harming the rhinos at all. Rhino horns are made of coded keratin (the same stuff that makes up your hair and fingernails) and are rooted into the skin on the rhino’s nose. Because it is not structurally attached to the rhinos skull, a horn can easily be removed with a proper cut, and grow back to its full size in around three years time. A study done by Richard Emslie also revealed that the stress levels of rhinos when they are being dehorned is relatively low, proving the dehorning process to barely even cause the rhinos any disturbance whatsoever.

Another major question that rises during the discussion of rhino farming is the value of farmed horn versus wild horn. The true value of rhino horn to the Eastern culture lies in how rare of an item it is. When rhino owners begin to breed their rhinos and safely remove their horns to sell them on the legal market there is a possibility that the glamour and mystique of the rhino horn could disappear. Sas Rolfes does not deny people would prefer wild horn to farmed, but he believes the price decrease when the horn is mass produced, will be enough to steer people away from a parallel illegal market.

“I believe there will be a gradient,” says Sas Rolfes, “the quality of horn is unchanged regardless of being captive or not; it’s really a question of how much of a premium would they be willing to pay for wild horn over farmed?”.

Although Sas Rolfes makes a compelling argument for the implementation of a legal trade in rhino horn, the jury is very much still out on this case. There are many advocates for both sides of the argument. Many groups and agencies within South Africa are in favor of the legal trade after the success they have seen from trophy hunting and ecotourism, while on the other hand, many animal rights interests groups and other government agencies are against the idea of a legal trade in horn because they do not believe Sas Rolfes’ economic analysis will play out as he says it will. Most fear the establishment of a legal market for rhino horn will have the same negative effects the past one­off sales of elephant ivory had, leading to increased levels of poaching and an expansion of the market rather than ameliorating the problem.

South Africa’s Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) has formed an official Committee of Inquiry tasked with, “Investigating the feasibility of South Africa tabling a proposal for a trade in rhino horn, or not ­ at the 17th Conference of Parties (CoP17) of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 2016,” According to the DEA website. CoP17 meets in Johannesburg next Fall from September 24 through October 5 and as of now South Africa has made no official decision on a proposal.

What’s Best for the Species

Brewer’s connection with Thelma and Louise is undeniable. The three seem to share a bond similar only to that of a loving mother­daughter relationship. After spending about 15­20 minutes more in the rhino encounter cage, Brewer continued to show me around the Zoo and I shortly found out Brewers connection to this zoo stretched far beyond her love for Thelma and Louise.

“Have you ever been here before?” Brewer asks, “Do you know the story of Southwick’s?”.

Prior to my entrance that day I had never stepped foot on the grounds of the Southwick’s Zoo and, despite being a Massachusetts native, I had barely ever heard of it. What I soon learned, was that Brewer essentially grew up on this zoo, with Southwick’s Zoo being privately owned and operated by Brewer’s family since its inception in 1963.

Justin A. Southwick was Betsey Brewer’s grandfather and in 1953 decided to sell off a large amount of the dairy herd he had inherited from his father to concentrate on breeding migratory fowl. Southwick became one of the leading authority on migratory waterfowl, breeding them on the Southwick Homestead, the same grounds on which the zoo is built today.

Southwick began to amass a variety of exotic birds and decided in 1956 to open his animal collection to the public, allowing people to admire the exotic birds free of charge, asking for nothing but donations to enter. Southwick continued to grow his collection with the help of donations and eventually got to a point where he had too many birds.

“He tried to sell the birds at first,” Brewer said, “but there were no buyers. So, instead he began to trade the birds with other zoos.”

By 1963, the collection had grown even larger and more diverse and Southwick officially opened Southwick’s Zoo, charging 25 cents for admission. In 1965 the Southwick’s incorporated their name, officially forming two companies: Southwick's Wild Animal Farm Inc. and Southwick's Birds and Animals Inc., both headed by Southwick himself with son Daniel Southwick as Vice President of “Birds and Animals” and son­in­law Robert Brewer (Betsey’s father) as Vice President of “Wild Farm Inc.” Southwick’s Birds and Animals focused on the sale, trade, and leasing of animals, while Southwick’s Wild Farm became what is now the Southwick’s Zoo.

Brewer was raised in a zoo family, surrounded by animals and it is easy to tell from the relationships she has formed with most of them. As Brewer continued to lead me around to

each animal exhibit, every single one reacted the same to Brewer’s presence, pure excitement. An almost every exhibit came with a new story.

“These two lived in my house for the first seven months of their lives because their mother rejected them,” Brewer said as we observed LJ and Levanna, the two resident lions at Southwick’s Zoo. “They were so adorable,” Brewer continued as she proceeded to show me a charming picture of the lion cubs draped in santa hats during the holiday season.

