aare 2008 lillemyr of. sobstad f. marder k. students ... · research project “the socio-cultural...
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AARE 2008 Lillemyr OF. Sobstad F. Marder K.
Students’ relatedness – a neglected aspect of motivation and learning?
Abstract
According to theory and research social aspects like friendship and sense of relatedness are
fundamental in the development of children’s cultural identity and achievement outcomes
(Deci & Ryan, 1995; Maehr & Midgley, 1999; Wentzel, 2005; Ladd, 2007). It is argued that
this is a motivational aspect often neglected in research studies focusing students’ motivation
and learning. Theory and research on motivation and learning show interesting relations exist
between students’ self-concept, motivation and preference of learning (McInerney, 2003;
Maehr & McInerney, 2004; Reeve, Deci & Ryan, 2004). In any culture, motivation and
preference of learning are founded in values and sets of knowledge. For Indigenous people in
particular, cultural values, sense of relatedness and self-determination are important elements
in school motivation (Duncan & Greymorning, 1999; The Sami, 2000; McCathy, 2002).
In this paper we discuss results from two comparative cross-cultural studies within the
research project “The Socio-Cultural Perspective on Play and Learning”. The aim was to
compare attitudes and beliefs among Indigenous students of Aboriginal Australian, Navajo
Indian, and Norwegian Sámi descent as opposed to students of Anglo Australian, Anglo
American and Ethnic Norwegian background. Methodological issues of importance in cross-
cultural research studies like this are discussed. Our research indicates friendship and sense of
competence are important to students’ motivation to participate and achieve in school, partly
confirming results from other research studies (Craven 1999; Hirvonen, 2004; Wentzel 2005;
Ladd, 2007). Results regarding interests in play, preference of learning, self-concept aspects
and school motivation are also presented and discussed.
We find sense of relatedness to be a quintessence in this concern, for which reason
social learning through social motivation (cf. Lillemyr, 2007) has to be taken more seriously
than often is done, in preschool and school alike. In these matters we think different cultures
may be inspired by each other.
Introduction
In recent years theory and research have increasingly argued that social aspects like friendship
and sense of relatedness are fundamental in the development of cultural identity and learning
(Deci & Ryan, 1995; Maehr & Midgley, 1999; Wentzel, 2005; Ladd, 2007). These
perspectives have to be taken into account in early childhood education and care institutions
(ECECs) as well as schools, to obtain quality learning environments (Urdan & Maehr, 1995).
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Since learning has now become the number one task both in early childhood education
institutions as well as in primary schools, a broader perspective on learning seems reasonable,
not least to attend to the concept of life long learning starting in children’s first year of life
(Schoenfeld, 1999; Lillemyr, Fagerli & Søbstad, 2001). In Norway in the last decades there
have been reforms and changes in Acts and frameworks for ECEC institutions, including
preschools and the first years of primary school addressing these trends (Knowledge
Promotion, 2006; Framework Plan, 2006). In some cases a reform was first of all considered a
reform focusing motivation (Lillemyr, 2002). In this perspective the inclusion of play has
become natural, although recently somewhat less emphasized in school. The same tendencies
including play can be seen in other countries (Broström, 1999; Dockett & Fleer, 1999;
Lindqvist, 2002; Samuelsson & Carlsson, 2003). Play is considered an important arena for
children in any culture (Huizinga, 1955) and a crucial component to children’s cognitive and
social development. For social learning to take place social motivation is often needed, the
most advantageous contributing to intrinsic motivation. Play is an essential component in the
socio-cultural theory of Vygotsky (1986), who argued play is a vital element especially
contributing to the acquisition of language and conceptual meaning. What a child is capable to
do with help from the teacher or a more experienced peer will in the next run be important to
the child’s sense of relatedness. However, the relevance of play is claimed by others as well
(White, 1959; Bateson, 1973; Levy, 1978; Csikszentmihalyi, 1985). On this basis it seems
reasonable to assume there would be a close relationship between children’s interests in play,
interests in learning and self-concept, motivation and achievement outcomes. Furthermore,
close relationships have been underlined between aspects of play, experimentation, creativity,
and effective learning (Lillemyr, 2001b; Søbstad, 1990; 2006). It seems social aspects, like
sense of relatedness often is a neglected aspect of motivation and learning, even if theory and
research emphasizes this aspect as a major component contributing to intrinsic motivation and
self-determined extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Recent research on preschool and
school indicate that aspects of social motivation often are underestimated, presumably more
often in school than in preschool.
For young children social learning concerns relationships to friends and to what
extent they feel competent and related in social contexts, in relation to peers and significant
others. As Wentzel said some years ago (1996:1)
The social worlds of children are pervasive and influential part of their lives at school.
Each day in class, children work to maintain and establish interpersonal relationships, they
strive to develop social identities and a sense of belongingness, they observe and model social
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skills and standards of performance displayed by others and they are rewarded for behaving
in ways that are valued by teachers and peers. We also know that children who display
socially competent behaviour in elementary school are more likely to excel academically
throughout their middle and high school years than those who do not.
As Wentzel has continually emphasized, research has paid surprisingly little attention
to the social aspects of motivation, and we also know that humour can be a facilitator of social
competence (Søbstad, 2006; Bergen, 2007).
A Socio-cultural Perspective on Play and Learning
The concept of learning is important in all cultures, although, research has pointed out that the
extent of importance of preschool and school, vary from one culture to the other. However, it
is a well-known fact that the attitudes towards and interests in school learning vary a lot
between cultural groups. “A Socio-cultural Perspective on Play and Learning” has been an
ongoing study which started in 2001. In the study we compare characteristic cultural profiles
among Indigenous students (Aboriginal Australian, Navajo Indian, Sámi) and Western
students (Anglo Australian, Anglo American, Ethnic Norwegian) regarding interests in free
and directed learning, free and directed play, aspects of self-concept, and motivational
orientations. Do various cultural groups have different attitudes towards school learning? And
to what extent is play as a central element of culture important in this regard? In this concern
students’ endorsement of choice and sense of relatedness and cultural belonging were
assumed to be essential, as well as the aspect of language were presumed to play an important
role in their sense of cultural identity in relation to learning and development in school.
Of course Australia, Norway and Arizona (USA) represent three different parts of the
world, although they all have Indigenous people as a minority group, a fact that provide
certain educational challenges to these countries/states (Craven, 1999; The Sámi, 2000;
McCarty, 2002; Flood, 2006). Besides, it has been argued they all represent a global
perspective with a common struggle for recognition and self-determination as central
Indigenous issues in their respective nation-states (Duncan & Greymorning, 1999: 173). The
Sámi people in Norway count around 1.3 % of the country’s inhabitants. They live in
Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia; Norway having the largest population of Sami people,
around 50-60.000 people. The only Sámi university college, Sámi Allaskuvla, in this region
was established in Kautokeino, Norway in 1989. The Aborigines count around 2.3 % of the
inhabitants of Australia. At the start of the 21st century, fewer than 200 different Aboriginal
Australian languages remain and all except roughly 20 are highly endangered. Of those that
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survive, only 10%, usually located in the most isolated areas, are being learned by children.
The Navajo people today count close to 300.000 inhabitants or 1 % of the inhabitants of USA.
However, the Native Americans (Indians) in USA in total count approximately 1.5 % of its
inhabitants, if Part Indigenous people are counted. The Norwegian samples were chosen as we
expected that there might be different preferences for play and learning amongst these two
groups relative to the Australian and American groups, among other things, owing to the
inclusion of play in the Norwegian curriculum. Compared to the other two minorities, it has to
be kept in mind that the Norwegian Sámi students from 1997 have their own Sámi curriculum
guidelines and are taught in the Sámi language by Sámi teachers (Sámi Curriculum
Guidelines, 1997). We also anticipated there may be differences between the Indigenous
students, as well as between Indigenous and Western students, on learning preferences, self-
concepts and motivational orientations, as well as differences between the sexes. However,
the Indigenous groups in all these countries have been found to underachieve in school and
having a majority of students not much interested in further education after school graduation
(Commonwealth of Australia, 1995; Eckermann, 1999; McInerney, 2003; Nystad, 2003).
Even if these groups have rather different conditions of schooling, they still have common
educational challenges, for which reason it is interesting to make comparisons in terms of
interests in learning, self-concept and motivation.
Research questions
The research questions for the studies were:
1 What are the similarities and differences between Indigenous vs. Western
students’ learning preference (directed or free), interests in play (directed or
free), motivational orientation (mastery, social, performance), and self-concept
(cognitive, social, and general self) in Australia, Norway and USA?
2 What gender similarities and differences exist within the Australian,
Norwegian, and American student groups?
3 Are there significant differences between the Indigenous students’ endorsement
of teacher-directed activities (learning, play, local cultural activities) compared
to free activities? Are there gender differences within the Indigenous student
groups’ endorsement of teacher-directed activities compared to free activities?
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Method
General approach
In this comparative study a combined approach was chosen. In Study 1 a selection of
scales in a questionnaire were applied to collect third and fourth grade students’ self reported
expression of interests, aspects of self-concept and aspects of motivation. In Study 2, follow-
up qualitative interviews were administered to samples of the same categories of students as
in Study 1, in addition to interviews with their teachers. A cross-sectional approach was
chosen, as the students participating in interviews were not the same ones as those who had
answered the questionnaire a few years earlier. Methods of analyses were cross tabulations, t-
tests, correlations and Manova analyses, in addition to analyses of qualitative interviews. The
questionnaire was administered in 2002-2004, and interviews run in 2006-2007.
Methodological challenges in cross-cultural studies
A major challenge in cross-cultural studies is getting access to the field. Through the
history of research in social anthropology, sociology and other subjects, researchers have met
serious problems when trying to collect data in cultures different from their own culture.
William Foote Whyte (1965) presents his struggle and tactical solutions in the sociological
classic Street Corner Society when he was studying youth culture and gang activities in one of
the big cities in the US. His access to the group was facilitated by the gang leader, Doc. He
became Whyte's gate opener to the field. In our study we were helped to get access to the
schools by researchers that previously had done research in the schools where Indigenous
students were attending. Studies like ours are dependent on accept and support from people
with formal or informal power to let a researcher into the field. The question in some cross-
cultural studies are not who your are going to get information from, but if there are people
willing to share their attitudes, experiences and values with the researcher (Gran 2007: 31).
Many years of conflicts between a white majority and Indigenous groups and long-
lasting distrust to all representatives of the majority culture in general, and may be white
researchers in particular. In carrying out our research, we were grateful to the cooperation
from experienced colleagues having done research among Indigenous groups previously and
for their support in opening gates for us. On a wall in a museum in Sydney we can read a text
claiming that the Aboriginal Australians are one of the most studied Indigenous groups in the
world, but possibly the group least understood. This means that many Aboriginals are
sceptical to meet more white researchers.
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Another challenge was of course to communicate with Indigenous students and
interpret their answers. To exchange views with a person with a different mother tongue and
cultural identity were a special challenge to us and therefore our interpretations must be
evaluated with caution. In general, we claim that all the students we interviewed understood
our questions, but still we assume a weakly developed majority language (Norwegian or
English) among a few of the Indigenous students could have affected the quality of the
interview. If so, this will of course affect the reliability of our research, illustrating the
challenges we met in this cross-cultural study. Then there is the use of interpreters
(translators). Other studies report there are problems when using interpreters. Asymmetry and
cultural control over the answers can be a problem in relation to the respondents’ feelings of
freedom and control in the situation (Gran 2007:33, 41f). In our studies we met this challenge
with using Indigenous teachers or teacher assistants to compensate for this. Still, we could not
be sure mistakes or translation nuances were not taking place. Despite the challenges, we are
convinced that we as a general picture obtained reliable and valid data, not least because of
the interest and openness we met among students, teachers and school leaders from the
different cultures.
Participants
Participants (Indigenous students) for study 1 were drawn from four Australian Primary
Schools, six Norwegian Primary Schools and one Navajo elementary school, and one Anglo
American (urban) school. The total sample size of Indigenous (minority) group students was
331: 130 Aboriginal Australian, 144 Sámi Norwegian, and 57 Navajo American. In all cases
students were drawn from grade 3 and 4, aged 8, 9 and 10, except for Navajo students that
were drawn from grade 3, 4 and 5, aged 8, 9, 10 and 11. In total 49.5 % of the students in
Indigenous groups were male and 51.6 % of Western groups were male. In Norway Sami
Norwegian students are taught in the Sami language and have their own national Sami
curriculum guidelines. The Navajo students are taught in both English and Navajo. This is
different in Australia where the Australian Aboriginal students go to mainstream schools
together with Anglo Australian students, are taught in English, and follow regular school
curricula. An urban school of mainly Anglo Australian students were included as well.