The resident leopard at the zoo was inherited by the Southwick’s years ago and lived in Brewer’s house until it was one year old before it had a proper pen in the zoo.

“The thing was huge!”, Brewer said, “I thought somebody was gonna get killed when he was around.”

And the list of animals kept in the Brewer residence goes on. From camels to warthogs, Brewer has housed a myriad of exotic animals and become somewhat of an animal whisperer in the process. Her heart however, remains with the rhinos.

I’m not sure if it was the rhinoceros sweatshirt, or the dog­like behavior of the animals around her, or the passion with which she spoke about Thelma and Louise but it was clear to me from the second that I met Betsey Brewer that she loved those rhinos.

Brewer understands the danger that the rhino species as a whole is in and is doing her part at Southwick’s to fight for the conservation of the species. EARTH LTD is the zoo’s non­profit center and the brainchild of Brewer. EARTH “focuses on environmental education and our goal is to teach our community about topics including ecology, endangered species, and sustainability,” according to its website and has done extensive work for the conservation of rhinos.

All the money the zoo makes from “Rhino Encounters” is donated to the International Rhino Foundation and the website also features a “Rhino Diaries” section where Thelma and Louise are given a voice to educate people about rhinos and their current situation. EARTH LTD also works heavily with local schools, bringing “zoomobiles” and other educational programs right to young students teaching the importance of animal and habitat conservation at a young age.

Despite Brewer’s exceptional strides in educating about conservation, her direct impact on the rhino population is hindered by the inability of the zoo to breed Thelma and Louise. Zoos all over the world play a major role in the breeding of rhinoceroses because it provides the safest possible environment away from poachers. The San Diego Zoo and the Dvur Kralove Zoo (Czech Republic) are two of the most prominent zoos in rhino conservation efforts. Dvur Kralove is the only zoo in the world to successfully breed the extremely rare Northern White rhino and the San Diego Zoo has bred 165 rhinos from three different species since they received their first rhino in 1952, giving it the record for most rhino births in a zoo.

Brewer wants to do what is best for the rhinoceros species and even though breeding cannot be supported on the grounds of Southwick’s because of limited space, Brewer has explored other options.

White Oak Conservatory lies on the White Oak Plantation in Yulee, Florida, north of Jacksonville on the Florida Georgia Line. Though the plantation has served many functions in it’s lifetime, as of 2013 it has been fully committed to animal conservation.

White Oak’s success of rhino breeding — with over 30 White rhino births thus far — has grasped Brewer’s attention and drawn her down to Florida to entertain the possibility of sending Thelma and Louise their to be bred.

The gestation period for a rhino birth is around 16 months, much longer than the human nine, and large chunks of time would be needed before and after the pregnancy to ensure a successful conception as well as proper integration for the newborn. Rhinos are a very social species and much of their success in breeding comes from their social interactions with other rhinos while is oestrous. If rhinos are not in the proper social environment, their hormones will not reach proper levels to breed.

“It would likely be a 5­year commitment to have them bred there,” Brewer said, “we would have to borrow rhinos while they were gone.”

Though Brewer has extensively researched the possibility of breeding Thelma and Louise at White Oak — even traveling to Florida to meet the breeders — no official decision has been made.

Brewer gently stroked the head of Thelma, looking saddened by just the thought of not having her two “rhino dogs” around for that long a period of time.

“I would greatly miss them,” Brewer said, “but we want to do what is best for them and what is best for conservation.”

(UPDATE: On November 22, 2015, Nola, the female Northern White rhino at the San Diego Zoo, passed away. This leaves only three remaining Northern White rhinos in the world, all residing at the Ol Pejeta Conservatory in Kenya.)

Interviews

Richard Emslie

Michael ‘t Sas Rolfes

Betsey Brewer

Peter Fearnhead

Works Cited

South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs. THE DRAFT BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR WHITE RHINOCEROS. By Bomo Edith Edna Molewa. Pretoria: n.p., 2015. Conservationaction.co.za. Web. Fall 2015.

Ellis, Susie. "International Rhino Foundation." Western and Wildlife Art Magazine n.d.: n. pag. Web. Fall 2015.

Sas Rolfes, Michael 't. The Rhino Poaching Crisis. N.p.: Independent, Feb. 2012. PDF.

Eustace, Michael. "Rhino Poaching: What Is the Solution?" Business Day 20 Jan. 2012: n. pag. Business Day. Web.

Hanks, John. Submission to Panel of Experts into South Africa’s Comprehensive Integrated Approach to Reduce Rhino Poaching. 2015. Johannesburg.

"Earth Ltd. ­ Environmental Awareness of Resources & Threatened Habitats." Earth Ltd. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2015. This source was used to provide information about Earth LTD the non profit at Southwick’s Zoo and the work they do for rhino conservation.

Hume, John. N.p.: n.p., n.d. PDF. This source is a letter written by John Hume published on the rhino resource center.

Gonsalves, Susan. "Southwick's Zoo Celebrates 50 Years of Growth ­ and Births." Telegram.com. N.p., 14 June 2015. Web. 22 Nov. 2015. This source was used to tell the history of the Southwick Zoo and the Southwick and Brewer family involvement in the process and still today.

"Southwick's Zoo ­ More than a Zoo, It's an Adventure!" Southwick Zoo. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2015. I used this source for various information about Southwick’s Zoo. Mainly programs they offer, animal exhibits and names, and information about the Zoo grounds.

"Rhinoceros Anatomy." Animal Facts and Information. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this for information about rhino anatomy, specifically its sense of smell.

Nowak, Katarzyna. "South African Government Acknowledges Letter Raising Concerns Over Possible Trade in Rhino Horn." Voices.nationalgeographic.com. N.p., 23 June 2015. Web. 17 Nov. 2015. I used this source for information on the recent debate over a legal trade proposal in South Africa. Mainly used for information about the Committee of Inquiry and the upcoming Conference of Parties.

"Mammals | Rhinoceros." Rhinoceros. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2015. I used this resource for information regarding the breeding success at the San Diego Zoo and what the zoo has done for conservation. There is also good information in here about the rhino species in general.

"White Rhino Reproductive Puzzle." SDZ Global Wildlife Conservancy. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2015. I used this source to provide information about how many rhinoceroses are in captivity. This is where I got the statistic about the number of rhinos in captivity.

Marshall, Leon. "Kruger Park to Move 500 Rhinos to Save Species from Extermination." Voices.nationalgeographic.com. N.p., 13 Aug. 2014. Web. Fall 2015. I used this article for information about efforts of relocating rhinoceros in an effort to reduce poaching. It talks about the movement of animals out of Kruger Park, the most dangerous park for rhinos in Africa. The main statistic I used this source for was rhinos reaching their tipping point.

"Rhino Poaching FAQs." Frequently Asked Questions. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2015. I used this source only for how long it takes a rhino horn to grow back when cut off.

"Decision over Sale of Stockpile Rhino Horn Set for 2016." The M&G Online. N.p., 10 Feb. 2015. Web. 22 Nov. 2015. I used this article for information about the current stockpile of rhino horn in South Africa held by the government and also for information about the proposal for a legal trade.

"What Is Trophy Hunting?" Savetherhino.org. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this article for information regarding the positive and negative impacts of trophy hunting and the sale of trophy hunting permits on the rhino population. Some specific information I used was the amount of black rhinos allowed to be hunted in Namibia and South Africa, and the costs and benefits of trophy hunting in the community.

't Sas­Rolfes, Michael and Fitzgerald, Timothy, Can a Legal Horn Trade Save Rhinos? (July 2, 2013). PERC Research Paper No. 13­6. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2288892 orhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2288892 I used this source for information about the proposal for a legal trade in rhino horn. It talked about the steady demand for rhino horn in the Asian market, the past attempts and efforts to curb the poaching epidemic, and the steps they would

take to implement a legal market. It provides statistics about the current market for rhino horn also.

Sas Rolfes, Michael 't. "Saving African Rhinos: A Market Success Story." Perc.org. N.p., 19 Aug. 2011. Web. 22 Nov. 2015. I used this source for information about the process of privatization of rhinos in South Africa. I used it for specific information about the dates of when hunting of certain rhino species were allowed and for the market prices of rhinos and trophy hunting permits over a few decades.

"African Parks Annual Reports." African Parks. N.p., 30 Mar. 2015. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source mainly for African Parks financial information, including expenses and income, from 2014. It also has poaching statistics from 2014 in each of the eight parks that it monitors.

"How to Apply for a Grant from Save the Rhino." Savetherhino.org. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source to talk about the funding of rhino conservation projects and financial information about how much Save the Rhino funded last year.

"Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Fund." Fws.gov. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source to talk about the amount of funding that the United States Fish and Wildlife Services contributed to rhino conservation and what the funding went to.

"Rhino Poaching Statistics." Poachingfacts.com. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source for poaching statistics and rhino population numbers in the range states of Africa.