Furthermore, in the case of Norway and Australia, data from Western (majority) groups
were collected as well; encompassing Anglo Australian students in Sydney, N=496, and
ethnic Norwegian students in the city of Trondheim, N=223, in addition to Anglo Australian
and ethnic Norwegian students in the above mentioned rural schools, and in addition to N= 26
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Anglo American students in New Mexico. In study 1 Western group students and Indigenous
group students in total included 1076 students, altogether.
In the interview study (study two) 10 Aboriginal students, 32 Sámi students, and 15
Navajo students were interviewed; a total of 57 Indigenous students. The Western students
interviewed encompassed 20 Anglo Australian (rural and urban) and 36 ethnic Norwegian (5
rural + 31 urban), and 30 Anglo American students, altogether 86 Western students.
In addition these students’ teachers were interviewed. In Australia all teachers
interviewed were Anglo Australian (N=9). In Norway there were 8 Sámi teachers and 8 ethnic
Norwegian teachers interviewed (a total of N=16), all interviewed in Norwegian. In Arizona,
the 3 teachers in the Navajo school interviewed, were two of Navajo background and one of
Anglo American background; and in the Anglo American school 3 Anglo American teachers
were interviewed. Teachers in Australia and USA were interviewed in English. This
constituted a total of 31 third and fourth grade teachers interviewed.
Instruments applied in Study 1
1 Choice and interest
To collect information about students’ choice of free or directed activities in learning,
play and local cultural activities, a revised version of an instrument developed for an earlier
study (Lillemyr et al., 1998), was used, focusing on choice (interests) in learning, play and
local cultural activities. This is a Norwegian one item rating scale revised and translated into
English and Sámi, and Navajo. Students’ choice of free or directed learning was set in the
school context, whereas students’ choice of free or directed play targeted play in school, at
home or elsewhere. Students’ knowledge of and interest in local cultural activities was
indicated through their interest in typical activities of their local community or among
relatives. The activities can be special handicraft like making baskets, playing special games,
singing songs, saying rhymes, and training special skills like playing the didgeridoo
(Aboriginal Australians) or doing duodji or Sámi handicraft (Sámi Norwegians).
The dimension of students’ choice in learning, play, and local cultural activities, was
examined according to three conditions: student chosen, teacher directed, or shared choice
between student and teacher/adult. From this nine conditions were inferred.
Students were asked about their interest when the activities are free (student chosen),
directed (adult or teacher chosen), or guided or shared (a combination of both). Student
answers varied between the categories “not at all”, “somewhat”, “much”, and “very much”.
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There are nine items altogether, tapping different kinds of choice/interest.
2 Self-Concept
To collect data about Self-Concept we used the Self Perception Profile for Children (SPPC,
Harter, 1979). This scale was designed to measure students’ self perceptions of competence
across four domains: cognitive competence reflects primarily academic performance (“some
kids feel they are very good at their schoolwork”), social competence reflects popularity with
peers (“some kids find it hard to make friends”), physical competence (not used in our study),
and general self-esteem or feelings of worth (“some kids are pretty sure of themselves”).
Harter added this scale to shed light on the relationship between a child’s feelings of
competence and his or her feelings of personal worth. Each scale consists of seven items and
is measured on a four point Likert scale. For our study we only included three dimensions
most relevant to school work, namely, cognitive competence, social competence and general
self-esteem.
3 Intrinsic motivation
To collect data on intrinsic motivation, we used the Scale of Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
Orientation in the Classroom (Harter, 1980; 1981). These scales (Harter, 1980) were designed
to examine the degree to which a child’s motivation for classroom learning is determined by
his or her intrinsic interest in learning or extrinsic motivational orientation, such as seeking
teacher approval or good grades. Of the five dimensions of classroom orientation included in
the scale, three were applied in this study: preference for challenge versus preference for easy
work (“some kids like hard work because it is a challenge”); independent mastery versus
dependence on the teacher (if some kids get stuck on a problem they ask the teacher for
help”); curiosity and interest versus pleasing the teacher and getting grades (“some kids ask
questions in class because they want to learn new things”). Each scale consists of six items,
with answers on a four point Likert scale.
4 School motivation
Information about general school motivation was collected with three subscales from
The General Achievement Goal Orientation Scale (McInerney, 2000; McInerney, Marsh,
Yeung, 2003). This scale (GAGOS) includes sets of items that reflect general motivation in
three targeted areas, namely, general mastery (“I am most motivated when I see my work
improving”), general performance (“I am most motivated when I am doing better than
others”), and general social (“I am most motivated when I work with others”). This
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instrument has also been analyzed according to socio-cultural groups like this before
(McInerney, Yeung & McInerney, 2001).
Appropriate ethical clearances were obtained prior to administering the survey and the
interviews to the students. Information regarding students’ ethnic background was collected
from the teachers after the completion of the survey and before doing interview. The scales
were analyzed for reliability, in addition to exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses
(Lillemyr, McInerney, Søbstad & Valaas, 2004; McInerney, Lillemyr & Søbstad, 2004).
The study 2 approach
Study 2 was designed as a qualitative study. In this study qualitative semi-structured
interviews were chosen as the method of data collection. Appropriate interview guides and
questions were developed for students and for their 3rd and 4th grade teachers respectively.
The interview guides and questions were developed in English and Norwegian versions. In
Australia and USA the English versions were used. In Norway the Norwegian versions were
used both to Sámi and ethnic Norwegian students; however, for 3rd grade Sámi students Sámi
teachers were advised to use Sámi teachers as translators. For 3rd grade Sámi students the
questions were read in Norwegian by the researcher and then translated into Sámi to make
sure they understood all the questions properly. Interviews of teachers were taped, and then
transcribed and systematized. Interviews of students were taken down with pen and paper by
the researcher, and then transcribed and systematized, because school leaders was afraid some
parents would not accept electronic taping of their child’s responses.
Interview guides and questions are enclosed. There were developed 20 questions for
students and 16 questions for teachers. The questions also included background factors like
sex, age (or age group), grade (or number of years of teaching) and ethnicity.
Results
In this presentation based upon several types of analyses, we focus on four major components
of results from both Study 1 and Study 2. We have in several papers and articles presented
preliminary analyses from the two studies (cf. Lillemyr, McInerney, Søbstad & Valaas, 2004;
Lillemyr, McInerney, Flowerday, 2005; Lillemyr, Søbstad, Marder, Flowerday and Bang,
2007; Lillemyr, Søbstad, Marder, Flowerday and Bang, 2008).
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In general, stronger differences were documented between Indigenous students and
Western students, than between the different Indigenous groups. This is a fact in support of
the legitimacy of including Indigenous students from three different countries located in three
different parts of the world in the very same study (cf. Duncan & Greymorning, 1999).
The main results from the studies will in the following be presented in relation to four
areas.
1 Self-Concept
In general we found clear indications of Indigenous students holding lower self-
concept values than Western group students.
• For Australian students: Aboriginal students were lower in General Self-Esteem
• For Norwegian students: Sámi students were lower in Social Self
• For American students: Navajo Indian male students were lower in General Self-
esteem
Insert Figure 1 about here
These results were confirmed with Manova analyses for all six groups and for
Indigenous groups, only, and Western groups only, respectively (Lillemyr, McInerney,
Søbstad & Valaas, 2004; Lillemyr, McInerney & Flowerday, 2005).
In this concern it is important to state the school conditions of the Indigenous students
in the three countries were markedly different. In Australia Indigenous students included in
this study went to main stream schools and were taught in English together with Anglo
Australian students. I USA Indigenous students participating in this study went to a Navajo
school, established and driven by Navajo authorities and taught in Navajo and English, with
mostly Navajo teachers. In Norway Sámi students included in this study go to Sámi schools
with mostly Sámi students and are taught in Sámi by Sámi teachers and according to a
specific Sámi Curriculum Guidelines. We consider the teaching language to be a fundamental
school condition aspect, as we assume the opportunity to speak their own culture’s language
is important to develop a sense of relatedness to the culture as well as to the school’s learning
environment. Despite these differences in school conditions, we found clear similarities
between the groups in terms of low Self Concept. We interpret this a consequence of
Indigenous students to a lesser degree have their need of self-determination satisfied,
compared to Western students, and consequently will have a lower sense of relatedness to the
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school culture. However, this does not mean they have a lower social and cultural sense of
relatedness in general (Nystad, 2003).
These results to some extent confirm what has been found with older students
(McInerney, 2003), even if our results with younger students clearly pointed to more
differences than have often been found with older students. We find this reasonable, as for
older students the process of school socialisation has been going on for several more years. In
addition there is in some countries a rather high drop-out percent among Indigenous students.
Interestingly, we did not find significant differences in terms of Academic Self between
Indigenous and Western students.
2 Interest in Play
In this study we found differences between socio-cultural groups of students in
regard to interest in free activities, as opposed to interest in teacher-directed activities, as we
found differences between the cultures on learning, play and local cultural activities.
However, more differences were found between the two student groups in Norway and in
Arizona/New Mexico, than between the two Australian groups.
Insert Table 1
From Study 1 we found interest in free play to be strong in all groups, independent of
cultural background. This suggests that play represents a great potential for motivation in
school, as intrinsic motivation is a main characteristic of play (Levy, 1978). All cultural
groups turned out to have a high interest in free play, confirming that play is important to
young children in all cultures, as claimed by several (Huizinga, 1955; Bateson, 1973). In total,
all students in the three countries have an active attitude towards play, in particular at home
and in recess time. However, play in class is most representative among ethnic Norwegian
students, than among Sámi students; among students in USA and Australia it seems that play
in class seldom occur. The exception seems to be the use of games in mathematics. In
conclusion, this indicates the inclusion of play and a substantial extent of free choice in
activities seem adequate to promote involvement in learning in a broad sense of the word. Not
least, this also suggest for the inclusion of the social aspects of learning (cf. Schoenfeld, 1999;
Wentzel, 2005). Indigenous students’ higher interest in directed play, compared to non-
Indigenous students can be caused by different factors. We assume one reason for this might
be that adult-directed play for Indigenous children is more closely tied to cultural traditions,
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than in non-Indigenous societies, because of their stronger tradition of respect for adults and
relatives.
Interestingly, the importance of interest in play to students’ interest in learning
differed substantially according to group. To Indigenous students the relation play-learning
seemed first of all to be a relation through directed activities. For ethnic Norwegian students,
a moderately high significant correlation was found between interest in free learning and
interest in free play (r= .31), a result found for these students only. We believe this might be
caused by the heavy emphasis on play as an integral element and a broad concept of learning
in Norwegian schools according to ‘Reform 97’, emphasizing free activities and play in the
curriculum, to promote students’ interests in experimentation, creativity, and initiatives to
seek various solutions. This supports a concept of learning drawing heavily on autonomy,
choice and mastery orientation (cf. Maehr & Braskamp, 1986; Deci & Ryan, 1995). This does
not seem to have affected the Sámi students to the same extent yet (cf. The Sámi Curriculum
Guidelines 1997). The results from this study confirmed the results of other studies carried out
in Norway as evaluation of ‘Reform 97’ at Saami schools (Hirvonen, 2004; Lauhamaa, 2004).
Interviews of Indigenous students clearly indicate that play is an important and
dominating activity in recess time at school (see interview form, version Australia enclosed).