Milliken, Tom, Jo Shaw, Richard H. Emslie, Russell D. Taylor, and Chris Turton. "The South Africa – Viet Nam Rhino Horn Trade Nexus: A Deadly Combination of Institutional Lapses, Corrupt Wildlife Industry Professionals and Asian Crime Syndicates." Traffick.org. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I heavily used this source. It had a ton of information on: the populations of all species of rhino in Africa, information on hunting and the CITES regulations in South Africa, rhino poaching numbers in South Africa, and end use markets in Asia.

Emslie, Richard H., Tom Milliken, and Bibhab Talukdar. CoP16 Doc. 54.2 Annex (2013): n. pag. Rhinos.org. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source for rhino population numbers, rhino poaching statistics, numbers on the illegal trade of rhino horn, and information on rhino horn stockpiles.

"South African Government Is Aware That Ongoing Scourge of Rhino Poaching Is Linked to Worldwide Illicit Wildlife Trade." Environment.gov.za. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source mainly for statistics about rhino poaching and rhino poaching arrests.

"Minister Edna Molewa Highlights Progress in the War against Poaching and Plans for 2015." Environment.gov.za. N.p., 22 Jan. 2015. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source to talk about the most recent rhino poaching initiative and efforts in South Africa and also to learn about the progress of their proposal for a legal trade.

"Rhino Poaching at New Record Levels." The Citizen. N.p., 5 Nov. 2015. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. I used this source for information regarding the poaching statistics thus far in 2015 and how it is on pace to surpass last year’s record high numbers.

Secretariat, Cites. "CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF WILD FAUNA AND FLORA." CoP16 Doc. 54.2 (2013): n. pag. Cites.org. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source for information about CITES most recent strategies and plans regarding the rhino horn industry including poaching, illegal trade, and population numbers.

Emslie, Richard. "Latest Trends in Rhino Numbers and Poaching." CITES CoP16 (2013): n. pag. Cites.org. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source for information about the latest trends in rhino poaching and conservation efforts.

"The Problem." Breakingthebrand.org. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. This source had information about rhino poaching statistics.

Bale, Rachael. "A Brief History of the Long Fight to End Rhino Slaughter." National Geographic. National Geographic Society, 22 Sept. 2015. Web. Fall 2015. This article provided information about the history of rhino poaching in South Africa. It talked about John Hume and gave a timeline of major events that have happened with regards to rhinos that was useful for dates of events.

"Rhino Horn Import Ban (RHINO)." RHINO Case. American University, n.d. Web. Fall 2015.

"Diceros Bicornis." Iucnredlist.org. International Union on the Conservation of Nature, n.d. Web. Fall 2015. This is the IUCN redlist website that has a list of all endangered animals and their current population standing.

Weissman, Zach, ed. "Rhino Horn Demand." African Wildlife Foundation (n.d.): n. pag. Awf.org. African Wildlife Foundation. Web. Fall 2015.

Nowell, Kristin. "Assessment of Rhino Horn as a Traditional Medicine." CITES (2012): n. pag. Cites.org. Web. Fall 2015.

Taylor, Andrew, Kirsty Brebner, Rynette Coetzee, Harriet Davies­Mostert, Peter Lindsey, Jo Shaw, and Michael 't Sas Rolfes. The Viability of Legalising Trade in Rhino Horn in South Africa. Rep. Pretoria: SA DEA, 2014. The Viability of Legalising Trade in Rhino Horn in South Africa. South African Department of Environmental Affairs. Web. Fall 2015. This was one of my most used resources. Basically used it for all information in my paper. It highlights South Africa’s plan for legalizing rhino horn trade and why they think it will be beneficial.

"History Repeating: The Illegal Trade in Rhino Horn – EIA International." EIA International History Repeating The Illegal Trade in Rhino Horn Comments. N.p., 01 Feb. 2013. Web. Fall 2015. I used this to talk about the process of rhino horn being banned in China and many asian

countries as well as all info about the undercover rhino horn bust of a chinese Pharma company.

Guilford, Gwynn. "Why Does a Rhino Horn Cost $300,000? Because Vietnam Thinks It Cures Cancer and Hangovers." The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, 15 May 2013. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source to identify some of the current end use markets and uses in Vietnam and other Asian countries involved in the rhino horn trade.

"Poaching." EoEarth.org. N.p., 5 Oct. 2007. Web. Fall 2015.

Tatro, Samantha. "Nola, One of Four Northern White Rhinos in Existence, Dies." NBC 7 San Diego. N.p., 22 Nov. 2015. Web. 22 Nov. 2015.

Stimson, Brie. "Zoo Hopes to Breed Rhinos Through Frozen Zoo." NBC 7 San Diego. N.p., 31 July 2015. Web. 22 Nov. 2015.