Among the Sámi students play with snow, a merry go round machine in the school yard and
play with friends are mentioned in particular. In Arizona all students tell they are playing in
the recess time. All Indigenous students seem often to play “tag” (Arizona) or “tips”
(Australia) or “sura” (Norway), and hide and seek. Playing with a ball is popular, especially
football (soccer) in Norway, but also jumping with elastic cord. The students say they are
playing a lot both in school and at home. As far as play in class is concerned, the answers
from Sámi students in Norway vary a lot. Some say they are allowed to play in class, others
say they are not, some says some times. Half of the Sámi students think they learn better with
play. This attitude towards play in class was clearly more positive among ethnic Norwegian
students. In Arizona most Navajo students say there are never play in class, although a few
says it can happen in mathematics and writing. However, a majority of the Navajo students
think they would learn better with play. Anglo American students say they play in the
playground at school, and some times have games in mathematics. Some say they never play
in class. In Australia a few says they are having play in class, some says they don’t and some
says it happens some times. However, a majority of Australian students (Aboriginal and
Anglo) indicated that they thought learning would be better with play. A few are more
13
reluctant. Those having a positive attitude in this area, argued that they would enjoy learning
more “because you can have fun at the same time as learning and achieving”.
3 Preference of learning
The higher interest in directed learning for Indigenous groups in Norway and Australia
was to some degree confirmed among the Navajo students. Most Indigenous students
endorsed directed learning more than free learning (Lillemyr, McInerney & Flowerday,
2005). However, female Navajo students were found to be more strongly interested in free
learning than any of the other Indigenous groups. The tendencies among Indigenous students
were rather contrary to the profiles found among non-Indigenous students in the countries.
(See tables from t-tests of means. Manova analyses were also run, not presented here. See
Lillemyr, McInerney & Flowerday, 2005.)
Insert table 2, 3 and 4 about here
In a way it seems that Indigenous students prefer teacher directed learning more than
free learning where they can take initiative, be creative and experimental and therefore
influence stronger on their learning activities. With a few exceptions we found that
Indigenous students endorsed a traditional concept of learning at school, directed by the
teacher. More recently, the availability of children’s co-decision in preschool and school is
emphasized in some countries’ recent curriculum guidelines (Knowledge promotion, 2006;
Framework Plan, 2006). However, there is evidence that the concept of learning within
Indigenous cultures traditionally have been more like free learning, although they are also in
favor of learning from an adults or a relatives (Nystad, 2003). For this reason their beliefs
about school learning seems to reflect their perceptions of the concept of learning in the
majority culture. Anyway, it is not easy to state the one kind of learning concept is better or
more advantageous than the other.
As far as interest in free learning is concerned; learning where students typically can
make choices, take initiatives, experiment with solutions and be creative; interesting gender
differences were found between the three Indigenous groups. Whereas girls are higher
interested than boys in free learning in the Aboriginal group, boys are higher interested than
girls in free learning in the Sámi group. Here the Navajo group seemed to follow the
Aboriginal group. However, in the Navajo group a considerable difference was found
between boys and girls both on Interest in free learning and interest in directed learning, in
both cases in favor of the girls (Lillemyr, McInerney & Flowerday, 2005). In regard to
14
interest in free learning this result is similar to what we found in the Aboriginal group, but not
so for interest in directed learning. In the case of Sámi students the gender difference is for
both types of interest in learning the other way around.
Insert figures 1b and 1c about here
This is what we have come to call an opposite kind of gender difference. Sámi boys
being clearly more interested in free learning coincides with what has been found in other
research on Sámi students (Nystad 2003; Hirvonen 2004), indicating that Sámi boys, although
not much interested in further education, typically favor experimenting, finding creative
solutions and being autonomous in their learning. Some Sámi boys want to end up as reindeer
owners staying in their local district, others wish to take on other occupations related to the
Sámi culture and tradition. The Sámi girls on the other hand have higher educational
ambitions, but adapt to school by being teacher directed in their approach. (See figure 3.)
Insert figure 3 here
As no significant differences on interest in free or directed learning were found in
Manova analysis with the Indigenous student groups (Lillemyr, McInerney & Flowerday,
2005), a rerun of a Manova analysis for the three Indigenous groups with two fixed factors,
sex and socio-cultural background (and the interaction between them) was done (see table 5).
Insert table 5 about here
A significant difference for the interaction sex by socio-cultural background was found
for interests in free learning (table 5). (Mean Navajo: male=3.00, female=3.60; mean Sámi,
male= 3.26, female= 2.85; mean Abor: male=2.95, female= 3.19, 2/309 degrees of freedom,
p= .002). This confirms that an interaction effect does exist. This seems to indicate all
Indigenous students function in their countries as minority groups, but in diverse ways,
probably caused, among other things, by the fact that different school conditions are provided.
It is interesting to see from the interview study (Study 2) that most students like it a lot
at school, maybe because they have pleasant experiences there and not least because they
have the welcome opportunity to play with friends. This was the case for Indigenous students
as well as for non-Indigenous students. Obviously, play is an important factor for them, both
in school and at home. They no doubt thrive at school, except for a few who don’t like to be
harassed by other students, also pointing to the importance of relatedness. Assumedly, this
clearly reflects students’ need for social and cultural relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1995,
Wentzel, 2005). Indigenous students’ answers on questions if students should have something
15
to say on what is going on in the classroom, most Sámi students say no. A few think they
should. Most would not like to decide about methods. In Australia some Aboriginal students
think they should have something to say, others do not. But most of them don’t think they
should have a saying in selecting methods. This confirms most Indigenous students’
endorsement of teacher directed learning at school. Answers on these questions of non-
Indigenous students were different from this, as they more tended to like to have a saying on
what is going on in the classroom.
In conclusion, Indigenous students seem to strongly endorse teacher-directed learning,
and not so much favor free learning activities; contrary to the non-Indigenous students, in
particular ethnic Norwegian students.
4 School Motivation
In relation to school motivation orientation, we found different profiles in the different
countries. In general, Indigenous students were found to be more strongly oriented towards
social motivation. Furthermore they showed somewhat stronger orientation towards
performance motivation. As can be seen in table 6, analyses of all six socio-cultural samples
disclosed a clear tendency of differences between the socio-cultural groups on all three types
of school motivation. The strongest tendency of difference was found on social motivation
and performance motivation. For example, both Australian groups and both American groups
were more strongly performance oriented than the two Norwegian groups, and particularly the
Anglo American group was less strongly mastery oriented than the other groups. In Norway,
Sámi students were stronger oriented towards social motivation compared to ethnic
Norwegian students. In Australia, the Anglo Australian students were more strongly social
oriented than the Aboriginal students.
Manova analyses across the three types of motivation in school indicated an overall
main effect by cultural group (Pillais = .000). The follow – up F tests show there is a
significant difference between the six groups on performance motivation, and a significant
difference between the groups on social motivation. The significant difference on
performance motivation was also found between the two Australian and the two Norwegian
groups in preliminary analyses (Lillemyr, McInerney, Søbstad & Valaas, 2004). The
significance for the difference between cultural groups on performance motivation was found
with F= 17.66 (3/1041 degrees of freedom, and p< .000) and a significance for the difference
on social motivation was found with F= 4.90 (3/1041 degrees of freedom, and p< .000). A
16
significant difference between sex groups was found on social motivation only with F = 8.35
(p< .004). As can be seen from table 6, a significant interaction effect between socio-cultural
background and sex was found on mastery motivation (p< .002).
Insert table 6 here
Manova analyses with the three Indigenous and the three non-Indigenous groups respectively,
tables not enclosed here, disclosed the following tendencies:
• Among Indigenous students, significant differences were found on social motivation
and performance motivation, in particular among the boys.
• Among non-Indigenous students, significant differences were found on mastery,
social and performance motivation, in particular Anglo American students were less
mastery and socially oriented in their school motivation.
This is a clear indication that non-Indigenous students did have different profiles of
motivation, as well as Indigenous students. Both Norwegian groups were less performance
oriented than the other groups, probably partly caused by the recent school reforms in
Norway.
In conclusion this seems to indicate social motivation is an important area for
developmental efforts in school. For both groups an interaction effect was found between
cultural background and sex, so maybe different strategies have to be applied to boys and girls
in terms of enhancing motivation in school.
In USA, Navajo students showed stronger orientation towards mastery motivation and
social motivation, than Anglo American students, as far as girls were concerned. In Australia,
on the other hand there was not found any differences, however Indigenous girls were lower
mastery oriented than Anglo Australian girls. One reason for not finding as many differences
in Australia could be caused by the fact that both the participating student groups go to
mainstream schools, contrary to the participating Indigenous students in USA and Norway
who go to specific Indigenous schools and are taught in their own culture’s language.
Discussion
A strength of this study is its combination of applying quantitative and qualitative data from
Indigenous groups of remote and difficult to access areas and languages (Aboriginal
Australian, Sámi Norwegian and Navajo Indian), as well as data from non-Indigenous
mainstream groups. A challenge, on the other hand has been the different school conditions
17
for these Indigenous groups in terms of teaching language, type of school, and the relation to
the majority culture’s language and school policy. Studies among such groups are typically
small scale qualitative studies. In some parts of the research we were dependent on
interpreters. To collect data in these schools therefore has been a real challenge
methodologically. Then we also had to attend to the ongoing recent reforms in the countries.
Because of these factors, we chose an approach with different methods of data collection and
data analyses.
In a life long learning perspective, it is essential to see the importance of learning and
development in preschool as fundamental for children’s learning and achievement in primary
and secondary school. Results from this study have indicated social aspects and sense of
relatedness to be fundamental to students’ self-concept and motivation. In the cultural profiles
indicated this seems to be elements of special importance for Indigenous students, in
particular on background of their struggle for respect and self-determination through the
years. According to self-determination theory, sense of relatedness and competence, in
addition to having influence on their learning in school, is a momentous value. Indigenous
students were found to be lower in Self-Concept aspects, especially on self-esteem and social
self. We have also seen that all children, even 8 to 10 year olds, have a need for free play,
showing clearly the potential of play to school learning, not least when taking into account
play’s main dimension of intrinsic motivation. Play is more than any activity relying on social
aspects and relatedness. In play children interact with others and build social competence,
which will in the next run provide them with useful experiences and a potential for creativity,
experimentation and learning strategies. However, applying play in class does represent
challenges for the teacher (Lillemyr, 2003). In terms of interest in learning, we argue for the
potential of free learning, in particular among Indigenous students. However, a broad and
useful concept of learning might have to include some aspects of directed learning as well. An
exchange between play and learning, and a variation between free learning and directed
learning can be interesting to explore, even if it is also challenging. The documentation of
interaction effect between cultural background and gender in interest in free learning has to be
more thoroughly examined. AS it is argued, gender differences in relation to competence and
motivation have to be more thoroughly examined in future research (Hyde & Durik, 2005).
In regard of motivational orientation, we found some student groups to be too heavily
performance oriented. Our results indicate social motivation should be a target perspective for
teachers to enhance students’ motivation for school learning and interest in future education,
based on students’ sense of relatedness. It is a provocative thought that motivation for school
18
learning seems to be an even bigger challenge to Indigenous students, than to non-Indigenous
students.
Research has documented that how well children thrive in preschool and school and to
what extent they are motivated, is dependent on their satisfaction of fundamental
psychological needs. This is the case for all children, however, of special importance for
Indigenous students (Reeve, Deci & Ryan, 2004; Ladd, 2007). This is well illustrated in the
strong history of how the Navajo Indians built their own school in Rough Rock in 1966,
which is but one such history (McCarty, 2002). Satisfaction of the need for belongingness,
self-determination and competence, will provide a base for well-being, acknowledgment,
respect, interest and engagement. On this background, we find sense of relatedness to be a
quintessence in this concern, and we see several of our results as an indication of this.
Research has indicated there are still challenges to be met in regard of obtaining equality in
education in all three countries, regardless of socio-cultural background, gender, etc. One
issue concerns students’ influence in the classroom. (Cf. UN’s Convention on the Rights of
the Child 1989) It is clear that further research with larger samples as well as more small scale
studies will be needed to confirm the results.