Ellis, Katherine. "Tackling the Demand for Rhino Horn." Editorial. Horn Spring 2013: n. pag. Tackling the Demand for Rhino Horn. Save the Rhino International. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source for information about the demand for rhino horn in Vietnam and around the world.

"Poaching: The Statistics." Savetherhino.org. Save the Rhino International, n.d. Web. Fall 2015. This source was used mainly for poaching statistics.

"Speakers Call for Concerted Action to Crush Multibillion­Dollar Illicit Wildlife Trade as General Assembly Adopts Sweeping Text" UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. Fall 2015. This source was used to acknowledge the UN’s plan of action and response to the recent influx of wildlife crimes.

"National Wildlife Federation." Nwf.org. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015.

"Rhino." WorldWildlife.org. World Wildlife Fund, n.d. Web. Fall 2015.

"South Africa National Parks." Sanparks.org. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015.

"Welcome To African Parks." African Parks. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015.

"Wildlife Conservation Network." Wildlife Conservation Network. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015.

"Africa's Poaching Crisis – AWF." Awf.org. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. This is an inforgraphic I got a lot of statistics from about the current poaching crisis in Africa.

Pearce, Fred. "Why Africa's National Parks Are Failing to Save Wildlife." E360.yale.edu. Yale Environment 360, 19 Jan. 2010. Web. Fall 2015. This source was used for information and opinions about the current trade ban and what they think the benefits of a legal trade would be.

Sas Rolfes, Michael 't. "Rhino Economics." Rhino­Economics.com. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. This is a website i used heavily for information regarding the ban on the rhino horn trade as well as for information about the asian market. I used this source a lot.

Emslie, Richard, Tom Milliken, and Bibhab Talukdar. "African and Asian Rhinoceroses – Status, Conservation and Trade." Cites Conference of Parties (2009): n. pag. Cites.org. CITES, 20 Nov. 2009. Web. Fall 2015.

"The History of Rhino Poaching." Foreverwild.co.za. Wilderness Foundation, n.d. Web. Fall 2015.

"Checklist of CITES Species." Checklist.cites.org. CITES, n.d. Web. Fall 2015.

"What Is CITES?" Cites.org. CITES, n.d. Web. Fall 2015.

"Northern White Rhinos ­ Ol Pejeta Conservancy." Ol Pejeta Conservancy. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. The website of the conservatory holding all 3 of the remaining northern white rhinos.

Kurnit, Jennifer. "Diceros Bicornis (black Rhinoceros)." Animal Diversity Web. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source for information about the black rhino species.

"Female Nabiré, One of the Last Five Northern White Rhinos, Died." ZOO Dvůr Králové. N.p., 28 July 2015. Web. 29 Nov. 2015. I used this source for information about the Druv Kralove Zoo in the Czech Republic, now the only zoo in the world with a northern white rhino population.

"White Rhino." Savetherhino.org. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this for information about the white rhino species.

"White Rhinoceros." WWF. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this for information about the white rhinoceros species.

Baraniuk, Chris. "The Story of Rhinos and How They Conquered the World." BBC. N.p., 18 May 2015. Web. 29 Nov. 2015. I used this source for information about the history of the rhinoceros species.

Lise, Marla. "WWF, TCM Practitioners Rebut Rhino Horn And Cancer Cure Link." Asian Scientist Magazine Science Technology and Medicine News Updates From Asia. N.p., 18 Aug. 2011. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source for information about the reasons behind the use of rhino horn in eastern medicine. It also helped with information regarding the CITES meeting in 2011.

"Science Museum. Brought to Life: Exploring the History of Medicine." Medicine in China Today. N.p., n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source for information about Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Ellis, Richard. "Tiger Bone & Rhino Horn." Google Books. Island Press, 22 Feb. 2013. Web. 29 Nov. 2015. I used this for information about Traditional Chinese medicine. I quoted this book when it referenced a passage of Pen Ts’ao Kang Mu the Compendium of Materia Medica with regard for medicinal uses for rhino horn on page 40.

"Classics of Traditional Chinese Medicine: Emperors and Physicians." U.S National Library of Medicine. U.S. National Library of Medicine, n.d. Web. Fall 2015. I used this for information about Li Shizen, the author of Pen Ts’ao Kang Mu.

"Rhino Horn Use: Fact vs. Fiction." PBS. PBS, 20 Aug. 2010. Web. Fall 2015. I used this source for information about Jambiya daggers and the use of rhino horn in their handles. It also talked about tradition in yemen and how popular the daggers were.