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Tables Table 1 Interest in Learning, Play, and Local Cultural Activities, According to Gender (Answers ‘Very Much’
and ‘Much’ in Percentage) – Indigenous and Western groups in Norway and Australia ________________________________________________________________________________________________
A N G L O* A B O R* NOR* S Á M I* ANGLOA* NAVAJO*
___________ ___________ __________ ___________ _________ _________
Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Int free learn** 82.3* 80.8 65.7 81.8 79.5 72.3* 76.1 61.2 90.0 53.3 63.0 90.0
Int dir learn** 55.3 58.1 73.5* 73.9* 52.2 58.9 86.6* 74.6* 33.4 20.0 76.7 55.5
Int free play** 95.8 95.7 90.6 89.4 86.5 88.9 82.3 85.1 100.0 93.3 92.6 90.0
Int dir play** 36.3 44.3 61.9* 54.6* 34.5 33.3 53.8* 50.7 26.7 0.0 66.7 62.9
Int free l c a** 80.0 82.7 82.8 89.2 74.1 81.5 83.8 88.0 60.0 86.6 88.9 93.4
Int dir l c a** 47.1 53.4 65.6* 55.4 29.7 30.8 60.8* 53.8* 46.7 50.0 73.3 59.3
The corresponding chi-squares’ sign AUS The corresponding chi-squares’ sign Norway Boys Girls Boys Girls
Free learn .029 ns ns .041 Dir learn .047 .025 .000 .023 Free play ns ns ns ns Dir play .000 .023 .015 ns Free l c a ns ns ns ns Dir l c a .002 ns .000 .001
The corresponding chi-squares’ sign USA Boys Girls
Free learn ns .031 Dir learn .096 .066 Free play ns .013 Dir play .003 .013 Free l c a ns ns Dir l c a .076 ns Abbreviations: *Anglo=Anglo-Australian students, Abor= Aboriginal-Australian students, Nor= Ethnic Norwegian students, Sámi= Sámi students, ANGLOA= Anglo American students, Navajo= Navajo Indian students **Free/dir learn= interest in free vs. directed learning activities, Free/dir play= interest in free vs. directed play activities, Free/dir l c a= interest in free vs. directed local cultural activities
26
Table 2 Interests in Learning, Play, and Local Cultural Activities, results of t-tests – Indigenous and Western groups in Australia
_________________________________________________________________________ N Mean t Sig _________________________________________________________________________ Int free learn 495* 3.25 1.73 ns 130* 3.09 _________________________________________________________________________ Int dir learn 494 2.70 -2.28 .023 129 2.93 _________________________________________________________________________ Int free play 495 3.77 2.00 .046 130 3.65 _________________________________________________________________________ Int dir play 492 2.21 -3.51 .000 129 2.58 _________________________________________________________________________ Int free l c a 491 3.23 -2.24 .026 129 3.42 _________________________________________________________________________ Int dir l c a 491 2.53 -2.14 .033 129 2.74 _________________________________________________________________________ * Anglo Australian students: N = 495, 494, etc.; Aboriginal students: N = 130, 129, etc. Table 3 Interests in Learning, Play, and Local Cultural Activities, results of t-tests –Indigenous and Western
groups in Norway _________________________________________________________________________ N Mean t Sig _________________________________________________________________________ Int free learn 222* 3.11 1.17 ns 141* 3.00 _________________________________________________________________________ Int dir learn 220 2.68 -5.30 .000 141 3.18 _________________________________________________________________________ Int free play 221 3.51 1.39 ns 142 3.39 _________________________________________________________________________ Int dir play 220 2.20 -3.55 .000 139 2.58 _________________________________________________________________________ Int free l c a 222 3.21 -1.63 ns
27
142 3.36 _________________________________________________________________________ Int dir l c a 220 2.20 -6.20 .000 143 2.79 _________________________________________________________________________ * Ethnic Norwegian students: N = 222, etc. Sámi students: N = 142, etc. Table 4 Interests in Learning, Play, and Local Cultural Activities, results of t-tests –Indigenous and Western
groups in Arizona _________________________________________________________________________ N Mean t Sig _________________________________________________________________________ Int free learn 57* 3.32 1.05 ns 25* 3.04 _________________________________________________________________________ Int dir learn 57 3.11 3.79 .000 25 2.20 _________________________________________________________________________ Int free play 57 3.63 -1.55 ns 25 3.88 _________________________________________________________________________ Int dir play 57 2.93 5.39 .000 25 1.56 _________________________________________________________________________ Int free l c a 57 3.58 1.32 ns 25 3.32 _________________________________________________________________________ Int dir l c a 57 3.11 2.02 .047 25 2.56 _________________________________________________________________________ * Anglo American students: N = 25 Navajo students: N = 57
28
Table 5 Manova analysis (tests of between-subjects effects) with the three Indigenous groups as a sample, six types of interest (dependent variables) and socio-cultural background and sex as fixed variables
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Dependent variable Df Df Error Mean sq F Sig
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Soscult Int free learn 2 309 1.34 1.35 .260
Int dir learmn 2 309 2.22 2.54 .081
Int free play 2 309 1.80 2.69 .069
Int dir play 2 309 2.70 2.08 .126
Int free l c a 2 309 0.82 1.38 .252
Int dir lca 2 309 2.67 2.54 .081
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Sex Int free learn 1 309 1.36 1.37 .244
Int dir learmn 1 309 .85 .97 .326
Int free play 1 309 .13 .20 .655
Int dir play 1 309 .17 .13 .721
Int free l c a 1 309 .40 .67 .414
Int dir lca 1 309 .11 .10 .753
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Soscult x Sex Int free learn 2 309 6.17 6.21 .002
Int dir learmn 2 309 2.56 2.92 .055
Int free play 2 309 .03 .04 .962
Int dir play 2 309 .59 .46 .635
Int free l c a 2 309 .03 .05 .956
Int dir lca 2 309 1.34 1.28 .280
29
Table 6 Manova analysis (tests of between-subjects effects) with the whole sample, three types of
general school motivation (dependent variables) and socio-cultural background and sex as fixed variables
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Dependent variable Df Df Error Mean sq F Sig
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Soscult Ma 5 1041 1.00 2.33 .041
Social 5 1041 2.48 4.90 .000
Perf 5 1041 9.11 17.66 .000
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Sex Ma 1 1041 .11 .26 .613
Social 1 1041 4.22 8.35 .004
Perf 1 1041 .42 .82 .366
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Soscult x Sex Ma 5 1041 1.60 3.72 .002
Social 5 1041 .89 1.75 .120
Perf 5 1041 .98 1.90 .092
30
Figures
Figure 1: Self-concept scales (Cognitive,Social, General Self-esteem) by culturalbackground - means
2,5
2,6
2,7
2,8
2,9
3
3,1
3,2
Cog Soc Gse
AngloAborNorSamAngAmNav
31
0102030405060708090
Ang Abor Nor Sam AngAm Nav
Int free lInt dir l
Figure 2a: Interest in learning for boys (free and dir) according to socio-cultural gr (answers very much/much in precent)
Figure 2b: Interest in learning for girls (free and dir) according to socio-cultural gr (answers very much/much in precent)
0102030405060708090
Ang Indig Nor Sam AngAm Nav
Int free lInt dir l
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00,5
11,5
22,5
33,5
4
Boys Girls
AborSámiNavajo
Figure 3 Interest in free learning, boys and girls, by cultural backgrounds - means
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The socio-cultural perspective on play and learning project, 2006 Interview form, Australia INTERVIEW GUIDE – STUDENTS I am now going to ask you some questions about how you think of school and about how you feel you are doing at school. For all students to like school as much as possible, we are going to ask you and other students from your school and other schools what you think is good about school. We will ask you other questions also. For example, what do you like to do at school? What do you like to do at home? We will also ask you to tell us what you think about your teachers. Everything you tell me will be kept private and no one else will know the answers you give to me questions – not the principal, not your teachers, no-one outside of this room. I will write down what you say or we can tape the interview if you don’t mind being taped. If you want me to turn off the tape recorder at any point just let me know. If you want to stop the interview for any reason, just let me know. If you don’t want to continue answering my questions after we start, just let me know. Your participation in this interview is voluntary, and you can change your mind about being interviewed at any time. You don’t have to do the interview if you don’t want to. If you don’t understand any of the questions, or you find them difficult to answer, just let me know. Take your time. This is not a test. There is no right or wrong answers. You are simply giving me your opinion about things. I am interested to know what you think about things like school, learning, and playing. Are you ready to answer? Here is the first one.
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The socio-cultural perspective on play and learning project, 2006 Questions for students in Australia ( ) Boy ( ) Girl Age:__________ Grade:______ Cultural/Ethnic background:____________ (E.g. Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islander or English-Australian)
1. a) What do you like/dislike about school? Tell me about it. b) Do you think school is fun? c) What would you like to do more of in your lessons to make school more fun?
2. What subjects in school do you like best? 3. What do you like to do during recess and lunchtime? 4. At home, what do you prefer do to in your spare time? 5. a) After school and on weekends do you spend much time with your parents or other
adult family members? b) What kinds of things do you do with your parents or other adult family members/community/neighbourhood members?
6. Do you spend much time with friends of your own age in your spare time? 7. Do you get along well with the other students at school? 8. a) Do you do well at school? (Very well? Average? Not so well?)
b) How do you think girls do at school? c) How do you think boys do at school? d) Why do you think this way?
9. Are you interested in what is going on at school? 10. Do you plan to go to college or university after finishing school? 11. Do you prefer to do things by yourself, or do you prefer to be
instructed/directed/guided by teachers or other relevant adults when doing school work or when you are learning?
12. Is getting good grades/doing well at school important for you? 13. Do you play a lot? At home? At school? Where do you play? 14. a) Does your teacher make learning fun?
b) Do you play during lessons? c) Do you think being able to play makes learning better for you/helps you enjoy learning/school more? d) Describe a good teacher for me.
15. Do you like teachers to always instruct/direct you or would you prefer teachers to let you work on your own more and make more decisions for yourself? 16. Do you think students should influence what is going on in the classroom? 17. Would you like students to have influence on how to work in school? 18. Do you speak a different language at home compared to what you speak at school? 19. Do you think it is important to do well in school? Why do you think so? 20. Do you feel that your background and traditions are respected at school (by class mates, teachers, and leaders)?
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INTERVIEW GUIDE – TEACHERS I am now going to ask you some questions about how you think your Year 3 or 4 students feel about themselves at school; their sense of self, their interests in play, their motivation, their experience with school learning. To obtain information about how much students like school, we will ask/have asked them certain questions. However, we would like to discover what you know, or believe, your students think about school, what they like to do at school, and what they like to do when they are not at school. We would also like you to reflect on what you think students like about teachers, and what you think the challenges are facing 8-10 year olds at school and at home. Everything you tell me will be confidential. Your participation will remain anonymous. We will write down your responses, or tape them, if you have no objections. Your participation is of course voluntary. Should you find any of the questions difficult to answer or you choose not to answer any question, please let me know. It is hoped, however, that you will try to answer all questions so as to ensure we are able to maximise the volume, scope and quality of the data we are collecting. Are you ready? Here is the first one. Thank you very much for your cooperation
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The socio-cultural perspective on play and learning project, 2006
Questions for teachers in Australia ( ) Male ( ) Female Age group 25-30 yrs, 30-35yrs, 35-40 yrs, etc..:………. Number of years of teaching experience: Cultural/Ethnic Background:................................................................
1. In general, do you think that your students are motivated and engaged in the teaching and learning process? Could you explain this?
2. What school subjects do they appear to like best? Are there differences between boys and girls?
3. How do they spend their time outside school? For example, watching TV, playing, sports, etc.?
4. Are the students close to their parents and the rest of the family? Do they engage in activities with parents, other adults in the family and in the neighbourhood?
5. Do you believe that your students get on well with each other at school? 6. Do you think girls or boys, in general, perform better educationally? Why? 7. What is your estimate of the percentage of your students you believe may go on to
do further study? 8. a) To what extent do your students work independently, that is, with minimal
supervision/instruction, during lessons? b) Do your students demonstrate a preference to be assisted/directed/ instructed by you or other relevant personnel during lessons or during extra-curricula activities? c) Do you think there are differences between boys and girls in this concern?
9. Do you feel that obtaining good grades/results is important to your students? 10. Do they engage in free play a lot? At home? In school? Where do they play? 11. Do you use play related to school subjects to make learning more interesting?
How? 12. To what extent do your students influence what teaching/learning activities take
place during lessons? Do they have choices offered to them? If so, please exemplify.
13. Do you find that your students are interested in having influence on how they can work in the classroom? Please explain.
14. a) What language/s do your students speak at home? b) Do any of your students speak a language other than Standard English at school? If so, please provide details.
15. Are the students' background and traditions respected (by fellow students and teachers) at school? Which cultural backgrounds are represented?
16. What do you believe is the biggest challenge confronting Aboriginal children at your school?
Thank you for your cooperation!